Practicing the CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Sociology with Solutions Set 5 allows you to get rid of exam fear and be confident to appear for the exam.
CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Sociology Set 5 with Solutions
Time: 3 Hours.
Max. Marks: 80
General Instructions:
- The question paper is divided into four sections.
- There are 38 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
- Section A includes questions No. 1-20. These are MCQ-type questions. As per the question, there can be one answer.
- Section B includes questions No. 21-29. These are very short answer-type questions carrying 2 marks each. The answer to each question should not exceed 30 words.
- Section C includes questions No. 30-35. They are short answer type questions carrying 4 marks each. The answer to each question should not exceed 80 words.
- Section D includes questions No. 36-38. They are long answer type questions carrying 6 marks each. The answer to each question should not exceed 200 words. Question no. 36 is to be answered with the help of the passage given.
Section A (20 Marks)
Question 1.
The American census of _________ was probably the first modern census, and the practice was soon taken up in Europe as well in the early 1800s. [1].
(a) 1777
(b) 1786
(c) 1790
(d) 1798 (l)
Answer:
(c) 1 790
Question 2.
Assertion (A) Social statistics provide a strong justification for the new discipline of sociology. Reason (R) Aggregate statistics offer a concrete and strong argument for the existence of social phenomena. [1].
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer:
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
Question 3.
Which of the following definitions is/are correct about the common concepts of population studies? [1].
I. Birth rate is the number of live births per 1000 population in a particular area.
II. Death rate is the number of deaths in a given area during a given time per 1000 population.
III. The rate of natural increase refers to the difference between the birth rate and the death rate.
(a) Only I
(b) Only II
(c) Both I and II
(d) I, II, and III
Answer:
(d) I, II, and III
Question 4.
Assertion (A) Social stratification is supported by patterns of belief or ideology. Reason (R) No system of social stratification is likely to persist over generations unless it is widely viewed as being either fair or inevitable. [1].
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Question 5.
Which one of the following statements is correct about Stereotypes in the study of Sociology? [1].
(a) Stereotypes are often applied to ethnic and racial groups and to women.
(b) Stereotypes fix whole groups into single, homogenous categories.
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Both (a) and (b)
Question 6.
“Community identity is based on birth and belonging rather than on some form of acquired qualifications or accomplishment. It is what we are rather than what we have ‘become’. We do not have to do anything to be born into a community, in fact, no one has any choice about which family or community or country they are born into.” According to the above-mentioned statements, these kinds of identities are called [1].
(a) Ascriptive.
(b) Descriptive.
(c) Receptive.
(d) Assertive.
Answer:
(a) Ascriptive.
Question 7.
Which of the following statements is correctly defining the idea of a nation? [1].
(a) A nation is a sort of large-scale community – it is a community of communities.
(b) No particular kind of community can be guaranteed to form a nation.
(c) There are many nations that do not share a single common language, religion, ethnicity, and so on.
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d)’AH of the above.
Question 8.
The_________is the most accepted or proper justification for a state, while the ________. [1].
(a) People; Nation
(b) Community; Nation
(c) Nation; People
(d) People; Community
Answer:
(c) Nation, People.
Question 9.
Which of the following is not correct about Jyotirao Phule? [1].
I. He formed the Satyashodhak Samaj to attain equal rights for people from lower castes.
II. He started a school in Dowleswaram.
III. He thus recalled the glory of the pre-Aryan age.
(a) Both I and II
(b) Only II
(c) Both I and III
(d) I, II, and III
Answer:
(b) Only II
Question 10.
Assertion (A) Social welfare aims at the all-round development of lower castes and backward classes of society. Reason (R) Social reformers wanted to remove evils and bring changes to society. [1].
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer:
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
Question 11.
Debates within communities were common during this period. For instance, Sati was opposed by the Brahmo Samaj. Orthodox members of the Hindu Community in Bengal formed an organization called_______ and petitioned the British arguing that reformers had no right to interpret sacred texts. [1].
(a) Brahmo Sabha.
(b) Arya Sabha.
(c) Dharma Sabha.
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(c) Dharma Sabha.
Question 12.
In most of the regions of India, the major landowning groups belong to the [1].
(a) Politicians
(c) Educated elites
(b) Upper castes
(d) Urban population
Answer:
(b) Upper castes.
Question 13.
Access to land forms the rural class structure because agricultural land is the most valuable productive resource in rural areas. The role one plays in the agricultural production process is largely determined by one’s access to land.” Which one of the following terms is referred to the structure or distribution of landholdings according to the above-mentioned statements? [1].
(a) Industrial structure
(b) Agrarian structure
(c) Infrastructure
(d) Urbanisation
Answer:
(b) Agrarian structure.
Question 14.
Which statement is correct regarding the positive consequences of the first phase of the Green Revolution? [1].
(a) Many farmers shifted from Multi-crop to Mono-crop systems.
(b) Migration from rural and urban areas increased.
(c) The employment and wages of agricultural workers increased in many areas.
(d) It brought regional inequalities in India
Answer:
(c) The employment and wages of agricultural workers increased in many areas.
Question 15.
Who argued that the use of machinery actually de-skills workers? [1].
(a) Harry Braverman
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Max Weber
(d) Emile Durkheim
Answer:
(a) Harry Braverman.
Question 16.
Assertion (A) Global liberalization and privatization seem to be going down. Reason (R) Liberalisation and privatization tend to increase income inequality. [1].
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer:
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Question 17.
Scientific management is also known as Taylorism or Industrial Engineering was invented in [1].
(a) 1870’s
(b) 1880’s
(c) 1890’s
(d) 1900’s
Answer:
(c) 1890’s
Question 18.
A _______ requires sustained collective action over time. Such action is often directed against the state and takes the form of demanding changes in state policy or practice. [1].
(a) Political movement.
(b) Social movement.
(c) Economic movement.
(d) Cultural movement.
Answer:
(b) Social movement.
Question 19.
Assertion (A) Social conflict does not automatically lead to collective action. Reason (R) A group must consciously think or identify themselves as oppressed beings for conflict to arise. [1].
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Question 20.
The growth of autonomous women’s movements took place during which period? [1].
(a) 1950’s
(c) 1970’s
(b) 1960’s
(d) 1980’s
Answer:
(c) 1970’s
Section B (18 Marks)
Question 21.
To what extent colonialism affected tribal communities during pre-independence India? Explain. [2].
Answer:
In India, British colonialism affected tribal communities during the pre-independence period, on the political and economic front, tribal societies faced the incursion of moneylenders. They also lost their land to non-tribal immigrant settlers.
Their access to forests was restricted because of the British government’s policy of reservation of forests and the introduction of mining operations. In this way, their source of livelihood was snatched by the British government.
Question 22.
“Sociologists use the term social stratification to refer to a system by which categories of people in a society are ranked in a hierarchy. This hierarchy then shapes people’s identity and experiences, their relations with others, as well as their access to resources and opportunities.” [2].
Read the above mention statements and explain the key principles of social stratification.
Answer:
There are basically three key principles that help to explain social stratification. They are as follows:
(i) It is a society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among categories of people.
(ii) It is closely linked to the family and to the inheritance of social resources from one generation to the next.
(iii) It is supported by patterns of belief or ideology.
Question 23.
Define the term ‘social exclusion. Why is it involuntary? [2].
OR
How did the state address the issues of caste and tribe discrimination? Elaborate.
Answer:
Social exclusion refers to ways in which individuals may become cut off from full involvement in the wider society. It focuses attention on a broad range of factors that prevent individuals or groups from having opportunities open to the majority of the population. Social exclusion is involuntary as it is practiced regardless of the wishes of those who are excluded.
For example, rich people are never found sleeping on the pavements or under the bridges like thousands of homeless poor people in cities and towns. This does not mean that the rich are being excluded from access to pavements because they could certainly gain access if they want to, but they choose not to.
OR
There are several initiatives taken by the state to address the issues of caste and tribe discrimination which are as follows:
(i) The most important initiative of the state is reservation. This involves the setting of reserve categories for the Dalits and tribal communities in different spheres of public life including reservations in educational institutions and government jobs.
(ii) In addition to reservations, there have been a number of constitutional laws passed to end, prohibit and punish caste discrimination and untouchability
Question 24.
How the policies of assimilation and integration are used by the state to strengthen national identity? [2].
OR
Explain any two provisions of the Indian Constitution that protect the cultural diversity of the country.
Answer:
The policies of assimilation and integration are used by the state to strengthen national identity because assimilation policies, often involving outright suppression of the identities of ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups, try to erode the cultural differences between groups, On the other hand, integration policies seek to assert a single national identity by attempting to eliminate ethnonational and cultural differences from the public and political arena, while allowing them in the private domain. Both sets of policies assume a single national identity.
OR
There are two main provisions of the Indian Constitution that protect the cultural diversity of the country are as follows:
(i) Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script, or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.
(ii) No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or received State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language, or any of them.
Question 25.
‘The struggle for women’s upliftment in the 19th and early 20th centuries was led by male reformers.’ Discuss with suitable examples. [2]
Answer:
The reform movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries tried to address the issues that discriminated against women. The struggle was led by male reformers in this regard. Some examples are:
(i) Raja Ram Mohun Roy attacked the evil practice of sati which was present in society. He opposed it on the basis of humanitarianism, natural rights doctrines, and Hindu shastras.
(ii) Jyotiba Phule supported women’s education and opened the first school for women in Pune.
(iii) MG Ranade’s writings supported the remarriage of widows on the basis of shastras.
Question 26.
Mention the positive and negative sides of contract farming. [2].
Answer:
The main positive side of contract farming is as
follows:
(i) The company associated provides a guarantee of purchase from the farmers just at the time of production and that too at a pre-determined fixed price.
(ii) All this provides financial security to the farmers who are assured of the revenue they get out of their produce.
On the other hand, the main negative side associated with contract farming are as follows:
(i) It can lead to greater insecurity as farmers become dependent on companies for their livelihoods.
(ii) The crops require a high degree of fertilizers and pesticides which are not good for the soil.
Question 27.
Discuss the impact of disinvestment on employees. [2].
OR
Why did both Marx and Gandhiji see mechanization as a danger to employment?
Answer:
Disinvestment is defined as the transfer of ownership of public sector enterprises from the government to the private sector. The impacts of disinvestment on employees as many government workers are scared that after disinvestment, they will lose their jobs. Indian agriculture as well as service sectors such as shops, banks, the information and technology industries, hotels, and other services.
They are employing more people on a contract basis. This develops job insecurity. For example, in Modern Foods, which was set up by the government to make healthy bread available at cheap prices, and which was the first company to be privatized, 60% of the workers were forced to retire in the first five years.
OR
Both Karl Marx and Mahatma Gandhi saw mechanization as a danger to employment because they agreed upon the fact that the basic task of a manager is to control workers and get more work out of them. Further, they argued that there are two main ways of making workers produce more. One is to extend the working hours. The other is to increase the amount that is produced within a given time period. Machines help to increase production but it also creates a danger that eventually machines will replace workers.
Question 28.
How has the formation of AITUC made the colonial government more cautious in dealing with labor? [2].
Answer:
The formation of the AITUC made the colonial government more cautious in dealing with labor. It attempted to grant workers some concessions in order to contain the unrest. In 1922, the government passed the Fourth Factories Act which reduced the working day to 10 hours. In 1926, the Trade Unions Act was passed which provided for the registration of trade unions and proposed some regulations.
Question 29.
Who was Birsa Munda? What was the movement conducted by him? [2].
Answer:
Birsa Munda was an Adivasi who led a major uprising against the British. Birsa was known as the Birsa God in his Munda tribe. He started a tribal movement on the issue of the creation of a separate state of Jharkhand for the tribals. The issues against which the tribal movement agitated in Jharkhand were:
(i) Acquisition of land for large irrigation projects and firing ranges.
(ii) Survey and settlement operations, which were held up, camps closed down, etc.
(iii) Collection of loans, rent, and cooperative dues, which were resisted. Nationalization of forest produce which they boycotted.
Birsa Munda of the Munda tribe also started a movement against Christianity. Converted Christians into the Munda tribe came back into the Hindu religion and started to perform Hindu practices and customs.
Section C (24 Marks)
Question 30.
The Khasi matrilineal generates intense role conflict for men. Explain. [4].
OR
Tribes have been classified according to their ‘permanent’ and ‘acquired’ traits. Highlight the demography of tribal communities in India on the basis of permanent traits.
Answer:
The Khasi matrilineal generates intense conflicts for men in the following ways:
(i) Khasi matrilineal generates intense role conflict for men. They are torn between responsibilities to their natal house on one hand and to their wife and children on the other.
(ii) There is an inherent disagreement in matrilineal systems. On the one hand, the line of descent and inheritance, where a woman inherits property from her mother and passes it on to her ‘ daughter. The other structure of authority and control is where a man controls his sister’s property and passes on control to his sister’s son. The farmer, which links the mother to the daughter, comes in conflict with the latter, which links the mother’s brother to the sister’s son.
(iii) The tension generated by such role conflict affects Khasi women more intensely. A woman can never be fully assured that her husband does not find his sister’s house a more pleasant place than her own. Thus, men are the power holders in Khasi society, the only difference is that a man’s relatives on his mother’s side matter more than his relatives on his father’s side.
OR
Permanent traits of tribal communities in India include region, language, physical characteristics, and ecological habitat. On the basis of language, tribes are categorized into four categories, namely Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric, and Tibeto-Burman. The Indo-Aryan accounts for 1% of the population and the Dravidian accounts for 3%.
The other two languages are primarily spoken by tribals having 80% of the concentration. On the basis of physical characteristics, tribes are classified under the Negrito, Australoid, Mongoloid, Dravidian, and Aryan categories. The last two are shared by the majority of the Indian population. In terms of size, tribes may vary in great numbers. The biggest tribes are the Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas Bodos, and Mundas.
The total population of tribes amounts to about 8.2% of the Indian population or 84 million people according to the 2001 Census which has grown to 8.6% or 104 million tribal population according to the 2011 Census.
Question 31.
Write a brief note on the debates about the tribe-caste distinction in India. [4].
Answer:
The argument for a tribe-caste distinction was founded on an assumed cultural difference between Hindu castes, with their beliefs in purity and pollution and hierarchical integration, and the tribals with their equal and kinship-based modes of organization. The debate posed whether tribal was one end of the caste-based society or a different kind of community. There are some important viewpoints about tribe-caste distinction as follows:
(i) Tribes should be seen as one end of the whole society with caste-based (Hindu) peasant society which is just less stratified and more community-based. However, some opponents argued that tribes were wholly different from caste because they had no notion of purity and pollution which is central to the caste system.
(ii) There is no coherent basis for treating tribes as pristine (pure or original) or societies uncontaminated by civilization. Rather, tribes should be seen as secondary phenomena arising out of exploitative and colonialist contact between pre-existing states and non-state groups.
Question 32.
”Social stratification is supported by patterns of belief or ideology.” Justify your answer with suitable examples. [4].
Answer:
Social stratification is supported by patterns of belief, or ideology because no system of social stratification is likely to persist over generations unless it is widely viewed as being either fair or inevitable. For example, the caste system is justified in terms of the opposition of purity and pollution, with the Brahmins designated as the most superior and Dalits as the most inferior by virtue of their birth and occupation.
Not everyone, though, thinks of a system of inequality as legitimate. Typically, people with the greatest social privileges express the strongest support for systems of stratification such as caste and race. Those who have experienced the exploitation and humiliation of being at the bottom of the hierarchy are most likely to challenge it
Question 33.
Communalism is an important issue in India because it has been a source of tension and violence. Elaborate [4].
Answer:
The given statement is true as communalism is an important issue in India because it has been a recurrent source of tension and violence. During communal riots, people become faceless members of their respective communities. Every religious community has faced this violence to a greater or lesser degree, although the proportionate impact is far more traumatic for minority communities.
Communalism is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion. Communal means something related to a community or collectivity as different from an individual. It is important to emphasize that communalism is about politics and not about religion. There is no necessary relationship between personal faith and communalism. One of the characteristic features of communalism is its claim that religious identity overrides everything else
Question 34.
Explain Green Revolution and the social consequences associated with it. [4].
Answer:
The Green Revolution means increasing the production of food grains by using High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds, especially of wheat and rice. It was a government program of agricultural modernization which was funded by international agencies. The program of Green Revolution was introduced only in those areas that had abundant irrigation. But only some parts of the country could reap the benefits of the Green Revolution like that Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
There were many social consequences of the Green Revolution, which are as follows:
(i) The agricultural productivity increased very rapidly and the medium and large farmers who produced a surplus for the market got the maximum benefit through Green Revolution.
(ii) Small and marginal farmers could not benefit from Green Revolution as they could not buy new seeds and technology. It was only large farmers were able to benefit from the new technology.
(iii) The excessive use of pesticides hybrid seeds, etc., that needed assured irrigation also brought negative impacts. Many farmers shifted from a multi-crop system to a mono-crop system.
Question 35.
Explain the types of social movements in the context of Indian societies.
OR
Write a brief note on the establishment of a trade union in the context of pre-independence India. [4].
Answer:
Social movements classify into three types in the context of Indian society. These are as follows:
(i) Redemptive social movement This movement aims to bring about a change in the personal consciousness and actions of its individual members. For instance, people in the Ezhava community in Kerala led by Narayan Guru tried to change their social practice.
(ii) Reformist social movement The movement strives to change the existing social and political arrangements through gradual incremental steps. The 1960s movement for the reorganization of Indian states on the basis of language and the recent Right to Information campaign are examples of reformist movements.
(iii) Revolutionary social movement This movement attempts to radically transform social relations, often by capturing state power. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia which deposed the Tsar to capture a communist state and the Naxalite movement in India that seeks to remove oppressive landlords and state officials are examples of revolutionary social movements
OR
The first trade union was established in April 1918 in Madras by BP Wadia. During the same year, Mahatma Gandhi founded the Textile Labour Association (TLA). In 1920, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed in Bombay. The main trade union leaders were the communists led by S A Dange and M N Roy, the moderates led by M Joshi and V V Giri, and the nationalists involved people like Lala Lajpat Rai and Jawaharlal Nehru.
The formation of the AITUC made the colonial government more cautious in dealing with labor. It attempted to grant workers some concessions in order to contain the unrest. In 1922, the government passed the fourth Factories Act which reduced the working day to 10 hours. In 1926, the Trade Unions Act was passed, which provided for the registration of trade unions and proposed some regulations. By the mid-1920s, the AITUC had nearly 200 unions affiliated with it and its membership stood at around 250,000.
During the last few years of British rule, the communists gained considerable control over the AITUC. The Indian National Congress chose to form another union called the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) in May 1947.
Section D (18 Marks)
Question 36.
| Year | Sex Ratio (all age groups) |
Variation Over Previous Decade |
Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years) |
Variation Over Previous Decade |
| 1901 | 972 | – | – | – |
| 1911 | 964 | -8 | – | – |
| 1921 | 955 | -9 | – | – |
| 1931 | 950 | -5 | – | – |
| 1941 | 945 | -5 | – | – |
| 1951 | 946 | +1 | – | – |
| 1961 | 941 | -5 | 976 | – |
| 1971 | 930 | -11 | 964 | -12 |
| 1981 | 934 | +4 | 962 | -2 |
| 1991 | 927 | -7 | 945 | -17 |
| 2001 | 933 | +6 | 927 | -18 |
| 2011 | 943 | +10 | 919 | -8 |
Note: The sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males. Data on age-specific sex ratios are not available before 1961.
Source: Census of India 2011, Government of India.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘sex ratio’? Briefly explain. [6].
(b) How much decreased the sex ratio between the years 1901 and 2011?
(c) What is the increasing point in the overall sex ratio from 1991 to 2011 also find out the decreasing points in the child sex ratio from 1991 to 2011.
Answer:
(a) The sex ratio refers to the number of females per 1 000 males in a given area at a specified time period. Despite the fact that slightly more males are born than females ones, historically, there are slightly more females than males. In other words, the sex ratio favors females. This is because of the factor where girl babies have high resistance to diseases in infancy.
(b) The declining sex ratio was 972 females per 1000 males at the turn of the 20th century, the sex ratio declined to 943 at the turn of 21 st century. It decreased by 29 points from 1901 to 2011.
(c) The decade 1 991 – 201 1 represents an anomaly in that the overall sex ratio has shown an increase of 16 points from 927 to 943. But the child sex ratio had dropped 26 points from 945 to 919.
Question 37.
“British colonialism brought about a wide range of changes in the society. The contradiction between the modern and liberal ideas of the West and their absence in colonized India brought many social changes. Almost every aspect of human life was affected in India.” Justify your answer with suitable examples [6].
Answer:
British colonialism brought changes in almost all the spheres of Indian Society. It also promoted urbanization in India through social, economic, and political influence. These reasons are discussed in detail as follows: Economic Colonial cities developed by Britishers, especially the coastal cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai facilitated the process of urbanization in India.
These cities became the center of trade and commercial activities. There was also a change in the cropping pattern and production and distribution of goods. Due to the installation of mechanized industries, a few towns became much more heavily populated. Social Colonialism led to the introduction of the English language in India. English continues to be a mark of privilege and a means to better opportunities and jobs. It also changed the whole spectrum of day-to-day life, particularly in urban society.
There was also large-scale migration of government employees and professionals like doctors and lawyers to various parts of the country. It carried with it new ideas and ways of life. Political Indian political system, legal system, and police system are based on the British model. These new systems gave a new shape to traditional policy and laws. They also created new professionals mainly in towns and cities to enforce new laws and political ideas.
Question 38.
Do you agree that all sections of people have benefitted from the liberalization policies in India? Justify your answer with examples.
OR
Write a note on employment structure in India. [6].
Answer:
This is a fact that all sections of people are not benefitted from the liberalization policies in India because the effect of liberalization is not uniform for all sections.
There are some major consequences after the effects of liberalization. These are as follows:
(i) After this policy, the government tried to sell its share in several public sector companies, a process which is known as called disinvestment. With disinvestment, many government workers feared that they will lose their jobs.
(ii) More and more companies are reducing the number of permanent employees and outsourcing their work to smaller companies or even to homes. For multinational companies, this outsourcing is done across the globe, with developing countries like India providing cheap labor. As small companies have to compete for orders from the big companies, they keep wages low as well as their working conditions are often poor.
(iii) India is still largely an agricultural country. The service sector i.e. shops, banks, IT Industry, hotels, and other services are employing more people and the urban middle class is growing.
(iv) At the same time, very few people in India have access to secure jobs and even the small number of regular salaried employees are becoming more insecure with the incoming contract labor. Nowadays, employment by the government is also coming down. According to economists, both liberalization and privatization are associated with rising income inequality.
(v) As secure employment in large industries is declining, the government is embarking on the policy of land acquisition for industry. These industries do not necessarily provide employment to the people of the surrounding areas but cause major pollution.
(vi) Many farmers, especially Adivasis, protest at low rates of compensation and the fact they are forced to become casual laborers living and working on the footpaths of India’s big cities.
OR
While advertisements or employment exchange are popularly known means of finding jobs in India, though, they serve the purpose for only a small number of people. They usually find jobs on the basis of personal contacts, with the help of jobbers, or on a contract basis and through a contract system. Which are as follows:
(i) On the basis of personal contacts People who are self-employed, like plumbers, electricians, carpenters, etc, teachers who give private tuitions, architects, and freelance photographers rely on personal contacts.
(ii) Through jobbers Job recruitment as a factory worker takes a different pattern. In the past, many workers got their jobs through jobbers. For example, in the Kanpur textile mills, these jobbers were known as mistresses and were themselves, workers. They came from the same regions and communities as the workers, but because they had the owner’s backing they exercised control over workers. They also, ut community-related pressures on the worker. However, in recent times, the importance of the contractors has come down and both management and unions play a role in recruiting their own people
(iii) On a contract basis Many factories also employ contractual or casual workers who substitute for regular permanent workers on leave. Many of these contractual workers have worked for many years for the same company but are not given the same status and security as permanent workers. That is what is called contract work in the organized sector or even in the unorganized sector.
(iv) Contractor system The contractor system is the most visible in the hiring of casual labor for work on construction sites and brickyards. The contractor goes to villages for employing people in various occupations. He provides loans to them in the form of money and this loan includes the cost of transport to the work site. The loaned money is treated as an advance wage and the worker works without wages until the loan is repaid.
In the past, agricultural laborers were tied to their landlords by debt. Now, the laborers moved to casual industrial work and while still in debt, they are not bound by other social responsibilities to the contractor. In this sense, labor is freer in the industrial society. They can break a contract and find another employer.