From Cold War to Culture Wars, 1980-2000
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From Cold War to Culture Wars , FIGURE This striking piece of graffiti from the Berlin Wall ( now housed in the in Washington , contains the name of the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT UP ) a group formed in 1987 in New York City to combat the spread of AIDS and the perception that AIDS was the product of immoral behavior . CHAPTER OUTLINE The Reagan Revolution Political and Cultural Fusions A New World Order Bill Clinton and the New Economy INTRODUCTION Act up ! might be called the unofficial slogan of the . Numerous groups were concerned by what they considered disturbing social , cultural , and political trends in the United States and lobbied for their vision of what the nation should be . Conservative politicians cut taxes for the wealthy and shrank programs for the poor , while conservative Christians blamed the legalization of abortion and the increased visibility of gays and lesbians for weakening the American family . When the Centers for Disease Control first recognized the Acquired Immune Syndrome ( AIDS ) in 1981 , the Religious Right regarded it as a plague sent by God to punish gay men for their unnatural behavior . Politicians , many of whom relied on religious conservatives for their votes , largely ignored the AIDS epidemic . In response , organizations such as ACT UP were formed to draw attention to their cause ( Toward the end of the decade in 1989 , protesters from both East and West Berlin began acting up and tearing
848 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , down large chunks of the Berlin Wall , essentially dismantling the Iron Curtain . This symbolic act was the culmination of earlier demonstrations that had swept across Eastern Europe , resulting in the collapse of Communist governments in both Central and Eastern Europe , and marking the beginning of the end of the Cold War . The Reagan Revolution LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end ofthis section , you will be able to Explain Ronald Reagan attitude towards government Discuss the Reagan administration economic policies and their effects on the nation Ronald Reagan Republicans addresses William draft House of President Reagan nation on Clinton Contract Representatives wounded in an Berlin Wall elected with impeaches assassination attempt scandal falls president America President Clinton 1981 1987 1989 1992 1994 1998 1980 1982 1991 1993 1995 Ronald The Equal Operation Congress Timothy Reagan Rights Desert Storm approves McVeigh elected Amendment begins in North bombs president dies after not Persian Gulf American federal achieving Internet Free Trade building in i required opens to Agreement Oklahoma City FIGURE Ronald Reagan entered the White House in 1981 with strongly conservative values but experience in moderate politics . He appealed to moderates and conservatives anxious about social change and the seeming loss of American power and on the world stage . Leading the Reagan Revolution , he appealed to voters with the promise that the principles of conservatism could halt and revert the social and economic changes of the last generation . Reagan won the White House by citing big government and attempts at social reform as the problem , not the solution . He was able to capture the political capital of an unsettled national mood and , in the process , helped set an agenda and policies that would affect his successors and the political landscape of the nation . REAGAN EARLY CAREER Although many of his movie roles and the persona he created for himself seemed to represent traditional values , Reagan rise to the presidency was an unusual transition from pop cultural to political success . Born and raised in the Midwest , he moved to California in 1937 to become a Hollywood actor He also became a reserve in the Army that same year , but when the country entered World War II , he was excluded from active duty overseas because of poor eyesight and spent the war in the army First Motion Picture Unit . After the war , he resumed his career rose to leadership in the Screen Actors Guild , a Hollywood union and became a spokesman for General Electric and the host of a television series that the company sponsored . As a young man , he politically as a liberal Democrat , but his distaste for communism , along with the of the social conservative values of his second wife , actress Nancy Davis , Access for free at .
The Reagan Revolution edged him closer to conservative Republicanism ( Figure . By 1962 , he had formally switched political parties , and in 1964 , he actively campaigned for the Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater . I ! FIGURE In 1961 , when Congress began to explore nationwide health insurance for the elderly under Social Security , Reagan made a recording for the American Medical Association in which he denounced the was later adopted as socialized medicine . Such a program , Reagan warned his listeners , was the first step to the nation demise as a free society . Reagan launched his own political career in 1966 when he successfully ran for governor of California . His opponent was the incumbent Pat Brown , a liberal Democrat who had already served two terms . Reagan , quite undeservedly , blamed Brown for race riots in California and student protests at the University of California at Berkeley . He criticized the Democratic incumbent increases in taxes and state government , and denounced big government and the inequities of taxation in favor of free enterprise . As governor , however , he quickly learned that federal and state laws prohibited the elimination of certain programs and that many programs his constituents . He ended up approving the largest budget in the state history and approved tax increases on a number of occasions . The contrast between Reagan rhetoric and practice made up his political skill capturing the public mood and catering to it , but compromising when necessary . REPUBLICANS BACK IN THE WHITE HOUSE After two unsuccessful Republican primary bids in 1968 and 1976 , Reagan won the presidency in 1980 . His victory was the result of a combination of dissatisfaction with the presidential leadership of Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter in the and the growth of the New Right . This group of conservative Americans included many very wealthy supporters and emerged in the wake of the social reforms and cultural changes of the 19603 and . Many were evangelical Christians , like those who joined Jerry Moral Majority , and opposed the legalization of abortion , the feminist movement , and sex education in public schools . Reagan also attracted people , often dubbed neoconservatives , who would not previously have voted for the same candidate as conservative Protestants did . Many were and people who resented the growth of federal and state governments , especially programs , and the subsequent increase in taxes during the late and . They favored the tax revolts that swept the nation in the late under the leadership of predominantly older , White , Americans , which had succeeded in imposing radical reductions in local property and state income taxes . Voter turnout this new conservative swing , which not only swept Reagan into the White House but created a Republican majority in the Senate . Only 52 percent of eligible voters went to the polls in 1980 , the lowest turnout for a presidential election since 1948 . Those who did cast a ballot were older , Whiter , and 849
850 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , wealthier than those who did not vote ( Figure . Strong support among White voters , those over years of age , and those with incomes over proved crucial for Reagan victory . FIGURE Ronald Reagan campaigns forthe presidency with his wife Nancy in South Carolina in 1980 . Reagan won in allthe Deep South states except Georgia , although he did not come from the South and his opponent Jimmy Carter did . Reagan primary goal upon taking was to stimulate the sagging economy while simultaneously cutting both government programs and taxes . His economic policies , called by the press , were based on a theory called economics , about which many economists were skeptical . by economist Arthur of the University of Southern California , Reagan cut income taxes for those at the top of the economic ladder , which was supposed to motivate the rich to invest in businesses , factories , and the stock market in anticipation of high returns . According to argument , this would eventually translate into more jobs further down the socioeconomic ladder . Economic growth would also increase the total tax at a lower tax rate . In other words , proponents of economics promised to cut taxes and balance the budget at the same time . also included the deregulation of industry and higher interest rates to control , but these initiatives preceded Reagan and were conceived in the Carter administration . Many politicians , including Republicans , were wary of Reagan economic program even his eventual vice president , George Bush , had referred to it as voodoo economics when competing with him for the Republican presidential nomination . When Reagan proposed a 30 percent cut in taxes to be phased in over his term in , Congress balked . Opponents argued that the tax cuts would the rich and not the poor , who needed help the most . In response , Reagan presented his plan directly to the people ( Figure . FIGURE Ronald Reagan outlines his plan for tax reduction legislation in July 1981 . Data suggest that the policies of the 19805 actually produced less investment , slightly slower growth , and a greater decline in Access for free at .
The Reagan Revolution 851 wages than the side policies of the . Reagan was an articulate spokesman for his political perspectives and was able to garner support for his policies . Often called The Great Communicator , he was noted for his ability , honed through years as an actor and spokesperson , to convey a mixture of folksy wisdom , empathy , and concern while taking humorous digs at his opponents . Indeed , listening to Reagan speak often felt like hearing a favorite uncle recall stories about the good old days before big government , expensive social programs , and greedy politicians destroyed the country ( Figure found this rhetorical style extremely compelling . Public support for the plan , combined with a surge in the president popularity after he survived an assassination attempt in March 1981 , swayed Congress , including many Democrats . On July 29 , 1981 , Congress passed the Economic Recovery Tax Act , which phased in a 25 percent overall reduction in taxes over a period of three years . FIGURE President Ronald Reagan signs economic reform legislation at his ranch in California . Note the blue jeans , denim jacket , and cowboy boots he wears . CLICK AND EXPLORE The largest of the presidential libraries , the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library ( contains Reagan most important speeches and pictures of Ronald and Nancy Reagan . Reagan was successful at cutting taxes , but he failed to reduce government spending . Although he had long warned about the dangers of big government , he created a new agency , the Department of Veterans Affairs , and the number of federal employees increased during his time in . He allocated a smaller share of the federal budget to antipoverty programs like Aid to Families with De Children ( food stamps , rent subsidies , job training programs , and Medicaid , but Social Security and Medicare entitlements , from which his supporters , were left largely untouched except for an increase in payroll taxes to pay for them . Indeed , in 1983 , Reagan agreed to a compromise with the Democrats in Congress on a 165 billion injection of funds to save Social Security , which included this payroll tax increase . But Reagan seemed less when it came to deregulating industry and weakening tie power of labor unions . Banks and savings and loan associations were deregulated . Pollution control was enforced less strictly by the Environmental Protection Agency , and restrictions on logging and drilling for oil on public lands were relaxed . Believing the free market was , the Reagan administration had li tle use for labor unions , and in 1981 , the president twelve thousand federal air controllers had gone on strike to secure better working conditions ( which would also have improved the public safety ) His action effectively destroyed the Professional Air Controllers Organization ( and ushered in a new era of labor relations in which , following his example , employers simply replaced striking workers . he weakening of unions contributed to the leveling off of real wages for the average American family during the 19803 . Reagan economic policymakers succeeded in breaking the cycle of that had been plaguing the
852 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , nation , but at cost . In its effort to curb high with dramatically increased interest rates , the Federal Reserve also triggered a deep recession . did drop , but borrowing became expensive and consumers spent less . In Reagan irst years in , bankruptcies increased and unemployment reached about 10 percent , its highest level since the Great Depression . Homelessness became a problem in cities , a fact the president made lig of by suggesting that the press exaggerated the problem and that many homeless people chose to live on the streets . Economic growth resumed in 1983 and gross domestic product grew at an average of percent during the rest of his presidency . By the end of Reagan second term in , unemployment had to about percent , but the nation was nearly trillion in debt . An increase in defense spending coup ed with billion in tax relief for the American families with incomes of or more made a balanced budget , one of the president campaign promises in 1980 , impossible to achieve . The Reagan years were a ed era of social , economic , and political change , with many trends operating simultaneously and sometimes at . While many suffered , others prospered . The had been the era of the hippie , and Newsweek magazine declared 1984 to be the year of the Yuppie . Yuppies , whose name derived from ( oung , were akin to hippies in being young people whose interests , values , anc lifestyle American culture , economy , and politics , just as the hippies credo had done in the late and . Unlike hippies , however , yuppies were viewed as being materialistic and obsessed with image , comfort , and economic prosperity . Although liberal on some social issues , economically they were conservative . Ironically , some yuppies were former hippies or , like Jerry Rubin , who gave up his crusade against the establishment to become a businessman . CLICK AND EXPLORE Read more about culture ( and then use the table of contents to access other information about the culture of the . Political and Cultural Fusions LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end ofthis section , you will be able to Discuss the culture wars and political conflicts ofthe Reagan era Describe the Religious Right response to the issues of the Reagan era Ronald Reagan victory in 1980 suggested to conservatives that the days of liberalism were over and the liberal establishment might be dismantled . Many looked forward to the discontinuation of policies like action . Conservative Christians sought to outlaw abortion and stop the movement for gay and lesbian rights . Republicans , and some moderate Democrats , demanded a return to traditional family values , a rhetorical ploy to suggest that male authority over women and children constituted a natural order that women rights and the New Left had subverted since the . As the conservative message regarding the evils of government permeated society , distrust of the federal government grew , inspiring some to form organizations and communities that sought complete freedom from government control . CREATING CONSERVATIVE POLICY Ronald Reagan popularity and effectiveness as a leader drew from his reputation as a man who fought for what he believed in . He was a very articulate spokesperson for a variety of political ideas based on conservative principles and perspectives . Much of the intellectual meat of the Reagan Revolution came from conservative think tanks ( policy or advocacy groups ) that sought to shape American political and social dialogues . The Heritage Foundation , one such group , soon became the intellectual arm of the conservative movement . Launched in 1973 with a contribution from Joseph Coors ( of Coors Brewing Company ) and support Access for free at .
Political and Cultural Fusions 853 from a variety of corporations and conservative foundations , the Heritage Foundation sought to counteract what conservatives believed to be Richard Nixon acceptance of a liberal consensus on too many issues . In producing its policy position papers and political recommendations to conservative candidates and politicians , it helped contribute to a of history and a nostalgic of what it deemed to be traditional values , seemingly threatened by the expansion of political and personal freedoms . The foundation had lent considerable support and encouragement to the conservative dialogues that helped carry Ronald Reagan into in 1980 . Just a year later , it produced a document entitled Mandate that catalogued some two thousand recommendations on how to shrink the size and reach of the federal government and implement a more consistent conservative agenda . The newly elected Reagan administration looked favorably on the recommendations and recruited several of the paper authors to serve in the White House . CONSERVATIVE CHRISTIANS AND FAMILY VALUES Among the strongest supporters of Ronald Reagan campaign for president were members of the Religious Right , including Christian groups like the Moral Majority , 61 percent of whom voted for him . By 1980 , evangelical Christians had become an important political and social force in the United States Figure . Some thirteen hundred radio stations in the country were owned and operated by evangelicals . Christian television programs , such as Pat Robertson The 700 Club and Jim The ( Praise the Lord ) Club , proved enormously popular and raised millions of dollars from viewer contributions . For some , evangelism was a business , but most conservative Christians were true believers who were convinced that premarital and extramarital sex , abortion , drug use , homosexuality , and irreligious forms of popular and high culture were responsible for a perceived decline in traditional family values that threatened American society . YES , ANITA ! I to back to God and Please send meal ! war hated Ow Do Po FIGURE This fundraising card was used by Anita Bryant , singer and beauty pageant winner , to gather support for Save Our Children , a political coalition she formed in the late to overturn a Florida ordinance banning discrimination based on sexual orientation . Many of the group strategies were soon embraced by the Moral Majority . Despite the support he received from Christian conservative and family values voters , Reagan was hardly an ideologue when it came to policy . Indeed , he was often quite careful in using hot button , issues to his greatest political advantage . For example , as governor of California , one of the states that the Equal Rights Amendment ( ERA ) in its year , he positioned himself as a supporter of the amendment . When he launched his bid for the Republican nomination in 1976 , however , he withdrew his support to gain the backing of more conservative members of his party . This move demonstrated both political savvy and foresight . At the time he withdrew his support , the Republican National Convention was still backing the amendment . However , in 1980 , the party began to qualify its stance , which dovetailed with Reagan candidacy for the White House . Reagan believed the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was protection for women against discrimination . Once in , he took a mostly neutral position , neither supporting nor working against the ERA . Nor did this middle position appear to hurt him at the polls he attracted a number of votes
854 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , from women in 1980 , and in 1984 , he polled 56 percent of the women vote compared to 44 percent for the Democratic ticket of Walter and Geraldine , the female candidate for vice president from a major party . DEFINING AMERICAN Phyllis and the STOP ERA Movement In 1972 , after a large number of states jumped to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment , most observers believed its ultimate by all the necessary states was all but certain . But , a decade later , the amendment died without ever getting the necessary votes . There are many reasons it went down in defeat , but a major one was Phyllis . On the surface , life might suggest that she would naturally support the ERA . After all , she was a educated , professional woman who sought advancement in her and even aspired to high political . Yet she is a fascinating historical character , precisely because her life and goals do conform to expected norms . attack on the ERA was unique in its method and effectiveness . Rather than amendment directly as a gateway to unrestrained and immoral behavior as some had , she couched her opposition in language that was sensitive to both privilege and class . Her instrument was the STOP ERA movement , with the acronym STOP , standing for Stop Taking our argued that women enjoyed special privileges such as restrooms and exemption from the military draft . These , she claimed , would be lost should the ERA be . But she also claimed to stand up for the dignity of being a homemaker and lambasted the feminist movement as elitist . In this , she was keenly aware of the power of class interests . Her organization suggested that privileged women could afford to support the ERA . Working women and poor housewives , however , would ultimately bearthe brunt ofthe loss of protection it would bring . In the end , were successful in achieving exactly what the movements name suggested she stopped the ERA . Reagan political calculations notwithstanding , his belief that traditional values were threatened by a modern wave of immoral popular culture was genuine . He recognized that nostalgia was a powerful force in politics , and he drew a picture for his audiences of the traditional good old days under attack by immorality and decline . Those of us who are over or so years of age grew up in a different America , he explained in his farewell address . We were taught , very directly , what it means to be an American . And we absorbed , almost in the air , a love of country and an appreciation of its institutions . The movies celebrated democratic values and implicitly reinforced the idea that America was special . But this America , he insisted , was being washed away . I warning of an eradication of the American memory that could result , ultimately , in an erosion of the American Concern over a decline in the country moral values welled up on both sides of the political aisle . In 1985 , anxiety over the messages of the music industry led to the founding of the Parents Music Resource Center ( a bipartisan group formed by the wives of prominent Washington politicians including Susan Baker , the wife of Reagan treasury secretary , James Baker , and Tipper Gore , the wife of Al Gore , a Democrat , who later became vice president under Bill Clinton . The goal of the was to limit the ability of children to listen to music with sexual or violent content . Its strategy was to get the recording industry to adopt a voluntary rating system for music and recordings , similar to the Motion Picture Association of system for movies . The organization also produced a list of particularly offensive recordings known as the filthy fifteen . By August 1985 , nearly twenty record companies had agreed to put labels on their recordings indicating explicit lyrics , but the Senate began hearings on the issue in September ( Figure . While many parents and a number of witnesses advocated the labels , many in the music industry rejected them as censorship . Twisted Sisters Dee and folk musician John Denver both advised Congress against the restrictions . In the end , Access for free at .
Political and Cultural Fusions 855 the recording industry suggested a voluntary generic label . Its effect on children exposure to raw language is uncertain , but musicians roundly mocked the effort . FIGURE Tipper Gore , wife of ( and later vice president ) Al Gore , at the 1985 Senate hearings into rating labels proposed by the , of which she was a cofounder . CLICK AND EXPLORE Listen to the testimony ( I ) and John Denver to learn more about the contours of this debate . THE AIDS CRISIS In the early , doctors noticed a disturbing trend Young gay men in large cities , especially San Francisco and New York , were being diagnosed with , and eventually dying from , a rare cancer called sarcoma . Because the disease was seen almost exclusively in gay males , it was quickly dubbed gay cancer Doctors soon realized it often coincided with other symptoms , including a rare form of pneumonia , and they renamed it Gay Related Immune ( GRID ) although people other than gay men , primarily intravenous drug users , were dying from the disease as well . The connection between gay men and renamed human syndrome , or straight people and mainstream news organizations to largely ignore the growing health crisis in the gay community , wrongly assuming they were safe from its effects . The federal government also overlooked the disease , and calls for more money to research and the cure were ignored . Even after it became apparent that straight people could contract the disease through blood transfusions and heterosexual intercourse , continued to be associated primarily with the gay community , especially by political and religious conservatives . Indeed , the Religious Right regarded it as a form of divine retribution meant to punish gay men for their lifestyle . President Reagan , always politically careful , was reluctant to speak openly about the developing crisis even as thousands faced certain death from the disease . With little help coming from the government , the gay community quickly began to organize its own response . In 1982 , New York City men formed the Gay Men Health Crisis ( a volunteer organization that operated an information hotline , provided counseling and legal assistance , and raised money for people with . Larry Kramer , one of the original members , left in 1983 and formed his own organization , the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT UP ) in 1987 . ACT UP took a more militant approach , holding demonstrations on Wall Street , outside the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) and inside the New York Stock Exchange to call attention and shame the government into action . One of the images adopted by the group , a pink triangle paired with the phrase Silence Death , captured media attention and quickly became the symbol of
856 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , the AIDS crisis ( Figure ) FIGURE The pink triangle was originally used in Nazi concentration camps to identify those there for acts of homosexuality . by gay activists in New York as a symbol of resistance and solidarity during the , it was as a symbol of governmental inaction in the face of the AIDS epidemic during the 19805 . THE WAR ON DRUGS AND THE ROAD TO MASS INCARCERATION As Ronald Reagan took in 1981 , violent crime in the United States was reaching an high . While there were different reasons for the spike , the most important one was demographics The primary category of offenders , males between the ages of sixteen and , reached an peak as the generation came of age . But the phenomenon that most politicians honed in on as a cause for violent crime was the abuse of a new , leap drug dealt illegally on city streets . Crack cocaine , a smokable type of cocaine popular with poorer addicts , was hitting the streets in the , frightening Americans . Reagan and other conservatives ed a campaign to get tough on crime and promised the nation a war on drugs . Initiatives like the Just Say No campaign led by First Lady Nancy Reagan implied that drug addiction and crime personal morality . Nixon had used the erm in 1971 , but in the 19805 the war on drugs took on an ominous dimension , as politicians scrambled over each other to enact harsher sentences for drug offenses so they could market themselves as tough on crime . Penalties for crack possession and use far exceeded penalties for similar amounts , a more expensive drug more commonly used by White people . State after state switched from variable to mandatory minimum sentences that were exceedingly long and particularly harsh for street drug crimes . The federal government sup the trend with federal sentencing guidelines , removal of judges discretion , and additional funds for local law enforcement agencies . Practices like civil forfeiture , in which law enforcement or municipalities could seize and share cash and property of suspected criminals even before they were convicted , provided a incentive to investigate drug crimes . The additional funding sources and high likelihood of successful drove police forces toward more aggressive and inequitable tactics . Black and Hispanic people were many times more likely than White people to be pulled over for routine stops and searches . Local police forces dedicated far more resources to patrolling neighborhoods , ing in far more arrests and prosecutions of Black and Hispanic people . This practice of racial would become a civil liberties point , but the results were devastating to portions of the population . The movement peaked in he , when California introduced a three strikes law that mandated life imprisonment without parole for any third felony nonviolent ones . As a result , prisons became crowded , and states wen deep into debt to build more . By the end of the century , the war began to die down as the public lost interest in the problem , the costs of the punishment binge became politically burdensome , and scholars and politicians began to advocate the decriminalization of drug use . By Access for free at .
A New World Order 857 this time , however , hundreds of thousands of people had been incarcerated for drug offenses and the total number of prisoners in the nation had grown in the last quarter of the century . Particularly glaring were the racial inequities of the new age of mass incarceration , with African Americans being seven times more likely to be in prison ( Figure 3110 ) In some states , such as New York , over 90 percent of people in prison were Black or Hispanic . Incarcerated people could neither generate income nor support their communities and families . In most states , convicted felons could not vote while in prison and even upon their release , which reduced the impact of minorities in legislation and representative bodies . And many companies and organizations avoided hiring people who had been previously convicted of felonies , resulting in a cycle of poverty and social stagnation that existed on stark racial lines . Greater awareness around police practices and use of force developed with the increased availability of recording devices . In 1991 , the country watched a citizen video of Los Angeles police repeatedly beating an unarmed man , Rodney King , with their batons . Over a minute of footage showed dozens of strikes and kicks while King lay on the ground or attempted to rise . The were put on trial for assault and excessive force , but were ultimately acquitted . In the riots that followed the acquittal , 63 people were killed and and over two thousand injured , with over billion in damage . President Bush said that , it was hard to understand how the verdict could square with the video . Two of the were later convicted of federal charges for willfully using unreasonable force . Incarcerated Americans Millions I I I I I I I I I 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Juvenile Detention FIGURE This graph of the number of people in jail , prison , and juvenile detention by decade in the United States shows the huge increase in incarceration duringthe war on drugs that began in the 19805 , during the Reagan administration . Prisons are state or federal facilities jails are local , facilities . A New World Order LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end ofthis section , you will be able to Describe the successes and failures of Ronald Reagan foreign policy Compare the policies of Ronald Reagan with those of George Bush Explain the causes and results ofthe Persian Gulf War Discuss the events that constituted the end of the Cold War In addition to reviving the economy and reducing the size of the federal government , Ronald Reagan also wished to restore American stature in the world . He entered the White House a cold warrior and referred to the Soviet Union in a 1983 speech as an evil empire . Dedicated to upholding even authoritarian governments in foreign countries to keep them safe from Soviet , he was also desperate to put to rest Vietnam Syndrome , the reluctance to use military force in foreign countries for fear of embarrassing defeat , which had foreign policy since the .
858 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , THE MIDDLE EAST AND CENTRAL AMERICA Reagan desire to demonstrate readiness to use military force abroad sometimes had tragic consequences . In 1983 , he sent soldiers to Lebanon as part of a multinational force trying to restore order following an Israeli invasion the year before . On October 23 , more than two hundred troops were killed in a barracks bombing in Beirut carried out by militants known as Hezbollah Figure 3111 . In February 1984 , Reagan announced that , given , troops were being withdrawn . FIGURE The suicide bombing ofthe Embassy in Beirut ( a ) on April 18 , 1983 , marked the first of a number of attacks on targets in the region . Less than six months later , a truck bomb leveled the . Marine barracks at the Beirut airport ( part of a coordinated attack that killed 299 Us and French members of the multinational peacekeeping force in Lebanon . Two days after the bombing in Beirut , Reagan and Secretary of State George authorized the invasion of Grenada , a small Caribbean island nation , in an attempt to oust a Communist military junta that had overthrown a moderate regime . Communist Cuba already had troops and technical aid workers stationed on the island and were willing to defend the new regime , but the United States swiftly took command of the situation , and the Cuban soldiers surrendered after two days . Reagan intervention in Grenada was intended to send a message to Marxists in Central America . Meanwhile , however , decades of political repression and economic corruption by certain Latin American governments , sometimes generously supported by foreign aid , had sown deep seeds of revolutionary discontent . In El Salvador , a 1979 coup had put a military junta in power that was engaged in a civil war against guerillas when Reagan took . His administration supported the government , which used death squads to silence dissent . Neighboring Nicaragua was also governed by a largely group , the Sandinistas . This organization , led by Daniel , had overthrown the brutal , dictatorship of in 1979 . Reagan , however , overlooked the legitimate complaints of the Sandinistas and believed that their rule opened the region to Cuban and Soviet . A year into his presidency , convinced it was folly to allow the expansion of Soviet and Communist in Latin America , he authorized the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) to equip and train a group of Nicaraguans known as the Contras ( or ) to oust . Reagan desire to aid the Contras even after Congress ended its support led him , surprisingly , to Iran . In September 1980 , Iraq had invaded neighboring Iran and , by 1982 , had begun to gain the upper hand . The Iraqis needed weapons , and the Reagan administration , wishing to assist the enemy of its enemy , had agreed to provide Iraqi president Saddam Hussein with money , arms , and military intelligence . In 1983 , however , the capture of Americans by Hezbollah forces in Lebanon changed the president plans . In 1985 , he authorized the sale of and missiles to Iran in exchange for help retrieving three of the American hostages . A year later , Reagan National Security Council aide , Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North , found a way to sell weapons to Iran and secretly use the proceeds to support the Nicaraguan direct violation of a Access for free at .
A New World Order 859 congressional ban on military aid to the guerillas in that Central American nation . Eventually the Senate became aware , and North and others were indicted on various charges , which were all dismissed , overturned on appeal , or granted presidential pardon . Reagan , known for delegating much authority to subordinates and unable to remember crucial facts and meetings , escaped the scandal with nothing more than criticism for his lax oversight . The nation was divided over the extent to which the president could go to protect national interests , and the limits of Congress constitutional authority to oversee the activities of the executive branch have yet to be resolved . CLICK AND EXPLORE Visit the Brown University site ( I ) to learn more about the congressional hearings . Read transcripts of the testimony and watch the video of President Reagan address to the nation regarding the operation . THE COLD WAR WAXES AND WANES While trying to shrink the federal budget and the size of government sphere at home , Reagan led an unprecedented military buildup in which money flowed to the Pentagon to pay for expensive new forms of weaponry . The press drew attention to the of the nation military industrial complex , offering as examples expense bills that included 640 toilet seats and coffee machines . One of the most controversial aspects of Reagan plan was the Strategic Defense Initiative ( which he proposed in 1983 . or Star Wars , called for the development ofa defensive shield protect the United States from a Soviet missile strike . Scientists argued that much of the needed technology had no yet been developed and might never be . Others contended that the plan would violate existing ies with the Soviet Union and worried about the Soviet response . The system was never built , and the plan , ed to have cost some billion , was ly abandoned . After his reelection in 1984 , Reagan began to moderate his position he Soviets . Mikhail Gorbachev became he General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party and was willing to meet with the president . Reagan found he was able to work with the Soviet leader once Gorbachev distanced himself from the traditional communist policies . The new and comparatively young Soviet premier did not want to commit additional funds for another arms race , especially since the war in A an against guerilla depleted the Soviet Union resources severely since i invasion of the central Asian nation in 1979 . Gorbachev recognized that economic despair at home easily result in larger political like those in neighboring Poland , where the Solidarity had taken hold . He withdrew troops from Afghanistan , introduced political reforms and new civil at as perestroika and proposed arms reduction talks with the United States . In 1985 , Gorbachev and Reagan met in Geneva to reduce armaments and shrink their respective military budge The following year , meeting in , Iceland , they surprised the world by announcing that they would try to eliminate nuclear weapons by 1996 . In 1987 , they agreed to eliminate a whole category of nuclear weapons when they signed the Nuclear Forces ( Treaty at the White House Figure 3112 . This laid the foundation for future agreements limiting nuclear weapons .
860 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , FIGURE In the East Room of the White House , President Reagan and Soviet general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev sign the 1987 Treaty , eliminating one category of nuclear weapons . CLICK AND EXPLORE You can view President Reagan delivering one of his most memorable addresses ( in 1987 . Standing in front of the Gate in West Berlin , he called on General Secretary Gorbachev to tear down this AFRICAN AMERICAN VISIBILITY AND LEADERSHIP While desegregated education had been established by the 1954 Brown Board of Education decision , the government had few mechanisms to enforce desegregation until the 1964 Civil Rights Act . Only then could minorities and other underrepresented people begin to expect more equal treatment in employment and access to public resources . The outcomes were notable , but the challenges remained . The 1970 census , conducted only six years after the passing of the Civil Rights Act , found that only 38 percent of Black men had a high school diploma , with only 13 percent attending college and percent earning a bachelors degree . By 1980 , however , educational attainment had skyrocketed 64 percent of Black men achieved a high school diploma , with 28 percent attending college . Historically , Black women had a greater level of educational attainment than Black men , and they from the gains as well . Better education , coupled with protections against employment discrimination , began to offer Black people more economic opportunities . Black writers , artists , actors , and other had a impact on culture and consciousness , coinciding with the frequency of their presence on mainstream television . In 1982 , Bryant became the Black anchor on network television . Soon after , the Miss America pageant crowned Vanessa Williams as its Black winner . Later in the decade , Oprah began a talk show known for addressing socially charged and topics while it skyrocketed to unparalleled viewership . And after an initial period of avoiding Black artists , would soon heavily feature and acts , leading to increased admiration and emulation among youth of all backgrounds . Alice Walker The Color Purple received widespread critical acclaim , becoming the novel by a Black woman to win the Pulitzer Prize . The novel depicts a woman who endures sexual , physical , and emotional abuse at the hands of her father and other men . After suffering loss and separation , she draws strength from other powerful women , and together they triumph over their trauma . The novel brought forth the stark realities facing women it became a cultural touchstone and a staple of literature curricula . The Color Purple , and especially its movie adaptation , also sparked controversy among some prominent , including director Spike Lee and talk show host Tony Brown , who felt that the narrative painted a negative picture of Black men . Access for free at .
A New World Order 861 Increased visibility could not overcome the challenges facing Black people in the . While the Reagan tax cuts offered gains for the wealthy , the decade saw an alarming rise in economic disparity between income among different groups . The nation overall employment rose , but the manufacturing sector faced steady declines . Cities in Ohio , Michigan , Western New York , Pennsylvania , and Indiana lost over half of their manufacturing jobs . Factory after factory closed , and companies from the automobile , steel , mining , and electronics industries began to shutter . The Manufacturing Belt ( or Factory Belt ) which ran through the Great Lakes Region , became degraded by poverty and urban decay to the point that it was renamed the Rust Belt . The unemployment rate was almost twice as high for Black people as it was for White people . Advocates seeking to address these disparities gained greater . The most prominent among these was Jesse Jackson , a widely known civil rights who had both a domestic and international impact . As the leader of the People United to Serve Humanity ( PUSH ) he led boycotts to drive more employment equality , and had successfully negotiated the release of American hostages in Syria and Cuba . His 1984 run for President was the second national campaign by an African American after Shirley in 1972 . Jackson showing in the Democratic primaries was a better result than expected , and gave him greater credibility leading up to his more successful candidacy in 1988 . Jackson 1988 campaign again centered on workers and refocusing America priorities . He led a protest at a Wisconsin auto plant slated for closing , earning him the endorsement of the regional union . His platform included plans to eliminate the mandatory minimum sentences responsible for mass incarceration , as well as guarantees of universal health care and free community college . While considered exceedingly liberal , these positions earned him strong placement in the primary process , building on the support of a Rainbow Coalition of minorities and the working class as well as progressives . He would eventually second to the eventual nominee , Michael , and spent the waning days of his campaign ensuring that African Americans issues remained a priority within the party . While a lesser known candidate , achieved an important new milestone for Black women with her own Presidential campaign . As part of one of several minor parties in the election , became the woman and the Black person to gain Presidential ballot access in all 50 states . She would get the most votes of any woman until Jill Stein in 2012 . NEW TAXES they could win back the White House , Democrats mounted a campaign focused on more effective and competent government under the leadership of Massachusetts governor Michael . When George Bush , Reagan vice president and Republican nominee , found himself down in the polls , political advisor Lee Atwater launched an aggressively negative media campaign , accusing of being soft on crime and connecting his liberal policies to a brutal murder in Massachusetts . More importantly , Bush adopted a largely style on matters of economic policy , promising to shrink government and keep taxes low . These tactics were successful , and the Republican Party retained the White House . Although he promised to carry on Reagan economic legacy , the problems Bush inherited made it to do so . Reagan policies of cutting taxes and increasing defense spending had exploded the federal budget , making it three times larger in 1989 than when Reagan took in 1980 . Bush was further constrained by the emphatic pledge he had made at the 1988 Republican read my lips no new taxes found himself in the position of trying to balance the budget and reduce the without breaking his promise . However , he also faced a Congress controlled by the Democrats , who wanted to raise taxes on the rich , while Republicans thought the government should drastically cut domestic spending . In October , after a brief government shutdown when Bush vetoed the budget Congress delivered , he and Congress reached a compromise with the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 . The budget included measures to reduce the by both cutting government expenditures and raising taxes , effectively reneging on the no new taxes pledge . These economic constraints are one reason why Bush supported a limited domestic agenda
862 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , of education reform and antidrug efforts , relying on private volunteers and community organizations , which he referred to as a thousand points of light , to address most social problems . When it came to foreign affairs , Bush attitude towards the Soviet Union differed little from Reagan . Bush sought to ease tensions with Americas rival superpower and stressed the need for peace and cooperation . The desire to avoid angering the Soviets led him to adopt a approach when , at the beginning ofhis term , a series of demonstrations broke out across the Communist Eastern Bloc . In November 1989 , the foreign policy experts and espionage agencies from both sides of the Iron in surprise as peaceful protesters in East Germany marched through checkpoints at the Berlin Wall . Within hours , people from both East and West Berlin the checkpoints and began tearing down large chunks of the wall . Months of earlier demonstrations in East Germany had called on the government to allow citizens to leave the country . These demonstrations were one manifestation of a larger movement sweeping across East Germany , Poland , Hungary , Czechoslovakia , Bulgaria , and Romania , which swiftly led to revolutions , most of them peaceful , resulting in the collapse of Communist governments in Central and Eastern Europe . In Budapest in 1956 and in Prague in 1968 , the Soviet Union had restored order through a large show of force . That this did happen in 1989 was an indication to all that the Soviet Union was itself collapsing . refusal to gloat or declare victory helped him maintain the relationship with Gorbachev that Reagan had established . In July 1991 , Gorbachev and Bush signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty , or START , which committed their countries to reducing their nuclear arsenals by 25 percent . A month later , attempting to stop the changes begun by Gorbachev reforms , Communist Party hardliners tried to remove him from power . Protests arose throughout the Soviet Union , and by December 1991 , the nation had collapsed . In January 1992 , twelve former Soviet republics formed the Commonwealth of Independent States to coordinate trade and security measures . The Cold War was over . AMERICAN GLOBAL POWER IN THE WAKE OF THE COLD WAR The dust had barely settled on the crumbling Berlin Wall when the Bush administration announced a bold military intervention in Panama in December 1989 . Claiming to act on behalf of human rights , troops deposed the unpopular dictator and drug smuggler Manuel Noriega swiftly , but former CIA connections between President Bush and Noriega , as well as interests in maintaining control of the Canal Zone , prompted the United Nations and world public opinion to denounce the invasion as a power grab . As the Soviet Union was ceasing to be a threat , the Middle East became a source of increased concern . In the wake of its war with Iran from 1980 to 1988 , Iraq had accumulated a amount of foreign debt . At the same time , other Arab states had increased their oil production , forcing oil prices down and further hurting Iraq economy . Iraq leader , Saddam Hussein , approached these states for assistance , particularly Saudi Arabia and neighboring Kuwait , which Iraq felt directly from its war with Iran . When talks with these countries broke down , and Iraq found itself politically and economically isolated , Hussein ordered the invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 . Bush faced his first international crisis . In response to the invasion , Bush and his foreign policy team forged an unprecedented international coalition of countries , including many members of NATO ( North Atlantic Treaty Organization ) and the Middle Eastern countries of Saudi Arabia , Syria , and Egypt , to oppose Iraqi aggression . Bush hoped that this coalition would herald the beginning of a new world order in which the nations of the world would work together to deter belligerence . A deadline was set for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait by January 15 , or face serious consequences . Wary of not having sufficient domestic support for combat , Bush deployed troops to the area to build up forces in the region and defend Saudi Arabia via Operation Desert Shield Figure . On January 14 , Bush succeeded in getting resolutions from Congress authorizing the use of military force against Iraq , and the then orchestrated an effective air campaign , followed by Operation Desert Storm , a Access for free at .
A New World Order 863 land war involving over troops and another from other countries , which expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait by the end of February . FIGURE George Bush greets US . troops stationed in Saudi Arabia on Thanksgiving Day in 1990 . The first troops were deployed there in August 1990 , as part of Operation Desert Shield , which was intended to build military strength in the area in preparation for an eventual military operation . CLICK AND EXPLORE Visit the site to read accounts . soldiers experiences ( in Operation Desert Storm and view weapons used in battle . Some controversy arose among Bush advisors regarding whether to end the war without removing Saddam Hussein from power , but General Colin Powell , the head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , argued that to continue to attack a defeated army would be . Bush agreed and troops began moving out of the area in March 1991 . Although Hussein was not removed from power , the war nevertheless suggested that the United States no longer suffered from Vietnam Syndrome and would deploy massive military resources if and when it thought necessary . In April 1991 , United Nations ( UN ) Resolution 687 set the terms of the peace , with term implications . Its concluding paragraph authorizing the UN to take such steps as necessary to maintain the peace was later taken as the legal for the further use of force , as in 1996 and 1998 , when Iraq was again bombed . It was also referenced in the to the second invasion of Iraq in 2003 , when it appeared that Iraq was refusing to comply with other UN resolutions . A CHANGING DOMESTIC LANDSCAPE By nearly every measure , Operation Desert Storm was a resounding success . Through deft diplomatic efforts on the international stage , Bush had ensured that many around the world saw the action as legitimate . By making the goals of the military action both clear and limited , he also reassured an American public still skeptical of foreign entanglements . With the Soviet Union vanishing from the world stage , and the United States demonstrating the extent of its diplomatic and military potency with President Bush at the helm , his reelection seemed all but inevitable . Indeed , in March 1991 , the president had an approval rating of 89 percent . Despite Bush successes internationally , the domestic situation at home was far more complicated . Unlike Reagan , Bush was not a natural culture warrior . Rather , he was a moderate , Episcopalian , a pragmatic politician , and a civil servant . He was not adept at catering to conservatives as his predecessor had been . By the same token , he appeared incapable of capitalizing on his history of moderation and pragmatism regarding women rights and access to abortion . Together with a Democratic Senate , Bush broke new ground in civil rights with his support of the Americans with Disabilities Act , a reaching law that prohibited discrimination based on disability in public accommodations and by employers .
864 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , President Bush weaknesses as a culture warrior were on full display during the controversy that erupted following his nomination ofa new Supreme . In 1991 , Justice Thurgood Marshall , the African American ever to sit on the Supreme Court , opted to retire , thus opening a position on the court . Thinking he was doing the prudent thing by appealing to multiple interests , Bush nominated Clarence Thomas , another African American but also a strong social conservative . The decision to nominate Thomas , however , proved to be anything but prudent . During Thomas hearings before the Senate Judiciary Committee , Anita Hill , a lawyer who had worked for Thomas when he was chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ( came forward with allegations that he had sexually harassed her when he was her supervisor . Thomas denied the accusations and referred to the televised hearings as a high tech lynching . He survived the controversy and was appointed to the Supreme Court by a narrow Senate vote of to eight . Hill , also African American , noted later in frustration I had a gender , he had a In the aftermath , however , sexual harassment of women in the workplace gained public attention , and harassment complaints made to the increased 50 percent by the fall of 1992 . The controversy also poorly on President Bush and may have hurt him with female voters in 1992 . Bill Clinton and the New Economy LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end ofthis section , you will be able to Explain political partisanship , antigovernment movements , and economic developments duringthe Clinton administration Discuss President Clinton foreign policy Explain how George Bush won the election of 2000 By 1992 , many had come to doubt that President George Bush could solve America problems . He had alienated conservative Republicans by breaking his pledge not to raise taxes , and some faulted him for failing to remove Saddam Hussein from power during Operation Desert Storm . Furthermore , despite living much of his adult life in Texas , he could not overcome the stereotypes associated with his privileged New England and Ivy League background , which hurt him among Reagan Democrats . THE ROAD TO THE WHITE HOUSE The contrast between George Bush and William Jefferson Clinton could not have been greater . Bill Clinton was a baby boomer born in 1946 in Hope , Arkansas . His biological father died in a car wreck three months before he was born . When he was a boy , his mother married Roger Clinton , an alcoholic who abused his family . However , despite a troubled home life , Clinton was an excellent student . He took an interest in politics from an early age . On a high school trip to Washington , he met his political idol , President John Kennedy . As a student at Georgetown University , he supported both the civil rights and antiwar movements and ran for student council president Figure . Access for free at .
Bill Clinton and the New Economy 865 A REALISTIC APPROACH TO STUDENT GOVERNMENT ?
HILL PRESIDENT OF THE . FIGURE During his 1967 campaign for student council president at Georgetown University , Bill Clinton told those who voted for him that he would invite them to the White House when he became president of the United States . He kept his promise . In 1968 , Clinton received a prestigious Rhodes scholarship to Oxford University . From Oxford he moved on to Yale , where he earned his law degree in 1973 . He returned to Arkansas and became a professor at the University of Arkansas law school . The following year , he tried his hand at state politics , running for Congress , and was narrowly defeated . In 1977 , he became attorney general of Arkansas and was elected governor in 1978 . Losing the to his Republican opponent in 1980 , he retook the governor mansion in 1982 and remained governor of Arkansas until 1992 , when he announced his candidacy for president . During his campaign , Bill Clinton described himself as a New Democrat , a member of a faction of the Democratic Party that , like the Republicans , favored free trade and deregulation . He tried to appeal to the middle class by promising higher taxes on the rich and reform of the welfare system . Although Clinton garnered only 43 percent of the popular vote , he easily won in the Electoral College with 370 votes to President Bush 188 . Texas billionaire Ross Perot won 19 percent of the popular vote , the best showing by any party candidate since 1912 . The Democrats took control ofboth houses . THE ECONOMY , STUPID Clinton took towards the end of a recession . His administration plans for the economy included limiting spending and cutting the budget to reduce the nation 60 billion , keeping interest rates low to encourage private investment , and eliminating protectionist tariffs . Clinton also hoped to improve employment opportunities by allocating more money for education . In his term , he expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit , which lowered the tax obligations of working families who were just above the poverty line . Addressing the budget , the Democrats in Congress passed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 without a single Republican vote . The act raised taxes for the top percent of the American people , lowered them for million families , and offered tax breaks to 90 percent of small businesses . Clinton also strongly supported of the North American Free Trade Agreement ( a treaty that eliminated tariffs and trade restrictions among the United States , Canada , and Mexico . The treaty had been negotiated by the Bush administration , and the leaders of all three nations had signed it in December 1992 . However , because of strong opposition from American labor unions and some in Congress who feared the loss ofjobs to Mexico , the treaty had not been by the time Clinton took . To allay the concerns of unions , he added an agreement to protect workers and also one to protect the environment . Congress late in 1993 . The result was the creation of the world largest common market in terms of population , including some 425 million people .
866 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , During Clinton administration , the nation began to experience the longest period of economic expansion in its history , almost ten consecutive years . Year after year , job growth increased and the shrank . Increased tax revenue and budget cuts turned the annual national budget from close to 290 billion in 1992 to a record budget surplus of over 230 billion in 2000 . Reduced government borrowing freed up capital for use , and lower interest rates in turn fueled more growth . During the Clinton years , more people owned homes than ever before in the country history ( percent ) dipped to percent and the unemployment rate declined , reaching a low of percent in 2000 . Much of the prosperity of the was related to technological change and the advent of new information systems . In 1994 , the Clinton administration became the to launch an White House website and join the revolution of the electronically mediated world . By the , a new world of instantaneous global exposure was at the of billions worldwide . AMERICANA Hope and Anxiety in the Information Age While the roots of innovations like personal computers and the Internet go back to the and massive Department of Defense spending , it was in the 19805 and that these technologies became part of everyday life . Like most periods of transformation , the information age was greeted with a mixture of hope and anxiety upon its arrival . In the late and early , computer manufacturers like Apple , Commodore , and Tandy began offering fully assembled personal computers . Previously , personal computing had been accessible only to those adventurous enough to buy expensive kits that had to be assembled and programmed . In short order , computers became a fairly common sight in businesses and homes ( Figure . Soon , computer owners , even young kids , were own electronic bulletin board systems , networks that used modems and phone lines , and sharing information in ways not dreamed ofjust decades before . Computers , it seemed , held out the promise of a bright , new future for those who knew how to use them . Introducing Apple II . FIGURE This ad for the Apple II appeared in Byte magazine in 1977 . Casting shadows over the bright dreams of a better tomorrow were fears that the development of computer technology would create a dystopian future in which technology became the instrument of society undoing . Film audiences watched a teenaged Matthew Broderick hacking into a government computer and starting a nuclear war in War Games , Angelina Jolie being chased by a computer genius bent on world domination in Access for free at .
Bill Clinton and the New Economy 867 Hackers , and Sandra Bullock watching helplessly as her life is turned inside out by conspirators who manipulate her virtual identity in The Net . Clearly , the idea of digital network connections as the root of our demise resonated in this period of rapid technological change . DOMESTIC ISSUES In addition to shifting the Democratic Party to the moderate center on economic issues , Clinton tried to break new ground on a number of domestic issues and make good on traditional Democratic commitments to the disadvantaged , minority groups , and women . At the same time , he faced the challenge of domestic terrorism when a federal building in Oklahoma City was bombed , killing 168 people and injuring hundreds more . Healthcare Reform An important and popular part of Clinton domestic agenda was healthcare reform that would make universal healthcare a reality . When the plan was announced in September of the president first year in , pollsters and commentators both assumed it would sail through . Many were unhappy with the way the system worked in the United States , where the cost of health insurance seemed increasingly unaffordable for the middle class . Clinton appointed his wife , Hillary Clinton , a Yale Law School graduate and accomplished attorney , to head his Task Force on National Health Care Reform in 1993 . The Health Security Act presented to Congress that year sought to offer universal coverage ( Figure 3116 ) All Americans were to be covered by a healthcare plan that could not reject them based on medical conditions . Employers would be required to provide healthcare for their employees . Limits would be placed on the amount that people would have to pay for services the poor would not have to pay at all . FIGURE Everett , who had served as surgeon general under Ronald Reagan and was a strong advocate of healthcare reform , helped First Lady Hillary Clinton promote the Health Security Act in the fall of 1993 . The outlook for the plan looked good in 1993 it had the support of a number of institutions like the American Medical Association and the Health Insurance Association of America . But in relatively short order , the political winds changed . As budget battles distracted the administration and the midterm elections of 1994 approached , Republicans began to recognize the strategic of opposing reform . Soon they were mounting opposition to the bill . Moderate conservatives dubbed the reform proposals and argued that the bill was an unwarranted expansion of the powers of the federal government that would interfere with people ability to choose the healthcare provider they wanted . Those further to the right argued that healthcare reform was part of a larger and nefarious plot to control the public . To rally Republican opposition to Clinton and the Democrats , Newt and Richard Dick , two of
868 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , the leaders of the Republican minority in the House of Representatives , prepared a document entitled Contract with America , signed by all but two of the Republican representatives . It listed eight legislative reforms or initiatives the Republicans would enact if they gained a majority in Congress in the 1994 midterm elections . CLICK AND EXPLORE View the America ( AP Unit 2014 , that the Republican Party drafted to continue the conservative shift begun by Ronald Reagan , which promised to cut waste and spend taxpayer money responsibly . Lacking support on both sides , the healthcare bill was never passed and died in Congress . The reform effort ended in September 1994 . Dislike of the proposed healthcare plan on the part of conservatives and the bold strategy laid out in the Contract with America enabled the Republican Party to win seven Senate seats and House seats in the November elections . The Republicans then used their power to push for conservative reforms . One such piece of legislation was the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act , signed into law in August 1996 . The act set time limits on welfare and required most recipients to begin working within two years of receiving assistance . Do Ask , Do Tell Although Clinton had campaigned as an economically conservative New Democrat , he was thought to be socially liberal and , just days after his victory in the 1992 election , he promised to end the ban on gays and lesbians serving in the military . However , in January 1993 , after taking the oath of , Clinton amended his promise in order to appease conservatives . Instead of lifting the longstanding ban , the armed forces would adopt a policy of do ask , do Those on active duty would not be asked their sexual orientation and , if they were gay , they were not to discuss their sexuality openly or they would be dismissed from military service . This compromise neither conservatives nor the community , which argued that people should be able to live without fear of retribution because of their sexuality . Clinton again proved himself willing to appease political conservatives when he signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act ( in September 1996 , after both houses had passed it with such wide margins that a presidential veto could easily be overridden . marriage as a union between two people of the opposite sex , and denied federal to couples . It also allowed states to refuse to recognize marriages granted by other states . When Clinton signed the bill , he was personally opposed to sex marriage . Nevertheless , he disliked and later called for its repeal . He also later changed his position on marriage . On other social issues , however , Clinton was more liberal . He appointed openly gay and lesbian men and women to important positions in government and denounced discrimination against people with AIDS . He supported the idea of the ERA and believed that women should receive pay equal to that of men doing the same work . He opposed the use of racial quotas in employment , but he declared action programs to be necessary . Seeking to wrest the reputation from Republicans , Clinton and Democratic leaders developed the largest Federal crime law to ever be enacted . While racially disparate policing and incarceration was already well established through efforts related to the War on Drugs , the 1994 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act added new penalties , funding , and incentives for aggressive law enforcement . The law helped states and communities expand police forces and build more prisons . Provisions to scale back parole also meant that people would remain incarcerated for longer periods of time regardless of behavior . The law also expanded the number of crimes punishable by death , enacted a sweeping assault weapons ban , and established the Violence Against Women Act . The 1994 law would have impacts on racial and ethnic minorities , continuing the pattern of inequitable mass incarceration and driving racially motivated policing . Based on its devastating impacts on Black and Hispanic people , the law would later have political Access for free at .
Bill Clinton and the New Economy 869 consequences for Democrats who supported it . As a result of his economic successes and his moderate social policies , Clinton defeated Senator Robert Dole in the 1996 presidential election . With 49 percent of the popular vote and 379 electoral votes , he became the Democrat to win reelection to the presidency since Franklin Roosevelt . Clinton victory was partly due to a gender gap between the parties , with women tending to favor Democratic candidates . In 1992 , Clinton won 45 percent ofwomen votes compared to Bush 38 percent , and in 1996 , he received 54 percent of women votes while Dole won 38 percent . Domestic Terrorism The fears of those who saw government as little more than a necessary evil appeared to be in the spring of 1993 , when federal and state law enforcement authorities laid siege to the compound of a religious sect called the Branch near Waco , Texas . The group , which believed the end of world was approaching , was suspected of weapons violations and resisted warrants with deadly force . A standoff developed that lasted nearly two months and was captured on television each day . A assault on the compound was made on April 19 , and men , women , and children died in a probably set by members of the sect . Many others committed suicide or were killed by fellow sect members . During the siege , many antigovernment and militia types came to satisfy their curiosity or show support for those inside . One was Timothy McVeigh , a former Army infantry soldier . McVeigh had served in Operation Desert Storm in Iraq , earning a bronze star , but he became disillusioned with the military and the government when he was deemed psychologically for the Army Special Forces . He was convinced that the Branch were victims of government terrorism , and he and his coconspirator , Terry Nichols , determined to avenge them . Two years later , on the anniversary of the day that the Waco compound burned to the ground , McVeigh parked a rented truck full of explosives in front of the Alfred Federal Building in Oklahoma City and blew it up ( Figure 3117 . More than 600 people were injured in the attack and 168 died , including nineteen children at the daycare center inside . McVeigh hoped that his actions would spark a revolution against government control . He and Nichols were both arrested and tried , and McVeigh was executed on June 11 , 2001 , for the worst act of terrorism committed on American soil . Just a few months later , the terrorist attacks of September 11 , 2001 broke that dark record . FIGURE The remains of automobiles stand in front of the bombed federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995 ( a ) More than three hundred nearby buildings were damaged by the blast , an attack perpetrated at least partly to avenge the Waco siege ( exactly two years earlier .
870 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , CLINTON AND AMERICAN HEGEMONY For decades , the contours of the Cold War had largely determined action abroad . Strategists saw each coup , revolution , and civil war as part of the larger struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union . But with the Soviet Union vanquished , the United States was suddenly free of this paradigm , and President Clinton could see international crises in the Middle East , the Balkans , and Africa on their own terms and deal with them accordingly . He envisioned a War role in which the United States used its overwhelming military superiority and as global policing tools to preserve the peace . This foreign policy strategy had both success and failure . One notable success was a level ofpeace in the Middle East . In September 1993 , at the White House , Yitzhak , prime minister of Israel , and , chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization , signed the Oslo Accords , granting some to Palestinians living in the territories of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank Figure . A year later , the Clinton administration helped facilitate the second settlement and normalization of relations between Israel and Jordan . FIGURE Yitzhak ( left ) and ( right ) shown with Bill Clinton , signed the Oslo Accords at the White House on September . was killed two years later by an Israeli who opposed the treaty . As a small measure of stability was brought to the Middle East , violence erupted in the Balkans . The Communist country of Yugoslavia consisted of six provinces Serbia , Croatia , Bosnia and , and Macedonia . Each was occupied by a number of ethnic groups , some of which shared a history of hostile relations . In May 1980 , the leader of Yugoslavia , Tito , died . Without him to hold the country together , ethnic tensions increased , and this , along with the breakdown of Communism elsewhere in Europe , led to the breakup of Yugoslavia . In 1991 , Croatia , and Macedonia declared their independence . In 1992 , Bosnia and did as well . Only Serbia and remained united as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Almost immediately , ethnic tensions within Bosnia and escalated into war when Yugoslavian Serbs aided Bosnian Serbs who did not wish to live in an independent Bosnia and . These Bosnian Serbs proclaimed the existence of autonomous Serbian regions within the country and attacked Bosnian Muslims and Croats . During the , the Serbs engaged in genocide , described by some as ethnic cleansing . The brutal also gave rise to the systematic rape of enemy Muslim women exploited by Serbian military or paramilitary forces . The International Criminal Tribunal of Yugoslavia estimated that between twelve thousand and thousand women were raped during the war . NATO eventually intervened in 1995 , and Clinton agreed to participation in airstrikes against Bosnian Serbs . That year , the Dayton Accords peace settlement was signed in Dayton , Ohio . Four years later , the United States , acting with other NATO members , launched an air campaign against Yugoslavia to stop it from attacking ethnic Albanians in Kosovo . Although these attacks were not sanctioned by the UN and were criticized by Russia and China , Yugoslavia withdrew its forces from Kosovo in June 1999 . Access for free at .
Bill Clinton and the New Economy 871 The use of force did not always bring positive results . For example , back in December 1992 , George Bush had sent a contingent of soldiers to Somalia , initially to protect and distribute relief supplies to civilians as part of a regions mission . Without an effective Somali government , however , the warlords who controlled different stole food , and their forces endangered the lives of UN workers . In 1993 , the Clinton administration sent soldiers to capture one of the warlords , Mohammed Farah , in the city of . The ting battle proved disastrous . A Black Hawk helicopter was shot down , and Army Rangers and members of Delta Force spent hours battling their way through the streets soldiers were wounded and nine een died . The United States withdrew , leaving Somalia to struggle with its own anarchy . The sting of the Somalia failure probably contributed to Clinton reluctance to send forces to end the 1994 genocide chiefs , al in Rwanda . In the days of brutal colonial rule , Belgian administrators had given control to Tutsi tribal hough constituted a majority of the population . Resentment over ethnic privileges , and the discrimination that began then and continued after independence in 1962 , erupted into civil war in 1990 . The maj Clinton a IMPEACHMENT slaughter . Public at ast few years of his presidency . From the moment he child mod friend and Deputy White House Counsel Vin alleged victims of Clinton harassment . That list included intern . Both Lewinsky and Clinton denied under oath that that he had never had sexual relations with However , after receiving a promise of immunity , Lewinsky began to slaughter the Tutsi minority and their supporters . In 1998 , while visiting Rwanda , for having done nothing to save the lives of the massacred in one hundred days of was diverted from Clinton foreign policing actions by a series of scandals that marked the red national politics , his opponents had attempted tie Clinton and his First Lady to a number of loosely improprieties , even accusing him of murdering ce Foster . One accusation the Clintons could not shake was of possible improper involvement in a failed real estate venture associated with the Whitewater Development Corporation in Arkansas in the and . Kenneth Starr , a former federal appeals court , was appointed to investigate the matter in August 1994 . While Starr was never able to prove any wrongdoing , he soon turned up other allegations and his investigative authority was expanded . In May 1994 , Paula Jones , a former Arkansas state employee , a sexual lawsuit against Bill Clinton . Starr office began to investigate this case as well . When a federal court dismissed Jones suit in 1998 , her lawyers promptly appealed the decision and submitted a list of other he name of Monica Lewinsky , a young White House hey had had a sexual relationship . The evidence , indicated otherwise , and Starr began to investigate the possibility that Clinton had committed . Again , Clinton denied any relationship and even went on national television to assure the American turned over to Starr evidence of her affair with Clinton , and the president admitted he had indeed had inappropriate relations with her . He nevertheless denied that he had lied under oath . In September , Starr re believed Clinton had committed perjury . Voting along par Representatives sent articles of impeachment to the Sena to the House of Representatives that he isan lines , the House of , charging Clinton with lying under oath and obstructing justice . In February 1998 , the Senate voted to on the perjury charge and on obstruction ofjustice ( Figure 3119 ) Although acquitted , Clinton did become the president to be found in contempt of court . Nevertheless , although he los his law license , he remained a popular president and left office at the end of his second term with an approval rating of 66 percent , the highest of any president .
872 31 From Cold War to Culture Wars , FIGURE Floor proceedings in the Senate during the 1998 impeachment trial of Bill Clinton , who was acquitted of both charges . THE ELECTION OF 2000 Despite Clinton high approval rating , his vice president and the 2000 Democratic nominee for president , Al Gore , was eager to distance himself from scandal . Unfortunately , he also alienated Clinton loyalists and lost some of the of Clinton genuine popularity . Gore desire to emphasize his concern for morality led him to select Connecticut senator Joseph Lieberman as his running mate . Lieberman had been quick to denounce Clinton relationship with Monica Lewinsky . Consumer advocate Ralph Nader ran as the candidate of the Green Party , a party devoted to environmental issues and grassroots activism , and Democrats feared that he would attract votes that Gore might otherwise win . On the Republican side , where strategists promised to restore honor and dignity to the White House , voters were divided between George Bush , governor of Texas and eldest son of former president Bush , and John McCain , an Arizona senator and Vietnam War veteran . Bush had the robust support of both the Christian Right and the Republican leadership . His campaign amassed large donations that it used to defeat McCain , himself an outspoken critic of the of money in politics . The nomination secured , Bush selected Dick Cheney , part of the Nixon and Ford administrations and secretary of defense under George Bush , as his running mate . One hundred million votes were cast in the 2000 election , and Gore topped Bush in the popular vote by ballots , or percent . The race was so close that news reports declared each candidate the winner at various times during the evening . It all came down to Florida , where early returns called the election in favor by a mere 527 of votes . Whoever won Florida would get the state electoral votes and secure the presidency ( Figure 3120 ) FIGURE The map shows the results ofthe 2000 presidential election , While Bush won in the majority of states , Gore dominated in the more populous ones , winning the popular vote overall . Because there seemed to be irregularities in four counties traditionally dominated by Democrats , especially in Access for free at .
Bill Clinton and the New Economy 873 largely African American precincts , Gore called for a recount of the ballots by hand . Florida secretary of state , Katherine Harris , set a deadline for the new vote tallies to be submitted , a deadline the counties could not meet . When the Democrats requested an extension , the Florida Supreme Court granted it , but refused to accept the new tallies unless the counties could explain why they had not met the original deadline . When the explanations were submitted , they were rejected . Gore then asked the Florida Supreme Court for an injunction that would prevent Harris from declaring a winner until the recount was . On November 26 , Harris declared Bush the winner in Florida . Gore protested that not all votes had been recounted by hand . When the Florida Supreme Court ordered the recount to continue , the Republicans appealed to the Supreme Court , which decided to stop the recount . Bush received Florida electoral votes and , with a total of 271 votes in the Electoral College to Gore 266 , became the president of the United States .
874 31 Key Terms Key Terms Contract with America a list of eight legislative reforms or initiatives that Republicans representatives promised to enact if they gained a majority in Congress in the 1994 midterm elections gender gap the statistical differences between the voting preferences of women and men , with women favoring Democratic candidates Green Party a political party founded in 1984 that advocates environmentalism and grassroots democracy Heritage Foundation a professional organization conducting research and political advocacy on behalf of its values and perspectives a deadly immune disorder discovered in 1981 , and at largely ignored by politicians because of its prevalence among gay men New Right a loose coalition of American conservatives , consisting primarily of wealthy businesspeople and evangelical Christians , which developed in response to social changes of the 19605 and Operation Desert Storm the name of the war waged from January to April 1991 , by coalition forces against Iraq in reaction to Iraq invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 Ronald Reagan economic policy , which suggested that lowering taxes on the upper income brackets would stimulate investment and economic growth START a treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union that limited the number of nuclear warheads , ballistic missiles , and strategic bombers held by both sides Vietnam Syndrome reluctance on the part of American politicians to actively engage forces in a foreign war for fear of suffering a humiliating defeat war on drugs a nationwide political campaign to implement harsh sentences for drug crimes , which produced an explosive growth of the prison population Summary The Reagan Revolution After decades of liberalism and social reform , Ronald Reagan changed the face of American politics by riding a groundswell of conservatism into the White House . Reagan superior rhetorical skills enabled him to gain widespread support for his plans for the nation . Implementing a series of economic policies dubbed , the president sought to stimulate the economy while shrinking the size of the federal government and providing relief for the nation wealthiest taxpayers . During his two terms in , he cut spending on social programs , while increasing spending on defense . While Reagan was able to break the cycle of , his policies also triggered a recession , plunged the nation into a brief period of unemployment , and made a balanced budget impossible . In the end , Reagan policies diminished many Americans quality of life while enabling more Yuppies of the prosper . Political and Cultural Fusions The political conservatism of the 19805 and was matched by the social conservatism of the period . Conservative politicians wished to limit the size and curb the power of the federal government . Conservative think tanks , the Christian Right defeated the ERA , and bipartisan efforts to add warning labels to explicit music lyrics were the subject of Congressional hearings . which became and inaccurately associated with the gay community , grew to crisis proportions , as straight people , the medical community , and the federal government failed to act . In response , gay men organized advocacy groups to for research on . Meanwhile , the war on drugs began a trend in law enforcement that mandated lengthy sentences for offenses and hugely increased the American prison population . Prosecutions and mass incarceration were perpetuated largely on racial lines Black and Hispanic people and communities were severely impacted by inequitable legal pursuits and imprisonment . Access for free at .
31 Review Questions 875 A New World Order While Reagan worked to restrict the of the federal government in people lives , he simultaneously pursued interventionist policies abroad as part of a global Cold War strategy . Eager to cure the United States of Vietnam Syndrome , he increased the American stockpile of weapons and aided Communist groups in the Caribbean and Central America . The Reagan administration secret sales of arms to Iran proved , however , and resulted in indictments for administration . With the end of the Cold War , attention shifted to escalating tensions in the Middle East , where an international coalition assembled by George Bush drove invading Iraqi forces from Kuwait . As Bush discovered in the last years of his presidency , even this exercise in international diplomatic and military power was not enough to ca In a changing cultural and political climate at home . Bill Clinton and the New Economy Bill Clinton presidency and efforts at remaking the Democratic Party the effects of the Reagan that preceded him . Reagan from a resurgent conservatism that moved the American po spectrum several degrees to the right . Clinton managed to remake the Democratic Party in ways that effectively institutionalized some of the major tenets of the Reagan Revolution . A New Democrat , he moved the party to the moderate center and supported the Republican call for law and order , and welfare while maintaining traditional Democratic commitments to minorities , women , and the disadvantaged , and using the government to stimulate economic growth . Nevertheless , Clinton legacy was undermined by the shift in the control of Congress to the Republican Party and the loss by his vice president Al Gore in the 2000 presidential election . Review Questions . Before becoming a conservative Republican , Ronald Reagan was a liberal Democrat a Socialist politically apathetic a Herbert Hoover Republican . The belief that cutting taxes for the rich will eventually result in economic for the poor is commonly referred to as socialism pork barrel politics Keynesian economics economics . What were the elements of Ronald Reagan plan for economic reform ?
Which statement best describes Reagan political style ?
folksy and likeable conservative and liberal and pragmatic intelligent and elitist . What rationale did Phyllis and her STOP ERA movement cite when opposing the of the Equal Rights Amendment ?
the ERA would ultimately lead to the legalization of abortion the ERA provided civil rights protections for women mothers could not be feminists the ERA would end privileges women enjoyed 876 31 Critical Thinking Questions . What were some of the primary values of the Moral Majority ?
The group the Reagan administration encouraged and supported in its against the government in Nicaragua was known as the Shining Path Contras Red Faction . The country that Iraq invaded to trigger the crisis that resulted in the Persian Gulf War was Jordan Kuwait Saudi Arabia Iran . What was the affair about ?
10 . Bill Clinton helped create a large free market among Canada , the United States , and Mexico with of the treaty . NATO Organization of American States Alliance for Progress 11 . The key state in the 2000 election where the Supreme Court stopped a recount was Florida Texas Georgia Virginia 12 . What were some of the foreign policy successes of the Clinton administration ?
Critical Thinking Questions 13 . What were some of the effects of the Reagan Revolution and the rise of conservatives ?
14 . What events led to the end of the Cold War ?
What impact did the end of the Cold War have on American politics and foreign policy concerns ?
15 . Which issues divided Americans most during the culture wars of the and ?
16 . In what ways was Bill Clinton a traditional Democrat in the style of Kennedy and Johnson ?
In what ways was he a conservative , like Ronald Reagan and George Bush ?
17 . Describe American involvement in global affairs during this period . How did American foreign policy change and evolve between 1980 and 2000 , in both its focus and its approach ?
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