Growing Pains_ The New Republic, 1790–1820
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Growing Pains The New Republic , Aw i ' My FIGURE The happy Effects of the Grand sic of shutting Ports against the English ! appeared in 1808 . Less than a year earlier , Thomas Jefferson had recommended ( and Congress had passed ) the Embargo Act of 1807 , which barred American ships from leaving their ports . CHAPTER OUTLINE Competing Visions Federalists and The New American Republic Partisan Politics The United States Goes Back to War INTRODUCTION The partisan political cartoon above ' lampoons Thomas Jefferson 1807 Embargo Act , a move that had a devastating effect on American commerce . American farmers and merchants complain to President Jefferson , while the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte whispers to him , You shall be King hereafter , This image illustrates one of many political struggles in the years after the for of the Constitution . In the nation few years , no organized political parties existed . This began to change as US . citizens argued bitterly about the proper size and scope of the new national government . As a result , the witnessed the rise of opposing political parties the Federalists and the . Federalists saw unchecked democracy as a dire threat to the republic , and they pointed to the excesses of the French Revolution as proof of what awaited . opposed the Federalists notion that only the wellborn and well educated were able to oversee the republic they saw it as a pathway to oppression by an aristocracy .
192 Growing Pains The New Republic , Competing Visions Federalists and LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end ofthis section , you will be able to Describe the competing visions of the Federalists and the protections granted to citizens under the Bill of Rights Explain Alexander Hamilton programs as secretary of the treasury Congress Thomas Jefferson attempts to end Treaty of passes 77 ' brokers British practice of Bill of ' Louisiana capturing ends Rights Purchase American sailors War of 1812 1791 1803 1807 1814 1794 1798 ' Western Congress passes United States at war Alien and with Great Britain protest in Sedition Acts Whiskey . Rebellion I lay Treaty ensures commerce between and Britain FIGURE In June 1788 , New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the federal Constitution , and the new plan for a strong central government went into effect . Elections for the Congress were held in 1788 and 1789 , and members took their seats in March 1789 . In a of the trust placed in him as the of republican virtue , George Washington became the president in April 1789 . John Adams served as his vice president the pairing of a representative from Virginia ( Washington ) with one from Massachusetts ( Adams ) symbolized national unity . Nonetheless , political divisions quickly became apparent . Washington and Adams represented the Federalist Party , which generated a backlash among those who resisted the new assertions of federal power . FEDERALISTS IN POWER Though the Revolution had overthrown British rule in the United States , supporters of the 1787 federal constitution , known as Federalists , adhered to a decidedly British notion of social hierarchy . The Federalists did not , at , compose a political party . Instead , Federalists held certain shared assumptions . For them , political participation continued to be linked to property rights , which barred many citizens from voting or holding . Federalists did not believe the Revolution had changed the traditional social roles between women and men , or between White people and other races . They did believe in clear distinctions in rank and intelligence . To these supporters of the Constitution , the idea that all were equal appeared ludicrous . Women , Black , and Native peoples , they argued , had to know their place as secondary to White male citizens . Attempts to impose equality , they feared , would destroy the republic . The United States was not created to be a democracy . The architects of the Constitution committed themselves to leading the new republic , and they held a majority among the members of the new national government . Indeed , as expected , many assumed the new executive posts the Congress created . Washington appointed Alexander Hamilton , a leading Federalist , as secretary of the treasury . For secretary of state , he chose Thomas Jefferson . For secretary of war , he appointed Henry Knox , who had served with him during the Revolutionary War . Edmond Randolph , a Virginia delegate to the Access for free at .
Competing Visions Federalists and 193 Constitutional Convention , was named attorney general . In July 1789 , Congress also passed the Judiciary Act , creating a Supreme Court of six justices headed by those who were committed to the new national government . Congress passed its first major piece of legislation by placing a duty on imports under the 1789 Tariff Act . Intended to raise revenue to address the country economic problems , the act was a victory for nationalists , who favored a robust , powerful federal government and had worked unsuccessfully for similar measures during the Confederation Congress in the . Congress also placed a duty ( based on materials transported , not the weight of a ship ) on foreign ships coming into American ports , a move designed to give the commercial advantage to American ships and goods . THE BILL OF RIGHTS Many Americans opposed the 1787 Constitution because it seemed a dangerous concentration of centralized power that threatened the rights and liberties of ordinary citizens . These opponents , known collectively as , did not constitute a political party , but they united in demanding protection for individual rights , and several states made the passing of a bill of rights a condition of their acceptance of the Constitution . Rhode Island and North Carolina rejected the Constitution because it did not already have this bill of rights . Federalists through on their promise to add such a bill in 1789 , when Virginia Representative James Madison anc Congress approved the Bill of Rights ( Table . Adopted in 1791 , the bill consisted of the first ten amendments to the Constitution and outlined many of the personal rights state constitutions already guaranteed . Rig to freedoms of religion and speech right to assemble and to petition the government for redress of grievances Rig to keep and bear arms to maintain a militia not to house soldiers of war Rig to be secure from unreasonable search and seizure in criminal cases , due process and indictment by grand jury for capital crimes , as well as the right not to testify against oneself Rig to a speedy trial by an Rig to in not to face excessive bail or , or cruel and unusual punishment retained by the people , even if they are not enumerated by the Constitution 10 Sta es rights to powers not delegated to the federal government TABLE Rights Protected by the First Ten Amendments The adoption of the Bill of Rights softened the opposition to the Constitution and gave the new federal government greater legitimacy among those who otherwise distrusted the new centralized power created by men of property during the secret 1787 Philadelphia Constitutional Convention .
194 Growing Pains The New Republic , CLICK AND EXPLORE Visit the National Archives ( to consider the ten amendments to the Constitution as an expression of the fears many citizens harbored about the powers of the new federal government . What were these fears ?
How did the Bill of Rights calm them ?
ALEXANDER PROGRAM Alexander Hamilton , Washington secretary of the treasury , was an ardent nationalist who believed a strong federal government could solve many of the new country ills . Born in the West Indies , Hamilton had worked on a Croix plantation as a teenager and was in charge of the accounts at a young age . He knew the Atlantic trade very well and used that knowledge in setting policy for the United States . In the early , he created the foundation for the system . He understood that a robust federal government would provide a solid foundation for the country . The United States began mired in debt . In 1789 , when Hamilton took up his post , the federal debt was over 53 million . The states had a combined debt of around 25 million , and the United States had been unable to pay its debts in the and was therefore considered a credit risk by European countries . Hamilton wrote three reports offering solutions to the economic crisis brought on by these problems . The addressed public credit , the second addressed banking , and the third addressed raising revenue . The Report on Public Credit For the national government to be effective , Hamilton deemed it essential to have the support of those to whom it owed money the wealthy , domestic creditor class as well as foreign creditors . In January 1790 , he delivered his Report on Public Credit ( Figure , addressing the pressing need of the new republic to become creditworthy . He recommended that the new federal government honor all its debts , including all paper money issued by the Confederation and the states during the war , at face value . Hamilton especially wanted wealthy American creditors who held large amounts of paper money to be invested , literally , in the future and welfare of the new national government . He also understood the importance of making the new United States stable for creditors abroad . To pay these debts , Hamilton proposed that the federal government sell the public . These bonds would have the backing of the government and yield interest payments . Creditors could exchange their old notes for the new government bonds . Hamilton wanted to give the paper money that states had issued during the war the same status as government bonds these federal notes would begin to yield interest payments in 1792 . Access for free at .
Competing Visions Federalists and 195 ' FIGURE As the first secretary ofthe treasury , Alexander Hamilton ( a ) shown here in a 1792 by John Trumbull , released the Report on Public Credit ( in January 1790 . Hamilton designed his Report on Public Credit ( later called First Report on Public Credit ) to ensure the survival of the new and shaky American republic . He knew the importance of making the United States reliable , secure , and strong , and his plan provided a blueprint to achieve that goal . He argued that his plan would satisfy creditors , citing the goal of doing justice to the creditors of the nation . At the same time , the plan would work to promote the increasing respectability of the American name to answer the calls for justice to restore landed property to its due value to furnish new resources both to agriculture and commerce to cement more closely the union of the states to add to their security against foreign attack to establish public order on the basis of upright and liberal policy . Hamilton program ignited a heated debate in Congress . A great many of both Confederation and state notes had found their way into the hands of speculators , who had bought them from veterans in the and paid a fraction of their face value in anticipation of redeeming them at full value at a later date . Because these speculators held so many notes , many in Congress objected that Hamilton plan would them at the expense of the original . One of those who opposed Hamilton 1790 report was James Madison , who questioned the fairness of a plan that seemed to cheat poor soldiers . Not surprisingly , states with a large debt , like South Carolina , supported Hamilton plan , while states with less debt , like North Carolina , did not . To gain acceptance of his plan , Hamilton worked out a compromise with Virginians Madison and Jefferson , whereby in return for their support he would give up New York City as the nation capital and agree on a more southern location , which they preferred . In July 1790 , a site along the Potomac River was selected as the new federal city , which became the District of Columbia . Hamilton plan to convert notes to bonds worked extremely well to restore European in the economy . It also proved a windfall for creditors , especially those who had bought up state and Confederation notes at far less than face value . But it immediately generated controversy about the size and scope of the government . Some saw the plan as an unjust use of federal power , while Hamilton argued that Article , Section of the Constitution granted the government implied powers that gave the green light to his program . The Report on a National Bank As secretary of the treasury , Hamilton hoped to stabilize the American economy further by establishing a
196 Growing Pains The New Republic , national bank . The United States operated with a of different notes from multiple state banks and no coherent regulation . By proposing that the new national bank buy up large volumes of state bank notes and demanding their conversion into gold , Hamilton especially wanted to discipline those state banks that issued paper money irresponsibly . To that end , he delivered his Report on a National Bank in December 1790 , proposing a Bank of the United States , an institution modeled on the Bank of England . The bank would issue loans to American merchants and bills of credit ( federal bank notes that would circulate as money ) while serving as a repository of government revenue from the sale of land . Stockholders would own the bank , along with the federal government . Like the recommendations in his Report on Public Credit , Hamilton bank proposal generated opposition . Jefferson , in particular , argued that the Constitution did not permit the creation of a national bank . In response , Hamilton again invoked the Constitution implied powers . President Washington backed position and signed legislation creating the bank in 1791 . The Report on Manufactures The third report Hamilton de to Congress , known as the Report on Manufactures , addressed the need to raise revenue to pay the in on the national debt . Using the power to tax as provided under the Constitution , Hamilton put forth a proposal to tax whiskey . He also knew the importance of promoting domestic manufacturing so the new United States would no longer have to rely on imported manufactured goods . To break from the old colonial system , Hamilton therefore advocated tariffs on all foreign imports to stimulate the of goods . To promote domestic industry further , he proposed federal subsidies to American industries . Like all of Hamilton programs , the idea of government involvement in the development of American industries was new . With the support of Washing on , the entire economic program received the necessary support in Congress to be implemented . In the long run , Hamilton program helped to rescue the United States from its state of in the late . His initiatives marked the beginning of an American capitalism , making the republic creditworthy , promoting commerce , and setting for the nation a solid foundation . His policies also the growth of the stock market , as citizens bought and sold the federal governments . THE PARTY AND THE FIRST PARTY SYSTEM James Madison and Thomas Jefferson felt the federal government had overstepped its authority by adopting the treasury secretary plan . Madison found scheme immoral and offensive . He argued that it turned the reins of government over to the class of speculators who at the expense of hardworking citizens . Jefferson , who had returned to the United States in 1790 after serving as a diplomat in France , tried unsuccessfully to convince Washington to block the creation of a national bank . He also took issue with what he perceived as favoritism given to commercial classes in the principal American cities . He thought urban life widened the gap between the wealthy few and an underclass of landless poor workers who , because of their oppressed condition , could never be good republican property owners . Rural areas , in contrast , offered far more opportunities for property ownership and virtue . In 1783 Jefferson wrote , Those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God , if ever he had a chosen people . Jefferson believed that , owning republican citizens or yeoman farmers held the key to the success and longevity of the American republic . As a creature of his times , he did not envision a similar role for either women or men . To him , Hamilton program seemed to encourage economic inequalities and work against the ordinary American yeoman . Opposition to Hamilton , who had power in the new federal government , including the ear of President Washington , began in earnest in the early . Jefferson turned to his friend Philip to help organize the effort through the publication of the National Gazette as a counter to the Federalist press , Access for free at .
Competing Visions Federalists and 19 ' especially the Gazette of the United States Figure . From 1791 until 1793 , when it ceased publication , partisan paper attacked Hamilton program and Washington administration . Rules for Changing a Republic into a Monarchy , written by , is an example of the type of attack aimed at the national government , and especially at the elitism of the Federalist Party . Newspapers in the became enormously important in American culture as partisans like attempted to sway public opinion . These newspapers did not aim to be objective instead , they served to broadcast the views of a particular party . FIGURE Here , the front page of the Federalist Gazette of the United States from September , 1789 ( a ) is shown beside that of the oppositional National Gazette from November 14 , 1791 ( The Gazette of the United States featured articles , sometimes written pseudonymously or anonymously , from leading Federalists like Alexander Hamilton and John Adams . The National Gazette was founded two years later to counter their political influence . CLICK AND EXPLORE Visit ( to read Philip essay and others from the National Gazette . Can you identify three instances of persuasive writing against the Federalist Party or the government ?
Opposition to the Federalists led to the formation of societies , composed of men who felt the domestic policies of the Washington administration were designed to enrich the few while ignoring everyone else . championed limited government . Their fear of centralized power originated in the experience of the and when the distant , overbearing , and seemingly corrupt British Parliament attempted to impose its will on the colonies . The 1787 federal constitution , written in secret by wealthy men of property and standing , ignited fears of a similar menacing plot . To opponents , the Federalists promoted aristocracy and a monarchical betrayal of what many believed to be the goal of the American Revolution . While wealthy merchants and planters formed the core of the Federalist leadership , members of the societies in cities like Philadelphia and New York came from the ranks of artisans . These citizens saw themselves as acting in the spirit of 1776 , this time not against the haughty British but by what they believed to have replaced commercial class with no interest in the public good . Their political efforts against the Federalists were a battle to preserve republicanism , to promote the public good
198 Growing Pains The New Republic , against private . They published their views , held meetings to voice their opposition , and sponsored festivals and parades . In their strident newspapers attacks , they also worked to undermine the traditional forms of deference and subordination to aristocrats , in this case the Federalist elites . Some members of northern clubs denounced slavery as well . DEFINING CITIZENSHIP While questions regarding the proper size and scope of the new national government created a divide among Americans and gave rise to political parties , a consensus existed among men on the issue of who and who did not qualify as a citizen . The 1790 Naturalization Act citizenship in stark racial terms . To be a citizen of the American republic , an immigrant had to be a free White person of good character . By excluding enslaved , free Black , Native , and Asian people from citizenship , the act laid the foundation for the United States as a republic of White men . Full citizenship that included the right to vote was restricted as well . Many state constitutions directed that only male property owners or taxpayers could vote . For women , the right to vote remained out of reach except in the state of New Jersey . In 1776 , the fervor of the Revolution led New Jersey revolutionaries to write a constitution extending the right to vote to unmarried women who owned property worth . Federalists and competed for the votes of New Jersey women who met the requirements to cast ballots . This radical innovation continued until 1807 , when New Jersey restricted voting to free White males . The New American Republic LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end ofthis section , you will be able to major foreign and domestic uprisings of the early Explain the effect of these uprisings on the political system ofthe United States colonies alliance with France , secured after the victory at Saratoga in 1777 , proved crucial in their victory against the British , and during the 17805 France and the new United States enjoyed a special relationship . ogether they had defeated their common enemy , Great Britain . But despite this shared experience , American regarding France diverged sharply in the when France underwent its own revolution . seized on the French revolutionaries struggle against monarchy as the welcome of a larger republican movement around the world . To the Federalists , however , the French evolution represented pure anarchy , especially after the execution of the French king in 1793 . Along with her foreign and domestic uprisings , the French Revolution helped harden the political divide in the United ates in the early 17905 . THE FRENCH REVOLUTION UD Uo French Revolution , which began in 1789 , further split American thinkers into different ideological camps , deepening the political divide between Federalists and their foes . At , in 1789 and 1790 , the revolution in France appeared to most in the United States as part ofa new chapter in the rejection corrupt monarchy , a trend inspired by the American Revolution . A constitutional monarchy replaced the monarchy XVI in 1791 , and in 1792 , France was declared a republic . Republican liberty , the creed of the United States , seemed to be ushering in a new era in France . Indeed , the American Revolution served as an inspiration for French revolutionaries . events of 1793 and 1794 challenged the simple interpretation of the French Revolution as a happy chapter in the unfolding triumph of republican government over monarchy . The French king was executed in January 1793 ( Figure , and the next two years became known as the Terror , a period of extreme violence against perceived enemies of the revolutionary government . Revolutionaries advocated direct representative democracy , dismantled Catholicism , replaced that religion with a new philosophy known as the Cult of the Supreme Being , renamed the months of the year , and relentlessly employed the guillotine against their Access for free at .
The New American Republic 199 enemies . Federalists viewed these excesses with growing alarm , fearing that the radicalism of the French Revolution might infect the minds of citizens at home . interpreted the same events with greater optimism , seeing them as a necessary evil of eliminating the monarchy and aristocratic culture that supported the privileges of a hereditary class of rulers . FIGURE An image from a 1791 Hungarian journal depicts the beheading of Louis XVI duringthe French Revolution The violence of the revolutionary French many in the United Federalists , who saw it as an example of what could happen when the mob gained political control and instituted direct democracy . The controversy in the United States when France declared war on Great Britain and Holland in February 1793 . France requested that the United States make a large repayment of the money it had borrowed from France to fund the Revolutionary War . However , Great Britain would judge any aid given to France as a hostile act . Washington declared the United States neutral in 1793 , but groups denounced neutrality and declared their support of the French republicans . The Federalists used the violence of the French revolutionaries as a reason to attack in the United States , arguing that Jefferson and Madison would lead the country down a similarly disastrous path . CLICK AND EXPLORE Visit Liberty ( revolution ) for images , texts , and songs relating to the French Revolution . This momentous event impact extended far beyond Europe , politics in the United States and elsewhere in the Atlantic World . THE CITIZEN GENET AFFAIR AND JAY TREATY In 1793 , the revolutionary French government sent Genet to the United States to negotiate an alliance with the government . France authorized Genet to issue letters of authorizing ships and their crews to engage in allow him to arm captured British ships in American ports with soldiers . Genet arrived in Charleston , South Carolina , amid great fanfare . He immediately began commissioning American privateer ships and organizing volunteer American militias to attack Spanish holdings in the Americas , then traveled to Philadelphia , gathering support for the French cause along the way . President Washington and Hamilton denounced Genet , knowing his actions threatened to pull the United States into a war with Great Britain . The Citizen Genet affair , as it became known , spurred Great Britain to instruct its naval commanders in the West Indies to seize all ships trading with the French . The British captured hundreds of American ships and their cargoes , increasing the possibility of war between the two countries . In this tense situation , Great Britain worked to prevent a wider by ending its seizure of American ships and offered to pay for captured cargoes . Hamilton saw an opportunity and recommended to Washington that the United States negotiate . Supreme Court Justice John Jay was sent to Britain , instructed by Hamilton to secure compensation for captured American ships ensure the British leave the Northwest outposts they still
200 Growing Pains The New Republic , occupied despite the 1783 Treaty of Paris and gain an agreement for American trade in the West Indies . Even though Jay personally disliked slavery , his mission also required him to seek compensation from the British for enslaved people who left with the British at the end of the Revolutionary War . The resulting 1794 agreement , known as Jay Treaty , most of his original goals . The British would turn over the frontier posts in the Northwest , American ships would be allowed to trade freely in the West Indies , and the United States agreed to assemble a commission charged with settling colonial debts citizens owed British merchants . The treaty did not address the important issue of impressment , British navy practice of forcing or impressing American sailors to work and on British warships . Jay Treaty led the Spanish , who worried that it signaled an alliance between the United States and Great Britain , to negotiate a treaty of their allowed American commerce to through the Spanish port of New Orleans . Treaty allowed American farmers , who were moving in greater numbers to the Ohio River Valley , to ship their products down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to New Orleans , where they could be transported to East Coast markets . Jay Treaty the fears of , who saw it as a betrayal of republican France , cementing the idea that the Federalists favored aristocracy and monarchy . Partisan American newspapers tried to sway public opinion , while the skillful writing of Hamilton , who published a number of essays on the subject , explained the of commerce with Great Britain . THE FRENCH CARIBBEAN LEGACY Unlike the American Revolution , which ultimately strengthened the institution of slavery and the powers of American slaveholders , the French Revolution inspired slave rebellions in the Caribbean , including a 1791 uprising in the French colony of ( Haiti ) Thousands of enslaved people joined together to overthrow the brutal system of slavery . They took control of a large section of the island , burning sugar plantations and killing the White people who had forced them to labor under the lash . In 1794 , French revolutionaries abolished slavery in the French empire , and both Spain and England attacked , hoping to add the colony to their own empires . Toussaint , who had been born with slave status was later freed , emerged as the leader in the against Spain and England to secure a Haiti free of slavery and further European colonialism . Because revolutionary France had abolished slavery , Toussaint aligned himselfwith France , hoping to keep Spain and England at bay Figure ) FIGURE An 1802 portrait shows Toussaint , Chef des Noirs de Saint ( Leader of the Black Insurgents of Saint ) mounted and armed in an elaborate uniform . Access for free at .
The New American Republic 201 Events in Haiti further complicated the partisan wrangling in the United States . White refugee planters from Haiti and other French West Indian islands , along with enslaved and free people of color , left the Caribbean for the United States and for Louisiana , which at the time was held by Spain . The presence of these French migrants raised fears , especially among Federalists , that they would bring the contagion of French radicalism to the United States . In addition , the idea that the French Revolution could inspire a successful slave uprising just off the American coastline southern White people and slaveholders with horror . THE WHISKEY REBELLION While the wars in France and the Caribbean divided American citizens , a major domestic test of the new national government came in 1794 over the issue of a tax on whiskey , an important part of Hamilton program . In 1791 , Congress had authorized a tax of cents 361 gallon of whiskey and rum . Although most citizens paid without incident , trouble erupted in four western Pennsylvania counties in an uprising known as the Whiskey Rebellion . Farmers in the western counties of Pennsylvania produced from their grain for economic reasons . Without adequate roads or other means to transport a bulky grain harvest , these farmers distilled their grains into gin and whiskey , which were more to trans . Since these farmers depended on the sale of whiskey , some citizens in western Pennsylvania ( and elsewhere ) viewed the new tax as further proof that the new national government favored the commercial classes on he eastern seaboard at the expense of farmers in the West . On the other hand , supporters of the tax argued tha it helped stabilize the economy and its cost could easily be passed on to the consumer , not the iller . However , in the spring and summer months of 1794 , angry citizens rebelled against the federal of in charge of enforcing the federal excise law . Like the Sons of Liberty before the American Revolution , he whiskey rebels used violence and intimidation to protest policies they saw as unfair . They and feathered federal , intercepted the federal mail , and intimidated wealthy citizens . The extent of discontent found expression in their plan to form an independent western commonwealth , and they even negotiations with British and Spanish representatives , hoping to secure their support for independence from the United States . The rebels also contacted their backcountry neighbors in Kentucky and South Carolina , circulating the idea of secession . With their emphasis on personal freedoms , the whiskey rebels aligned themselves with the Republican Party . They saw the tax as part of a larger Federalist plot to destroy their republican liberty and , in its most extreme interpretation , turn the United States into a monarchy . The federal government lowered the tax , but when federal tried to subpoena those distillers who remained intractable , trouble escalated . Washington responded by creating a militia , drawn from several states , to put down the rebellion ( Figure ) This force made it known , both domestically and to the European powers that looked on in anticipation of the new republic collapse , that the national government would do everything in its power to ensure the survival of the United States . FIGURE This painting , attributed to Frederick ca . 1795 , depicts the massive force George Washington led to put down the Whiskey Rebellion of the previous year . Federalists made clear they would not
202 Growing Pains The New Republic , tolerate mob action . DEFINING AMERICAN Alexander Hamilton Shall the majority govern or be governed ?
Alexander Hamilton frequently wrote persuasive essays under pseudonyms , like Tully , as he does here . In this 1794 essay , Hamilton denounces the whiskey rebels and majority rule . It has been observed that the means most likely to be employed to turn the insurrection in the western country to the detriment of the government , would be artfully calculated among other things to divert your attention from the true question to be Let us see then what is this question . It is plainly the majority govern or be governed ?
shall the nation rule , or be ruled ?
shall the general will prevail , or the will of a faction ?
shall there be government , or no government ?
The Constitution you have ordained for yourselves and your posterity contains this express clause , The Congress shall have powerto lay and collect taxes , duties , and , to pay the debts , and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United You have then , by a solemn and deliberate act , the most important and sacred that a nation can perform , pronounced and decreed , that your Representatives in Congress shall have power to lay . You have done nothing since to reverse or decree . But the four western counties of Pennsylvania , undertake to rejudge and reverse your decrees , you have said , The Congress shall have powerto lay They say , The Congress shall not havethis . There is no road to despotism more sure or more to be dreaded than that which begins at anarchy . Hamilton Tully No . II for the American , Philadelphia , August 26 , 1794 What are the major arguments put forward by Hamilton in this document ?
Who do you think his audience is ?
NATIVE AMERICAN POLICY Relationships with Native Americans were a problem for Washington administration , but one on which White citizens agreed Native Americans stood in the way of White settlement and , as the 1790 Naturalization Act made clear , were not citizens . After the War of Independence , White settlers poured into lands west of the Appalachian Mountains . As a result , from 1785 to 1795 , a state of war existed on the frontier between these settlers and the Native Americans who lived in the Ohio territory . In both 1790 and 1791 , the Shawnee and Miami had defended their lands against the White settlers who arrived in greater and greater numbers from the East . In response , Washington appointed General Anthony Wayne to bring the Western loose alliance of heel . In 1794 , at the Battle of Fallen Timbers , Wayne was victorious . With the 1795 Treaty of Greenville Figure , the Western Confederacy gave up their claims to Ohio . Access for free at .
Partisan Politics FIGURE Notice the contrasts between the depictions of federal and Native representatives in this painting of the signing of the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 . What message or messages did the artist intend to convey ?
Partisan Politics LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end ofthis section , you will be able to Identify key examples of partisan wrangling between the Federalists and Describe how foreign relations affected American politics Assess the importance of the Louisiana Purchase George Washington , who had been reelected in 1792 by an overwhelming majority , refused to run for a third term , thus setting a precedent for future presidents . In the presidential election of 1796 , the two and for the time . Partisan rancor over the French Revolution and the Whiskey Rebellion fueled the divide between them , and Federalist John Adams defeated his rival Thomas Jefferson by a narrow margin of only three electoral votes . In 1800 , another close election swung the other way , and Jefferson began a long period of government . THE PRESIDENCY OF JOHN ADAMS The war between Great Britain and France in the shaped foreign policy . As a new and , in comparison to the European powers , extremely weak nation , the American republic had no control over European events , and no real leverage to obtain its goals of trading freely in the Atlantic . To Federalist president John Adams , relations with France posed the biggest problem . After the Terror , the French Directory ruled France from 1795 to 1799 . During this time , Napoleon rose to power . AMERICANA The Art of Ralph Earl Ralph Earl was an American artist , born in Massachusetts , who remained loyal to the British duringthe Revolutionary War . He fled to England in 1778 , but he returned to New England in the and began painting portraits of leading Federalists . His portrait of Connecticut Federalist Oliver Ellsworth and his wife Abigail conveys the world as Federalists liked to view it an orderly landscape administered by men of property and learning . His portrait of dry goods merchant Elijah Boardman shows Boardman as and highly cultivated his books include the works of Shakespeare and Milton Figure . 203
204 Growing Pains The New Republic , FIGURE Ralph Earl portraits are known for placing their subjects in an orderly world , as seen here in the 1801 portrait of Oliver and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth ( a ) and the 1789 portrait of Elijah Boardman ( What similarities do you see in the two portraits by Ralph Earl ?
What do the details of each portrait reveal about the sitters ?
About the artist and the ?
Because France and Great Britain were at war , the French Directory issued decrees stating that any ship carrying British goods could be seized on the high seas . In practice , this meant the French would target American ships , especially those in the West Indies , where the United States conducted a brisk trade with the British . France declared its 1778 treaty with the United States null and void , and as a result , France and the United States waged an undeclared what historians refer to as the 1796 to 1800 . Between 1797 and 1799 , the French seized 834 American ships , and Adams urged the buildup of the Navy , which consisted of only a single vessel at the time of his election in 1796 Figure ) FIGURE This 1799 print , entitled Preparation for WAR to defend Commerce , shows the construction of a naval ship , part of the effort to ensure the United States had access to free trade in the Atlantic world . In 1797 , Adams sought a diplomatic solution to the with France and dispatched envoys to negotiate terms . The French foreign minister , de Talleyrand , sent emissaries who told the American envoys that the United States must repay all outstanding debts owed to France , lend France 32 million guilders Access for free at .
Partisan Politics 205 ( Dutch currency ) and pay a bribe before any negotiations could take place . News of the attempt to extract a bribe , known as the XYZ affair because the French emissaries were referred to as , and in letters that President Adams released to Congress , outraged the American public and turned public opinion decidedly against France ( Figure . In the court of public opinion , Federalists appeared to have been correct in their interpretation of France , while the had been misled . FIGURE This anonymous 1798 cartoon , Property Protected a la Francoise , the XYZ affair . Five Frenchmen are shown treasures ofa woman United States . One man holds a sword labeled French Argument and a sack of gold and riches labeled National Sack and Diplomatic , while the others collect her valuables . A group of other Europeans look on and commiserate that France treated them the same way . CLICK AND EXPLORE Read the transcript of the above cartoon in the America in Caricature ( Cartoon collection at Indiana University Lilly Library . The complicated situation in Haiti , which remained a French colony in the late , also came to the attention of President Adams . The president , with the support of Congress , had created a Navy that now included scores of vessels . Most of the American ships cruised the Caribbean , giving the United States the edge over France in the region . In Haiti , the rebellion leader Toussaint , who had to contend with various domestic rivals seeking to displace him , looked to end embargo on France and its colonies , put in place in 1798 , so that his forces would receive help to deal with the civil unrest . In early 1799 , in order to capitalize upon trade in the lucrative West Indies and undermine France hold on the island , Congress ended the ban on trade with move that acknowledged Toussaint leadership , to the horror of American slaveholders . Toussaint was able to secure an independent Black republic in Haiti by 1804 . THE ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS The surge of animosity against France during the led Congress to pass several measures that in time undermined Federalist power . These 1798 war measures , known as the Alien and Sedition Acts , aimed to increase national security against what most had come to regard as the French menace . The Alien Act and the Alien Enemies Act took particular aim at French immigrants the West Indies by giving the president the power to deport new arrivals who appeared to be a threat to national security . The act expired in 1800 with no immigrants having been deported . The Sedition Act imposed harsh to years imprisonment and a massive of in 1790 those convicted or writing in a scandalous or malicious manner against the government of the United States . men , all ,
206 Growing Pains The New Republic , were indicted under the act , and ten were convicted . One of these was Congressman Matthew Lyon Figure , representative from Vermont , who had launched his own newspaper , The Scourge and Repository of Important Political Truth . FIGURE This 1798 cartoon , Congressional Pugilists , shows partisan chaos in the House of Representatives as Matthew Lyon , a from Vermont , holds forth against his opponent , Federalist Roger Griswold . The Alien and Sedition Acts raised constitutional questions about the freedom of the press provided under the First Amendment . argued that the acts were evidence of the Federalists intent to squash individual liberties and , by enlarging the powers of the national government , crush states rights . Jefferson and Madison mobilized the response to the acts in the form of statements known as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions , which argued that the acts were illegal and unconstitutional . The resolutions introduced the idea of , the right of states to nullify acts of Congress , and advanced the argument of states rights . The resolutions failed to rally support in other states , however . Indeed , most other states rejected them , citing the necessity of a strong national government . The with France came to an end in 1800 , when President Adams was able to secure the Treaty of . His willingness to open talks with France divided the Federalist Party , but the treaty reopened trade between the two countries and ended the French practice of taking American ships on the high seas . THE REVOLUTION OF 1800 AND THE PRESIDENCY OF THOMAS JEFFERSON The Revolution of 1800 refers to the transfer of power from one party to another in American history , when the presidency passed to Thomas Jefferson Figure ) in the 1800 election . The peaceful transition calmed contemporary fears about possible violent reactions to a new party taking the reins of government . The passing of political power from one political party to another without bloodshed also set an important precedent . Access for free at .
Partisan Politics FIGURE Thomas Jefferson victory in 1800 signaled the ascendency of the and the decline of power . The election did prove even more divisive than the 1796 election , however , as both the Federalist and ican Parties waged a mudslinging campaign unlike any seen before . Because the Federalists were badly divided , the gained political ground . Alexander Hamilton , who disagreed with President Adams approach to France , wrote a lengthy letter , meant for people within his party , attacking his fellow Federalist character and judgment and ridiculing his handling of foreign affairs . got hold of and happily reprinted the letter Jefferson viewed participatory democracy as a positive force for the republic , a direct departure from Federalist views . His version of participatory democracy only extended , however , to the White yeoman farmers in whom Jefferson great trust . While Federalist statesmen , like the architects of the 1787 federal constitution , a pure democracy , Jefferson was far more optimistic that the common American farmer could be trusted to make good decisions . He believed in majority rule , that is , that the majority should have the power to make decisions binding upon the whole . Jefferson had cheered the French Revolution , even wien the French republic instituted the Terror to ensure the monarchy would not return . By 1799 , however , he iad rejected the cause of France because of his opposition to Napoleon seizure ofpower and creation of a dictatorship . Over the course of two terms as was reelected in reversed the policies of the Federalist Party by turning away from urban commercial development . Instead , he promoted agriculture through the sale of western public lands in small and affordable lots . Perhaps Jefferson most lasting legacy is his vision of an empire of liberty . He distrusted cities and instead envisioned a rural republic of White men , or yeoman republican farmers . He wanted the United States to be the breadbasket of the world , exporting its agricultural commodities without suffering the ills of urbanization and industrialization . Since American yeomen would own their own land , they could stand up against those who might try to buy their votes with promises of property . Jefferson championed the rights of states and insisted on limited federal government as well as limited taxes . This stood in stark contrast to the Federalists insistence on a strong , active federal government . Jefferson also believed in austerity . He pushed Congress end of all internal taxes , such as those on whiskey and rum . The most trimming of the federal budget came at the expense of the military Jefferson did not believe in maintaining a costly military , and he slashed the size of the navy Adams had worked to build up . Nonetheless , Jefferson responded to the capture of American ships and sailors by pirates off the coast of North Africa by leading the United States into war against the Muslim Barbary States in 1801 , the fought by Americans overseas . The slow decline of the Federalists , which began under Jefferson , led to a period of rule in national politics . Historians call the years between 1815 and 1828 the Era of Good Feelings and highlight the 207
208 Growing Pains The New Republic , Virginia dynasty of the time , since the two presidents who followed Madison and James hailed from his home state . Like him , they were slaveholders and represented the Republican Party . Though Federalists continued to enjoy popularity , especially in the Northeast , their days of prominence in setting foreign and domestic policy had ended . PARTISAN ACRIMONY The earliest years of the nineteenth century were hardly free of problems between the two political parties . Early in Jefferson term , controversy swirled over President Adams judicial appointments of many Federalists during his days in . When Jefferson took the oath of , he refused to have the commissions for these Federalist justices delivered to the appointed . One of Adams appointees , William , had been selected to be of the peace in the District of Columbia , and when his commission did not arrive , he petitioned the Supreme Court for an explanation from Jefferson secretary of state , James Madison . In deciding the case , Madison , in 1803 , John Marshall agreed that iad the right to a legal remedy , establishing that individuals had rights even the president of the United Sta es could not abridge . However , Marshall also found that Congress Judicial Act of 1789 , which would have given the Supreme Court the power to grant remedy , was unconstitutional because the did not allow for cases like to come directly before the Supreme Court . Thus , Marshall esta the principle of judicial review , which strengthened the court by asserting its power to review ( and possibly nullify ) the actions of Congress and the president . Jefferson was not pleased , but neither did ge his commission . The animosity between the political parties exploded into open violence in 1804 , when Burr , first vice president , and Alexander Hamilton engaged in a duel . When Burr lost his bid for the of governor of New Yor , he was quick to blame Hamilton , who had long hated him and had done everything in his power to discredit him . On July 11 , the two antagonists met in , New Jersey , to exchange bullets in a duel in which shot and mortally wounded Hamilton . THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE Jefferson , who wanted to expand the United States to bring about his empire of liberty , realized his greatest triumph in 1803 when the United ates bought the Louisiana territory from France . For 15 mi bargain price , considering the amount of land United States doubled in size . Perhaps the greatest real estate deal in American history , the Louisiana Purchase greatly enhanced the Jeffersonian vision of the United States as an agrarian republic in which yeomen farmers worked the land . Jefferson also wanted to bolster trade in the West , seeing the port of New Orleans and the Mississippi River ( then the wes ern boundary of the United States ) as crucial to American agricultural commerce . In his mind , farmers would send their produce down the Mississippi River to New Orleans , where it would be sold to European traders . The purchase of Louisiana came about largely because of circumstances beyond Jefferson con rol , though he certainly recognized the implications of the transaction . Until 1801 , Spain had controlled New Orleans and had given the United States the right to goods in the port without paying customs duties . hat year , however , the Spanish had ceded Louisiana ( and New Orleans ) to France . In 1802 , the United Sta es lost its right to deposit goods free in the port , causing outrage among many , some of whom called for war wit France . Jefferson instructed Robert Livingston , the American envoy to France , to secure access to New Orleans , sending James Monroe to France to add additional pressure . The timing proved advantageous . Because enslaved Black people in the French colony of Haiti had successfully overthrown the brutal plan ation regime , Napoleon could no longer hope to restore the empire lost with France defeat in the French and Indian War ( His vision of Louisiana and the Mississippi Valley as the source for food for Haiti , the most sugar island in the world , had failed . The emperor therefore agreed to the sale in early 1803 . Access for free at .
The United States Goes Back to War 209 CLICK AND EXPLORE Explore the collected maps and documents relating to the Louisiana Purchase and its history at the Library of Congress ( site . The true extent of the United States new territory remained unknown ( Figure . Would it provide the sought quick access to Asian markets ?
Geographical knowledge was limited indeed , no one knew precisely what lay to the west or how long it took to travel from the Mississippi to the . Jefferson selected two fellow Virginians , Meriwether Lewis and William Clark , to lead an expedition to the new western lands . Their purpose was to discover the commercial possibilities of the new land and , most importantly , potential trade routes . From 1804 to 1806 , Lewis and Clark traversed the West . Louisiana Purchase 1903 FIGURE This 1804 map ( a ) shows the territory added to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 . Compare this depiction to the contemporary map ( How does the 1804 version differ from what you know ofthe geography of the United States ?
The Louisiana Purchase helped Jefferson win reelection in 1804 by a landslide . Of 176 electoral votes cast , all but 14 were in his favor The great expansion of the United States did have its critics , however , especially northerners who feared the addition of more slave states and a corresponding lack of representation of their interests in the North . And under a strict interpretation of the Constitution , it remained unclear whether the president had the power to add territory in this fashion . But the vast majority of citizens cheered the increase in the size of the republic . For slaveholders , new western lands would be a boon for their captives , the Louisiana Purchase threatened to entrench their suffering further . The United States Goes Back to War LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end ofthis section , you will be able to Describe the causes and consequences of the War of 1812 important events of the War of 1812 and explain their The origins of the War of 1812 , often called the Second War of American Independence , are found in the unresolved issues between the United States and Great Britain . One major cause was the British practice of impressment , whereby American sailors were taken at sea and forced to on British warships this issue was left unresolved by Jay Treaty in 1794 . In addition , the British in Canada supported Native Americans in their against further expansion in the Great Lakes region . Though Jefferson wanted to avoid what he called entangling alliances , staying neutral proved impossible . THE EMBARGO OF 1807 France and England , engaged in the Napoleonic Wars , which raged between 1803 and 1815 , both declared
210 Growing Pains The New Republic , open season on American ships , which they seized on the high seas . England was the major offender , since the Royal Navy , following a practice , impressed American sailors by forcing them into its service . The issue came to a head in 1807 when the Leopard , a British warship , on a naval ship , the Chesapeake , off the coast of Norfolk , Virginia . The British then boarded the ship and took four sailors . Jefferson chose what he thought was the best of his limited options and responded to the crisis through the economic means of a sweeping ban on trade , the Embargo Act of 1807 . This law prohibited American ships from leaving their ports until Britain and France stopped seizing them on the high seas . As a result of the embargo , American commerce came to a halt . The logic behind the embargo was that cutting off all trade would so severely hurt Britain and France that the seizures at sea would end . However , while the embargo did have some effect on the British economy , it was American commerce that actually felt the brunt of the impact Figure . The embargo hurt American farmers , who could no longer sell their goods overseas , and seaport cities experienced a huge increase in unemployment and an uptick in bankruptcies . All told , American business activity declined by 75 percent from 1808 to 1809 . FIGURE In this political cartoon from 1807 , a snapping turtle ( holding a shipping license ) grabs a smuggler in the act of sneaking a barrel of sugar to a British ship , The smuggler cries , Oh , this cursed ! is embargo spelled backwards . Enforcement of the embargo proved very , especially in the states bordering British Canada . Smuggling was widespread Smugglers Notch in Vermont , for example , earned its name from illegal trade with British Canada . Jefferson attributed the problems with the embargo to lax enforcement . At the very end ofhis second term , Jefferson signed the Act of 1808 , lifting the unpopular embargoes on trade except with Britain and France . In the election of 1808 , American voters elected another , James Madison . Madison inherited Jefferson foreign policy issues involving Britain and France . Most people in the United States , especially those in the West , saw Great Britain as the major problem . TECUMSEH AND THE WESTERN CONFEDERACY Another underlying cause of the War of 1812 was British support for native resistance to western expansion . For many years , White settlers in the American western territories had besieged the Native Americans living there . Under Jefferson , two policies existed forcing Native Americans to adopt American ways of agricultural life , or aggressively driving them into debt in order to force them to sell their lands . In 1809 , Tecumseh , a Shawnee war chief , rejuvenated the Western Confederacy . His brother , was a prophet among the Shawnee who urged a revival of native ways and rejection of culture , including alcohol . In 1811 , William Henry Harrison , the governor of the Indiana Territory , attempted to eliminate the native presence by attacking , a Shawnee settlement named in honor of Access for free at .
The United States Goes Back to War . In the ensuing Battle of , forces led by Harrison destroyed the settlement ( Figure . They also found ample evidence that the British had supplied the Western Confederacy with weapons , despite the stipulations of earlier treaties . FIGURE Portrait ( a ) painted by Charles Bird King in 1820 , is a depiction of Shawnee prophet . Portrait ( is Rembrandt Peele 1813 depiction of William Henry Harrison . What are the significant similarities and differences between the portraits ?
What was each artist trying to convey ?
THE WAR OF 1812 The seizure of American ships and sailors , combined with the British support of Native American resistance , led to strident calls for war against Great Britain . The loudest came from the war hawks , led by Henry Clay from Kentucky and John Calhoun from South Carolina , who would not tolerate British insults to American honor . Opposition to the war came from Federalists , especially those in the Northeast , who knew war would disrupt the maritime trade on which they depended . In a narrow vote , Congress authorized the president to declare war against Britain in June 1812 . The war went very badly for the United States at . In August 1812 , the United States lost Detroit to the British and their Native allies , including a force of one thousand men led by Tecumseh . By the end of the year , the British controlled half the Northwest . The following year , however , forces scored several victories . Captain Oliver Hazard Perry and his naval force defeated the British on Lake Erie . At the Battle of the Thames in Ontario , the United States defeated the British and their native allies , and Tecumseh was counted among the dead . Native American resistance began to ebb , opening the Indiana and Michigan territories for White settlement . These victories could not turn the tide of the war , however . With the British gaining the upper hand during the Napoleonic Wars and Napoleon French army on the run , Great Britain now could divert skilled combat troops from Europe to in the United States . In July 1814 , hundred hardened British soldiers sailed up the Chesapeake Bay and burned Washington , to the ground , forcing President Madison and his wife to run for their lives Figure 817 . According to one report , they left behind a dinner the British ate . That summer , the British shelled Baltimore , hoping for another victory . However , they failed to dislodge the forces , whose survival of the bombardment inspired Francis Scott Key to write The 211
212 Growing Pains The New Republic , FIGURE George painted The dent House shortly after the War of 1812 , ca . The painting shows the result of the British burning of Washington , AMERICANA Francis Scott Key In Defense of Fort After the British bombed Baltimore Fort in 1814 but failed to overcome the forces there , Francis Scott Key was inspired by the sight of the American flag , which remained hanging proudly in the aftermath . He wrote the poem In Defense of Fort , which was later set to the tune of a British song called The Song and eventually became the national anthem , The Banner . Oh , say , can you see , by the dawn early light , What so proudly we hailed at the twilight last gleaming ?
Whose broad stripes and bright stars , thru the perilous , er the ramparts we watched , were so gallantly streaming ?
And the rockets red glare , the bombs bursting in air , Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there . say , does that banner yet wave er the land of the free and the home of the brave ?
On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep , Where the foe haughty host in dread silence reposes , What is that which the breeze , the towering steep , As it blows , half conceals , half discloses ?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning first beam , In full glory reflected , now shines on the stream Tis the banner , long may it wave er the land of the free and the home of the brave ! And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle confusion A home and a country should leave us no more ?
Their blood has washed out their pollution . No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave And the banner in triumph doth wave er the land of the free and the home of the brave . thus be it ever when freemen shall stand , Access for free at .
The United States Goes Back to War 213 Between their loved home and the war desolation ! Blest with victory and peace , may the land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation ! Then conquer we must , when our cause it is just , And this be our motto In God is our trust And the banner in triumph shall wave er the land of the free and the home of the brave ! Scott Key , In Defense of Fort , 1814 What images does Key use to describe the American spirit ?
Most people are familiar with only the first verse of the song what do you think the last three verses add ?
CLICK AND EXPLORE Visit the Smithsonian Institute ( flag ) to explore an interactive feature on the flag that inspired The Banner , where hot spots on the reveal elements of its history . With the end of the war in Europe , Britain was eager to end the in the Americas as well . In 1814 , British and diplomats met in Flanders , in northern Belgium , to negotiate the Treaty of , signed in December . The boundaries between the United States and British Canada remained as they were before the war , an outcome welcome to those in the United States who feared a rupture in the country otherwise steady expansion into the West . The War of 1812 was very unpopular in New England because it further economic harm on a region dependent on maritime commerce . This unpopularity caused a resurgence of the Federalist Party in New England . Many Federalists deeply resented the power of the slaveholding Virginians ( Jefferson and then Madison ) who appeared indifferent to their region . The depth of the Federalists discontent is illustrated by the proceedings of the December 1814 Hartford Convention , a meeting of Federalists in Connecticut , where some attendees issued calls for New England to secede from the United States . These arguments for disunion during wartime , combined with the convention condemnation of the government , made Federalists appear unpatriotic . The convention forever discredited the Federalist Party and led to its downfall . THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS Due to slow communication , the last battle in the War of 1812 happened after the Treaty of had been signed ending the war . Andrew Jackson had distinguished himself in the war by defeating the Creek Natives in March 1814 before invading Florida in May of that year . After taking , he moved his force of Tennessee to New Orleans to defend the strategic port against British attack . On January , 1815 ( despite the end of the war ) a force of British veterans of the Napoleonic Wars attempted to take the port . Jackson forces devastated the British , killing over two thousand . New Orleans and the vast Mississippi River Valley had been successfully defended , ensuring the future of American settlement and commerce . The Battle of New Orleans immediately catapulted Jackson to national prominence as a war hero , and in the , he emerged as the head of the new Democratic Party .
214 Key Terms Key Terms Bill of Rights the ten amendments to the United States Constitution , which guarantee individual rights Citizen affair the controversy over tie French representative who tried to involve the United States in France war against Great Britain advocates of limited government who were troubled by the expansive domestic policies of Washington administration and opposed the Federalists impressment the practice of capturing sai ors and forcing them into military service letters of marque French warrants allowing ships and their crews to engage in piracy Louisiana Purchase the purchase of large territory of Louisiana from France in 1803 Madison the landmark 1803 case establishing the Supreme Court powers of judicial review , the power to review and possibly nullify actions of Congress and the president Revolution of 1800 the peaceful transfer power from the Federalists to the with the election of 1800 the Terror a period during the French Revolution characterized by extreme violence and the execution of numerous enemies of the revolutionary government , from 1793 through 1794 XYZ affair the French attempt to extract a from the United States during the of Summary Competing Visions Federalists and While they did not yet constitute distinct political parties , Federalists and , shortly after the Revolution , found themselves at odds over the Constitution and the power that it concentrated in the federal government . While many of the fears were assuaged by the adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1791 , the early nevertheless witnessed the rise of two political parties the Federalists and the . These rival political factions began by themselves in relationship to Hamilton program , a debate that exposed contrasting views of the proper role of the federal government . By championing Hamilton bold program , Federalists , including President Washington , made clear their intent to use the federal government to stabilize the national economy and overcome the problems that had plagued it since the . Members of the opposition , however , deplored the expanded role of the new national government . They argued that the Constitution did not permit the treasury secretary expansive program and worried that the new national government had assumed powers it did not rightfully possess . Only on the question was there broad agreement only free , White males who met taxpayer or property could cast ballots as full citizens of the republic . The New American Republic Federalists and interpreted the execution of the French monarch and the violent establishment of a French republic in very different ways . Revolutionaries excesses in France and the slave revolt in the French colony of Haiti raised fears among Federalists of similar radicalism and slave uprisings on American shores . They looked to better relationships with Great Britain through Jay Treaty . Treaty , which came about as a result of Jay Treaty , improved relations with the Spanish and opened the Spanish port of New Orleans to American commerce . took a more positive view of the French Revolution and grew suspicious of the Federalists when they brokered Jay Treaty . Domestically , the partisan divide came to a dramatic head in western Pennsylvania when distillers of whiskey , many aligned with the , took action against the federal tax on their product . Washington led a massive force to put down the uprising , demonstrating Federalist intolerance of mob action . Though divided on many issues , the majority of White citizens agreed on the necessity of eradicating the Native presence on the frontier . Access for free at .
Review Questions 215 Partisan Politics Partisan politics dominated the American political scene at the close of the eighteenth century . The Federalists and views of the role of government were in direct opposition to each other , and the close elections of 1796 and 1801 show how the nation grappled with these opposing visions . The high tide of the Federalist Party came after the election of 17 , when the United States engaged in the War with France . The issues arising from the gave Adams and the Federalists license to expand the powers of the federal government . However , the tide turned with the close election of 1800 , when Jefferson began an administration based on ideals . A major success of administration was the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 , which helped to his vision of the United States as an agrarian republic . The United States Goes Back to War The United States was drawn into its Second War of Independence against Great Britain when the British , engaged in the Napoleonic Wars against France , took liberties with the nation by impressing ( capturing ) its sailors on the high seas and arming its Native enemies . The War of 1812 ended with the boundaries of the United States remaining as they were before the war . The Native peoples in the Western Confederacy suffered a defeat , losing both their leader Tecumseh and their for contested land in the Northwest . The War of 1812 proved to be of great importance because it generated a surge of national pride , with expressions of American identity such as the poem by Francis Scott Key . The United States was unequivocally separate from Britain and could now turn as never before to expansion in the West . Review Questions . Which of the following is notone of the rights the Bill of Rights guarantees ?
he right to freedom of speech he right to an education he right to bear arms he right to a trial by jury . Which of Alexander Hamilton policies and programs seemed to speculators at the expense soldiers ?
he creation of a national bank he public credit plan he tax on whiskey he Report on Manufactures . Wha were the fundamental differences between the Federalist and visions ?
Which of the following was not true Treaty of 1794 ?
the United States land rights in the West Indies . gave American ships the right to trade in the West Indies . hardened differences between the political parties of the United States . stipulated that citizens would repay their debts from the Revolutionary War . 90 ?
Wha was the primary complaint of the rebels in the Whiskey Rebellion ?
he ban on alcohol he lack of political representation for farmers he need to Native Americans for more land he tax on whiskey and rum 90 ?
How did the French Revolution in the early the evolution of the American political system ?
216 Critical Thinking Questions . What was the primary issue of Adams presidency ?
A . relations with relations with war with Spain the native population within the Federalist Party France . Which of the following events is notan example of partisan acrimony ?
A . the XYZ affair the the the jailing of Matthew Lyon Madison case duel . What was the importance of the Louisiana Purchase ?
10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . A . It gave the Uni It gave the Uni It provided Na How did rela Why do historian What prompted A . for the The British ed States control of the port of New Orleans for trade . It opened up the possibility of quick trade routes to Asia . ed States political leverage against the Spanish . with an impetus to restore France empire . ions with France events at the end of the eighteenth century ?
refer to the election of Thomas Jefferson as the Revolution of 1800 ?
ie Embargo of 1807 ?
British soldiers burned the capitol . The British supplied arms to Native . The British navy captured American ships on the high seas and impressed their sailors into service adn abandoned their posts in the Northwest Territory as required by Jay Treaty . What event inspired The Banner ?
A . Betsy Ross sewing the American flag raised during a time of war the British bombardment of Baltimore the British burning of Washington , the naval battle between the Leopard and the Chesapeake Critical Thinking Questions 14 . Describe Alexander Hamilton plans to address the nations woes . Which aspects proved most controversial , and why ?
What elements of the foundation Hamilton laid can still be found in the system 15 . 16 . 17 . today ?
Describe the growth of the party system in the United States . How did these parties come to develop ?
How did they themselves , both independently and in opposition to one another ?
Where did they themselves i agreement ?
What led to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts ?
What made them so controversial ?
What was the mo In what ways did were raised , and st impact of the War of 1812 ?
the events of this era pose challenges to the Constitution ?
What constitutional issues how were they addressed ?
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