7th Grade World History Medieval to Early Modern Times Unit 6 - Chapter 13 Scientific Revolution

. ell iin . California Standards Science Students analyze the historical developments of the Revolution and its lasting effect on religious , political , and cultural institutions . Arts Speaking Describe the points in support of the argument and employ evidence . Heading Students read and understand appropriate material . FOCUS ON SPEAKING A Defense One of Europe greatest scientists , Galileo , has been arrested and is being put on trial for contradicting Church teachings . You think he innocent , and you been hired to defend Galileo to the court . As you read this chapter , you will gather information that you can use to give a short speech in the scientist defense . 1543 Copernicus his theory of the solar system . Francisco Pizarro conquers the Incas . 350 CHAPTER

' What You Will Learn . History Impact video series Watch the video to stand the impact of the Renaissance and Reformation . In this chapter you will learn about the discoveries and tions of the Scientific Revolution . The Scientific Revolution laid the foundations for modern science . This photo shows a , powerful telescope that astronomers use to study the skies . Sir Isaac Newton publishes Principia . microscope . The Mayflower sets onthe . Construction North America . India . John Locke argues i have certain natural rights .

Economics Geography Religion society i and Culture Focus on Themes This chapter will discuss the whose ideas are respected and admired even today . advances in science and technology made during They and other scientists like them have greatly the Scientific Revolution . As you read this chapter influenced society and culture , not just in Europe you will learn about such great scientists as but around the world . Think how much different our Copernicus , Galileo , and Isaac lives would be without science ! Comparing and Contrasting Historical Facts Focus on Reading Comparing and contrasting facts , ideas , or Af concepts is a good way to learn more about them . That one reason Car ?

he use comparison and contrast to explain people and events in history . Understanding Comparison and Contrast To compare is to look I ! for likenesses , or similarities . To contrast is to look for differences . times writers point out similarities and differences . Other times you have to look for them yourself . You can use a diagram like this one to keep track of similarities and differences as you read . Science Clues for Writers sometimes signal or contrasts with words like these , like , in the same way , too After the Revolution Before the Revolution Differences Similarities Differences , unlike , but , Based on Biblical Attempt to learn Based on careful while , although , in contrast and church more about the observation and use teachings world of reason No organized People tried to method for research Very widespread and popular method for research learn more about the sun and planets Not very spread or popular 352 CHAPTER

cu ELA Beading Read and understand material . You Try It ! The following passage is from the chapter you are about to read . Read this passage looking for what two things are being compared and contrasted . Copernicus Copernicus was familiar with Ptolemy theories and writings . Ptolemy had written that the earth was the center of the universe and that the sun and other planets orbited , or circled around , the earth . For years , people accepted this belief as fact . As Copernicus studied the movements of the planets , however , what Ptolemy ed made less and less sense to him . If the planets were indeed orbiting the earth , they would have to be moving in very complex patterns . 50 Copernicus tried a different tion for what he observed in the sky . asked , What if the planets actually orbited the sun ?

Suddenly , complex patterns were necessary to make sense of what Copernicus observed . Instead , simple orbits would account for the planets movements . What two figures does this passage compare ?

What is one way in which they were different ?

comparison and contrast ?

From Chapter , pages After you read the passage , answer the following questions . What is one way in which Ptolemy and Copernicus were similar ?

Draw a diagram like the one on the previous page comparing Ptolemy and Copernicus . How will your information be arranged ?

Why do you think the author organized this passage as a a People Chapter 13 Section Scientific Revolution ( 354 ) science ( theories ( 355 ) Ptolemy ( 356 ) rationalists ( 356 ) alchemy ( 357 . Section Copernicus ( Tycho ( 360 Johannes ( 360 ) Galileo ( 361 ) Sir Isaac Newton ( 362 ) barometer ( 363 Section Francis Bacon ( Rene Descartes ( scientific method ( 365 ) hypothesis ( Academic Vocabulary Success in school is related to knowing academic the words that are frequently used in school assignments and . In this chapter . you will learn the following academic words logical ( procedure ( principles ( 366 ) As you read Chapter 13 , look for examples of text arranged as comparisons and contrasts . THE SCIENTIFIC

SECTION What You Will Learn Main Ideas . The Scientific Revolution marked the birth of modern science . The roots of the Scientific Revolution can be traced to ancient Greece , the Muslim world , and Europe . Europeans drew on earlier ideas to develop a new way of gaining knowledge about the natural world . Key Toms and People Scientific Revolution , 354 science , 355 theories , 355 Ptolemy , 356 rationalists , 356 alchemy , 357 HIE Discuss the roots of the Scientific Revolution ( Greek rationalism Jewish , Christian , and ism new knowledge from global . 354 CHAPTER Muslim science Renaissance A New View of the World If YOU were there You are a student in Germany in the early 15005 . You love to watch the changing phases of the moon and draw the star terns at different times of year You asked your teachers many questions Why does the moon hang in the sky ?

Why do the stars move ?

But their answers do seem convincing to you . How can you the answers to your questions ?

BUILDING In the , Europe was undergoing dramatic changes . The Renaissance was well underway . During the Renaissance , great advances were made in art , writing , and tion . The stage was another revolution in thinking . i , The Birth of Modern Science During the and 16005 , a handful of brilliant individuals laid the foundations for science as we know it today . Some consider the development of modern science the most important event in the intellectual history of humankind . A Revolution in Thinking The series of events that led to the birth of modern science is called the Revolution . It occurred between about 1540 and 1700 . Why would the birth of science be called a tion ?

The answer is that science was a radical new idea . It was a completely different way of looking at the world . Before the Scientific Revolution , most educated people who studied the world took guidance from the explanations given by authorities like ancient Greek writers and Catholic Church . After the Scientific Revolution , educated people placed more importance on what they observed and less on what they were told . They gained knowledge by observing the world around them and coming up with logical explanations for what they saw .

Understanding Science Science the world . In fact , the word science comes from a Latin word meaning knowledge or understanding . Science starts with observation . observe , or look at , the world . By observing the world they can identify facts about it . A famous scientist once said , ence is built up with facts , as a house is with stones . But a collection of facts is no more a science than a pile of stones is a So scientists do more than identify facts . They use logic to explain the facts they have observed . The explanations develop based on these facts are called theories . Theories are not accepted on faith . They must be tested to see if they are true . Scientists design experiments to test their theories . If the experiments keep showing that the theory makes sense , the theory is kept . If the experiments do not support the theory , scientists try a new theory . In this way , scientists learn more about the world . Philosophers like Plato and . Aristotle used reason and logic to understand the world . Pythagoras studied numbers and believed that things could be predicted and measured . As you can see , knowledge is based on observations , facts , and logical ideas , or theories , about them . Before the Revolution , this method of ing knowledge was uncommon . Finding Main Ideas What was the Scientific Revolution ?

Roots of the Revolution Some of the main ideas of science had been expressed long before the Revolution . In fact , some of the basic ideas of science are ancient . Greek Thinkers Many Greek thinkers expressed ideas that , today , we would call scientific . The great philosopher Aristotle , for example , wrote about astronomy , geography , and many other . But his greatest contribution to science was the idea that people should observe the world carefully and draw logical conclusions about what they see . Greek ACADEMIC VOCABULARY logical reasoned , well thought out The ancient Greeks developed theories about how the world worked that later scientific thinkers . This famous painting from the early Isms by the Italian artist Raphael shows some Greek thinkers . Euclid discovered basic mathematical laws that helped explain the natural world .

Roots of the Scientific Revolution Greek Ideas I Importance of observation , logic , and rational thought I I Basic theories about astronomy , geography , and The use of observation and logic , as you have just read , is important in gaining knowledge . Another Greek thinker was Ptolemy ( an ancient astronomer . He studied the skies , recorded his observations , and offered theories to explain what he saw . Ptolemy was also a geographer who made the best maps of his time . His maps were based on observations of the real world . Aristotle , Ptolemy , and other Greek thinkers were rationalists , people who looked at the world in a rational , or able and logical , way . During the , Europeans studied the works of Greek rationalists . As a result , they began to view the world in a rational way . They began to think like scientists . Preserving Ancient Knowledge European scholars could study ancient Greek writings because of the work of ers . Muslim scholars translated Greek ings into Arabic . They studied them for . centuries and added their own new ideas . Later , the Arabic versions were translated 356 CHAPTER 13 of Three Faiths I Muslim and study of ancient texts I Jewish study of Greek ideas and religion I Christian study of Greek ideas and religion into Latin , which was read in Europe . This work preserved ancient knowledge and spread interest in science to Europe . Other religious scholars also played a role in Greek ideas . The Jewish scholar ( studied and wrote about Aristotle , trying to unite his work with Jewish ideas . The Christian scholar Thomas Aquinas tried to unite the work of Aristotle with tian ideas . Other Christian scholars studied Greek ideas in Europe universities . Developments in Europe The Revolution was not just the result of European scholars studying ancient Greek writings . Developments in Europe also helped the Revolution . One development that helped lead to the Revolution was the growth of humanism during the Renaissance . Humanist artists and writers spent much of their time studying the natural world . This interest in the carried forward into the Revolution .

Another development was a growing interest in alchemy ( Alchemy was a forerunner of chemistry . Alchemists experimented with various natural stances . They were best known for trying to change other metals into gold . Although they failed at that , alchemists succeeded in using experiments to learn more about how nature worked . All of these est in ancient Greek writings , the growth of humanism , the experiments of together in the early to bring about the Revolution . Understanding Cause and Effect How did Greek rationalism help lead to ' the Scientific Revolution ?

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW The Revolution was the birth of modern science . Greek , Muslim , and European thought all contributed to its beginning . you will read about events of the Revolution . I Emphasis on Greek and Roman ideas I Focus on the importance of education and learning I Better understanding of the true site and shape of the world I Increase in knowledge I Development of new technologies om Online Quiz KEYWORD Reviewing Ideas , Terms . and People Em a . Define What is science ?

Explain Why was the Scientific important in world history ?

Elaborate What might cause scientists to reject a theory ?

a . Identify Who was Ptolemy ?

What qualities did Greek rationalists have ?

Elaborate Why might alchemists have thought they could turn other metals into gold ?

Critical Thinking . Identifying Cause and Effect ' Draw a graphic organizer like the one here . In the boxes to the left , identify four causes of the Revolution . Section Assessment Focus on SPEAKING . Explaining Science As part of your defense of Galileo , you probably need to explain what science is . Look back . through this section and take some notes that you might use to explain the basic principles of science . SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 351

21 Discoveries and Inventions What You Learn there . You are an innkeeper in Spain in 1498 . Many of the guests who stay at your inn are sailors . Today they are telling stories about a . vast new land with strange peoples , plants , and animals . No one had ever thought such a land really existed before . How does this news change your view of the world ?

Main Ideas . The discovery of the cas led scholars to doubt ancient Greek ideas . Advances in astronomy were key events of the Scientific Revolution . Sir Isaac Newton developed laws that explained much of the natural world . New inventions helped study the natural world . BUILDING BACKGROUND During the Scientific Revolution advances in science allowed people to discover new lands and to build new machines . Some ofthese new machines allowed people to study the world in ways they had never been able to before . During the Scientific tion , new ideas and inventions changed the nature of edge . Discovery Leads to Doubt During the Renaissance , European scholars eagerly read and studied the works of Greek rationalists . Aristotle , Ptolemy , and others were viewed as authorities . Key Terms and People Copernicus , 359 Tycho , 360 Johannes , 360 Galileo , Sir Newton , 362 barometer , 363 ' HE Understand the significance of the new scientific theories , those of Copernicus , Galileo , Newton ) and the significance of new inventions , the telescope , microscope , barometer ) This drawing shows the earth at the center of the universe . Before , most people believed that the sun revolved around the earth . 358 CHAPTER 13

Then an event took place that caused Europeans to doubt some of what the Greeks had said . In 1492 , Christopher Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean in hopes of reaching Asia . As a guide , he took the map of the world that Ptolemy had created . Columbus never reached Asia because he ran into North America instead . Within a few years voyages of exploration made it clear that there was an entire that Europeans hadn even known existed . This discovery stunned Europeans . This continent was not on Ptolemy map . Ptolemy was wrong . Observation of the real world had disproved the teachings of an ancient authority . Soon , European scholars began to question the accuracy of other Greek authorities . More and more , observations the Europeans made did not with what the authorities had described . Such observations helped lead to the Revolution . Identifying Cause and Effect How did the European ofAmerica Scientific Revolution ?

BIOGRAPHY Copernicus Copernicus realized that sharing his revolutionary ideas about the universe could be . He feared persecution or even death at the hands of Church leaders . He was also worried that the scientific community would reject his theories . Eventually . he was to publish his theories , and the Copernican system became a landmark discovery of the Scientific Revolution . Making Decisions If you were Copernicus would you have published your theories ?

Why or why not ?

Advances in Astronomy In 1543 an astronomer published a book that contradicted what a Greek authority had written . Many historians think the publication of this book marks the ning of the Revolution . Copernicus The book thought to have marked the beginning of the Revolution was written by a Polish astronomer , Copernicus ( His 1543 book was called On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres . Copernicus was familiarwith theories and writings . Ptolemy had ten that the earth was the center of the universe and that the sun and other ets orbited , or circled around , the earth . For years , people accepted this belief as fact .

360 As Copernicus studied the movements of the planets , however , what Ptolemy stated made less and less sense to him . If the planets were indeed orbiting the earth , they would have to be moving in very complex patterns . So Copernicus tried a different nation for what he observed in the sky . Copernicus asked , What if the planets ally orbited the sun ?

Suddenly , complex patterns were necessary to make sense of what Copernicus observed . Instead , simple circular orbits would account for the planets movements . What Copernicus had done was tice science . Instead of trying to make his observations fit an old idea , he came up demonstrated that planets move in elliptical orbits . with a different different to explain what he observed . Copernicus never proved his theory , but the Revolution had begun . and Another important astronomer of the Revolution was Tycho ( I YO ( who was Danish , spent most of his life observing the stars . In the late , he charted the positions of more than 750 of them . What did , however , was less important than how he did it . sized the importance of careful tion and detailed , accurate records . Careful recording of information is necessary so that other scientists can use what has previously been learned . In this way , made an important contribution to modern science . was assisted by the German astronomer Johannes . Later , tried to map the orbits of the planets . But ran into a problem . According to his observations , the planet Mars did not move in a circle as he expected it to . knew that Copernicus had ed that the orbits of the planets were lar . But observations showed that Copernicus was mistaken . In 1609 wrote that all other moved in elliptical , or oval , orbits instead of circular ones . Here was a new theory that the observed facts . work helped Discoveries like a camera . I Planets orbit the sun in elliptical . not circular , orbits . I Planets move faster when they are closer to the sun . I The human eye sees images reversed ,

prove Copernicus theory that the planets orbit the sun . In fact , became one of the scientists to speak out in support of Copernicus . continued to study the planets for the rest of his life . His basic ideas about Galileo was interested in more than astronomy , however . He also was ested in such things as how falling objects behave . Today , we use the term mechanics for the study of objects and motion . Galileo biggest contribution to the rut TODAY the planets movements are still accepted development of science was the way he Astronomers still by scientists today . learned about mechanics . Instead of just ' i ' hey observing things in nature , he set up cams ?

experiments to test what he observed . planetary Galileo ( was one of the most important scientists of the Revolution . He was the was the scientist to routinely use experiments to test his theories . For this , he is remembered as the father of mental science . Summarizing What were two major achievements in astronomy ?

person to study the sky with a telescope . With his telescope , Galileo discovered ters and mountains on the moon . He also discovered that moons orbit Jupiter . Primary Source Galileo Defends His Work In 1613 , Galileo ( wrote a letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of cany , the mother of the great banker Cosimo . In this letter , he defended himself against attackers who claimed that his ideas went against church ings . Galileo opened his letter with an explanation of his discoveries . Some years ago , as Your Serene Highness well knows , I discovered in the heavens many things that had not been seen before our own age . The novelty Galileo points out that many people newness of these things , as well as some are unhappy with which followed from them in contradiction contrast to the physical notions ideas commonly ' became held among academic philosophers . stirred up the are . against me no small number of if . I had placed these things in the sky with my own , I ( gve i ' hands in order to upset nature and overturn the pointing out sciences . They seemed to forget that the increase God Created the of known truths stimulates encourages the heavens Humans , establishment . and growth of the arts not their diminution decrease or can only study what God put there . A Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany from Galileo , SKILL How does Galileo justify his search for knowledge ?

Galileo studied the sky and experiments to learn about motion mechanics .

Sir Isaac Newton The high point of the tion was marked by the publication of a remarkable book . This book , published in 1687 , was Principia . author was the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton . Newton was one of the greatest and most scientists who ever lived . Newton studied and the work of earlier scientists . In doing so , he reviewed everything scientists had been learning , coupled it with his own observations and ideas , and four theories that described how the physical world worked . Some of his theories have been proven so many times that they are no longer called theories , but laws . BIOGRAPHY Sir Isaac Newton Sir Isaac Newton was interested in learning about the nature of light , so he conducted a series of experiments . In Newton time , most ple assumed that light was white . Newton proved , however , that light is actually made up of all of the colors of the rainbow . His research on light became the basis for his tion of the reflecting type of telescope found in most large observatories today . Summarizing Whatdid Newton prove nature of light ?

362 CHAPTER 13 One of Newton laws is called the law of gravity . You may know that gravity is the force that attracts objects to each other . Its the force that makes a dropped apple fall to the ground and that keeps the planets in orbit around the sun . Newton other three laws are called the laws of motion . They describe how objects move in space . You may have heard of one of them For every action there is an equal and opposite Newton proposed that the universe was like a huge machine . Within this machine , all objects follow the laws he . In short , Newton explained how the physical world he was correct . ton laws became the foundation of nearly all study until the 19005 . Newton also invented calculus , an advanced form of mathematics that use to solve Complex problems . For this , and for his laws of motion , Newton is remembered as a great scientist . Summarizing Why are Newton theories called laws ?

Newton discoveries explained how the force of gravity pulls the moon toward the earth , keeping it in orbit around our planet .

New Inventions During the Revolution , scientists . These helped them study the natural world . Around 1590 , a Dutch lens maker named invented a simple microscope . The person to use a scope as a instrument , though , was the Dutch scientist van ( in the . Examining a drop of pond water with his microscope , he saw tiny plants and mals not visible to the naked eye . In 1593 , Galileo invented the . Thermometers are used to sure temperature . About 50 years later an Italian doctor developed a more accurate model than Galileo . The telescope was probably invented by a Dutch lens maker in 1608 . The next year , Galileo built a scope that he used to make his important astronomical discoveries . In 1643 , the Italian scientist lista invented the barometer . A barometer is a instrument that measures air pressure . Barometers are used to help forecast the weather . Section Assessment the ideas of ancient Greek authorities ?

These microscope , the , the telescope , and the very mon today . In fact , you have probably used at least one of them yourself . But when they were invented , they were dramatic advances in technology . They gave the tools they needed to make more accurate of the world and to conduct experiments . They were the tools of the Revolution . comparing How are the microscope and the telescope similar ?

This early microscope was made around 1675 . The lens is protected by cardboard and leather and slides up and down . SUMMARY AND PREVIEW The work of Copernicus , Galileo , and Newton was central to the Revolution . In the next section , you will learn more about the effects of these scientists accomplishments on society then and now . Reviewing Ideas . Terms . and People IE critical Thinking a . Recall What event caused Europeans to doubt . Comparing and Contrasting Draw a diagram like Online Quiz KEYWORD the one below . Describe each individual view of how the universe is organized . Scientist Ptolemy Copernicus View Focus on SPEAKING ' Noting Galileo Achievements Now that . Evaluate Why do you think Newton is read about Galileo , make a list of some of his ered the greatest figure of the Scientific major achievements . Then look back at your tion ?

ton of science from Section I . How do . Define What is a barometer ?

achievements match the basic goals of science ?

help usher in the Scientific Revolution ?

a . Identify Who was Galileo ?

How did Copernicus and change people view of the universe ?

a . Identify For what laws is Isaac Newton most famous ?

Explain How did the doubting of Greek THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 363 SECTION What You Will Learn Main ideas . The ideas of Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes helped to clarify the scientific method . Science influenced new ideas about government . Science and religion oped a sometimes uneasy relationship . The Big Ide The Scientific Revolution led to the establishment of science as a method of learning , new ideas about government , and conflict with religious authorities . Key Terms and People Francis Bacon , 364 Descartes , 365 scientific method , 365 hypothesis , 366 method advanced by Bacon and Descartes , the influence of new rationalism on the growth of democratic ideas , and the of science with traditional religious beliefs . 364 CHAPTER 13 Understand the Science and Society If YOU were there You are a scientist conducting an experiment about falling objects . You stand at the base of a tall tower , watching as two of your assistants drop balls from the top . The balls are the same size , but one is made of iron and one of wood . The iron ball is much heavier , so you think that it will hit the ground first But to your surprise , the two balls appear to hit the ground at the same time ! You begin to think that all items will fall at the same speed . How could you test your new theory ?

BUILDING BACKGROUND The great scientists ofthe Revolution were pioneers . Even as they made great discoveries , like the one described here had to find ways to explain what they had learned and how it could affect society . i Bacon , Descartes , and the Method The Revolution led to a dramatic change in the way people learned about the world . The new , way of ing knowledge had effects . In fact , the Revolution still affects us today . The first effect of the Revolution was the ment of science as the most effective way for learning about the natural world . Two individuals played a leading role in gaining this acceptance of science . Francis Bacon Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who had read the works of the great scientists of the Revolution . He was extremely impressed with what he read . He noted how these scientists , using observations , facts , experiments , and theories , were revealing the truth about how nature worked .

The Scientific Method Francis Bacon ( I Scientists should observe the world and gather data , or information , about it . and then test them through more experiments . Bacon argued that science should be pursued in a systematic fashion . He even tried to get the king of England to provide money for research . If science were pursued consistently and logically , Bacon wrote , then human knowledge would continually advance over the years . In 1605 , Bacon published his ideas in a book titled The Advancement . Descartes Another thinker who made great tions to the establishment of science was the French philosopher Descartes ( Descartes believed that nothing should be accepted as true if it was to be true . This differed from the belief that I Scientists can conduct experiments to gather data . I Scientists can develop theories to explain their data The Scientific Method The ideas of Bacon and Descartes led to the scientific a method for gathering and testing ideas about the world . Descartes ( follows basic physical laws . I think , therefore I am ?

I Doubt everything until it can be proven with reason . I The natural world operates like a machine and I Individual existence is the one acceptable truth . most European scholars had been ing for generations . They believed edge begins with faith Descartes said it begins with doubt . Descartes did just mean that and experiments were needed for this proof . These things , he said , took place in the material world , and people might be tricked by their senses . Instead , Descartes emphasized that people must use clear thinking and reason to establish proof . The Method Today scientists use a procedure called the method when doing their research . The scientific method is a step method for performing experiments and other research . procedure a series of steps taken to a task THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 365

LINKING To TODAY Science in School If you have performed an experiment in science class , then you seen the scientific method at work . Here , students are performing an experiment to learn about falling objects . Students and scientists still use the scientific method because it helps them rationally solve problems . They conduct experiments to test their hypotheses . If their experiments do produce the results they expect , they change their hypotheses and start over . Only after getting the same results time after time do scientists consider their findings conclusive . ANALYSIS ( ANALYZING INFORMATION How does the method help scientists solve problems ?

The method combines Bacon ' idea of a systematic process , insistence on proof and clear , and the work of other scientists . Using the method , scientists have learned more about the universe in the few hundred years since the tion than in all of the thousands of years that came before . Because of this , the basics of the and ACADEMIC considered the main principles of modern science . i ' 35 There are six basic steps in the beliefs , rules , or laws method Stating the problem . The problem is often a question that begins with why . For example , Copernicus problem today would be stated , Why do the planets move as they do ?

This can involve reading what other scientists have ten and making observations . Forming a hypothesis . A hypothesis is a solution that the scientist proposes to solve the problem . A hypothesis differs 366 CHAPTER 13 from a theory in that a hypothesis has not yet been tested . Testing the hypothesis by performing experiments . Recording and analyzing data gathered from the experiments . Drawing conclusions from the data collected . After scientists have concluded their , they typically publish their results . This sharing of ideas is very important for two reasons . First , publishing results lets other try to reproduce the experiments . By reproducing experiments , scientists can determine whether the results are the same . If they are , they can be reasonably sure that the results are accurate . Second , publishing results spreads knowledge . New knowledge builds on previous knowledge . Sir Isaac ton once wrote , If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Sequencing Whatare the steps in the scientific method ?

Science and Government Some of the most important effects of the Revolution had nothing to do with science at all . When philosophers began applying thought to other areas of human life , they came up with some startling new ideas . The Power of Reason By the end of the Revolution , one thing had become clear to many European thinkers human reason , or logical thought , was a powerful tool . After all , scientists using reason had made many discoveries about the universe in a relatively short time . Since reason had proven itself as a way to learn some of nature great secrets , might reason also be used to solve the problems facing people ?

Philosophers decided to use reason when they considered problems like poverty and war , or what type of government is best . This use of reason to consider the of society led philosophers to look at the world in a new way . They thought they could use reason to determine how to improve society . Rationalism and Democracy Democratic Ideas One way in which scientists thought they could improve society was by changing its government . Scientists use of reason and logic during the Revolution helped pave the way for the beginnings of democratic thought in Europe . As scientists like Sir Isaac Newton ied the world , they discovered laws that governed nature . In , some scientists began to think that there must be laws that governed human behavior as well . Once people learned what these laws were , the scientists argued , they could improve their lives and their societies . But the idea that people lives were governed by laws had a deeper meaning as well . If all people were governed by the same laws , then it stood to reason that all people must be equal . This idea of the equality of all people was a fundamental step in the development of democratic ideas in Europe . Identifying Cause and Effect How did the growth of science help lead to the growth of democratic ideas ?

Political thinkers believed that natural laws I could also explain the behavior of people . They wanted to use their understanding of human behavior to improve society . THE REVOLUTION 361 Science and Religion FOCUS ON READING What sentences a contrast between scientific and religious ideas ?

Science and Religion The Roman Catholic Church was a force in Europe during the time of the Revolution . The birth and growth of science led to between scientists and the Church . Reason for There were two related parts to the between science and the Church . The was that the new science was putting forth ideas that contradicted Church ings . For example , Copernicus idea that the earth orbited the sun contradicted the Church teaching that the earth was at the center of the universe . A second part of the was ed to the . When people contradicted the Church teachings , they weakened the Church . Church officials were afraid that questioning even one Church teaching might lead to more and more questions about the Church . People might even start 368 CHAPTER 13 to doubt key elements of the faith . Church officials feared this would undermine the Church . The Trial of Galileo The between science and the Church was illustrated by a trial . Galileo published a book that supported the view that the planets orbit the sun . For this , he was put on trial by the Inquisition , a Church court that investigated people who questioned Church authority . Catholic officials insisted that leo publicly reject his findings and accept Catholic teachings that the earth was the center of the universe and did not move . Under threat of torture , Galileo agreed . Still , legend has it that as Galileo left his trial , he muttered , And yet it does Although he is remembered for opposing this Church teaching , Galileo was a devout Catholic . He believed that experimentation was a search for an understanding of God creation .

touches your life every day . Therefore , the Revolution ranks as one of the most events in history . Analyzing Whywere science and the Catholic Church at odds during the Scientific Revolution ?

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW The method became the standard method 11 ' The Galileo Ora leg defending himself before church based on in wou ater . still . Galileo and other scientists government . However , deep he ' teachings would sometimes monk and mathematician above . with religious teachings . In the next unit , you will turn your attention away from Europe and learn about the early tions of the Americas . Knowledge and Belief ' Many of the scientists you have been section Assessment ing about held views similar to Galileo . For the scientists of the , science and traditional religious beliefs could exist at the same time . Copernicus served as a Church Reviewing Ideas . Terms . and People IE a . Define What is the scientific method ?

Explain Why did Francis Bacon want the king to fund scientific research ?

a . Identify What type of government began to develop Si Isaac Newton Saw Con using ideas from the Scientific Revolution ?

between science and religion . For . Draw Conclusions Why did political philosophers example , Newton believed that all forces I begin to make greater use of reason in ?

in nature were actions directed by God , a . Recall Why did the Inquisition put Galileo on trial ?

Bacon too , was a religious man He Summarize What caused conflict between science and wrote that knowledge is a rich storehouse the Roman Catholic Church ?

for the glory of the Unlike Critical Thinking ton , Bacon stressed the separation of reason . Understanding Cause and Effect Revolution and faith . He argued that religious leaders ' In turn , he said that scientific thinkers . arrows and circles as you need . shouldn try to interpret religious matters . Despite the , science developed Focus ON SPEAKING rapidly after the Revolution . Planning Your In this section , you read about Scientists Continue to make the Church objections to Galileo ideas . How might you knowledge argue against those objections ?

Look back over your notes has changed human life dramatically and from the previous two sections to get some ideas . should try to explain matters . effect ' i i , Add as many THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 369 a Social Studies Skills Analysis Critical Thinking Analyzing Tables Like graphs , tables present numerical data . The data are usually listed side by side for easy reference and comparison . A table is especially useful for ing several different categories of data . Since the data in each row or column are related , you can ily compare numbers and see relationships . Learn the Skill Follow these guidelines to read and analyze a table . Read the table title to determine its subject . All the data presented in the table will be related in some way to this subject . Identify the data . Note the headings and labels of the table columns and rows . This will tell you how the data are organized . A table may also contain notes in parentheses . These explain the units in which the data should be read . Participation Study Study the information . Note the numbers in each row and column . Read across rows and down columns . Use critical thinking skills to compare and contrast numbers , identify relationships , and note statistical trends . Form hypotheses and draw conclusions . Practice and Apply the Skill The table below provides information on planets in the solar system . Interpret the table to answer the questions . Which planets were unknown to , Galileo , and other scientists of the 15005 and 16005 ?

What relationship does the table show between the length of a planet year and its distance from the sun ?

Why did Pluto remain undiscovered for so long ?

Planets of the Solar System 310 CHAPTER 13 When Minimum distance Distance from Length of discovered ( in miles ) from Earth ( in millions Sun ( in millions year ( in Earth of miles ) of miles ) years ) ancient times 57 36 ancient times 26 67 Earth 93 Mars ancient times 49 141 Jupiter ancient times 390 482 Saturn prehistoric times 792 885 Uranus 1781 Neptune 1846 1930

Visual ' the main ideas of the chapter . The roots of the Scientists like Scientific Revolution included Greek ' important discoveries about the universe . and Muslim science . Renaissance humanism , and world exploration . Copernicus and Newton made ' Use the visual summary below to help you review . The ideas of Bacon and Descartes helped create the method . Reviewing Vocabulary , comprehension and Terms , and People critical Thinking Complete each sentence by in the blank with the SECTION I ( Pages ) Em correct term from the chapter . In science , a logical explanation for observed facts is called am ) Greek used logic and reason to explain what they observed in nature . The first scientist to argue that the planets orbited the sun was . put forth important theories in his book , Principia . The is a set of steps that scientists follow . One important invention of the was the an instrument that measures air pressure . believed that nothing should be accepted as true if it wasn proven to be true . a . Recall When did the Revolution occur ?

How did Muslim scholars contribute to the Revolution ?

Evaluate Do you agree or disagree with the statement that the Revolution was the single most important event in the intellectual history of humankind ?

Why ?

SECTION ( Pages 358363 ) a . Describe What was theory about the planets and the sun ?

Compare and Contrast How were cus and theories about the movement of the planets similar ?

How were they different ?

Elaborate Choose one invention from the Revolution and explain how it affects your life . THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 371 SECTION ( Pages ) a . Describe How did the Revolution help inspire democratic ideas ?

Analyze Why did many scientists believe ence and religion could exist at the same time ?

Elaborate What did Sir Isaac Newton mean when he wrote , If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants ?

Social Studies Skills Understanding Tables An invention from the used to record air sure during a hurricane . Scientists measure the strength of a hurricane on a scale from , with being the strongest . Study the data in the table below about Hurricane Frances in 2004 . Use the table to answer the questions that follow . I I . What happened to the air pressure as the hurricane got weaker ?

On what days did the air pressure of the hurricane measure 950 or greater ?

Using the Internet 13 . Activity Researching Scientists and Their Discoveries Imagine a time when the basic understanding of the universe was yet to be revealed and statements like The sun revolves around the earth were considered true . ing discoveries were made during the Revolution . Enter the activity keyword . Then create a chart of important scientists of that time , their key discoveries or inventions , the way in which each discovery society , and how information about the discoveries has evolved over the years . 312 CHAPTER 13 Reviewing Themes . Science and Technology How do you know the earth orbits the sun ?

Did you gain that edge using methods to those used before or during the Revolution ?

Explain your answer . 15 . Society and Culture How did the birth of science lead to the growth of democratic ideas ?

Reading Skills Understanding Comparison and Contrast Read the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow . Two scientists who played a vital role in the Revolution were Copernicus and Johannes , who was Polish , lived from 1473 to 1543 . who was German , lived from 1571 to 1630 . Both men were astronomers . great was his theory that the planets all orbit the sun . great contribution was his theory that the orbits of the planets are elliptical , rather than circular . Both of these theories overturned ideas that people had believed for more than years . 16 . Compare the lives of Copernicus and by identifying three similarities they had . 11 . Contrast the lives of Copernicus and by identifying three differences between them . I Focus ON SPEAKING 18 . Giving Your Speech Prepare your speech for defending your client . Begin with an tion . Then present your main points in support of your claim , supporting your points with reasons or evidence . Try to anticipate the other side points and address them in your speech . End your speech with a conclusion . Write sentences describing each of your points . These notes will help you remember what you want to say in your speech . When you give your speech , be sure to make eye contact with your audience , use a pleasant tone of voice , and speak with .

Standards Assessment DIRECTIONS Read each question , and write the letter of the best response . The pioneering work of which early produced this understanding of the solar system ?

A Francis Bacon Copernicus van Isaac Newton a The fundamental principles of the modern scientific method are A logic and mathematical theories . common beliefs of science and religion . very detailed record keeping . observation and experimentation . The basis of the Scientific Revolution of the and is found mainly in the A writings of early Catholic popes and monks . inventions of the ancient Chinese . sponsorship of scientists by powerful European kings . work of ancient Greeks and Muslim scholars . I Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most tant participants in the Scientific Revolution because of his A observation that objects in the universe follow orderly laws . first use of the telescope to study the solar system and the universe . application of the scientific method to learn about the organs of the human body . invention of the microscope and use of it to discover the existence of bacteria . The two Europeans generally credited with developing the modern scientific method are A Galileo and Sir Isaac Newton . Sir Isaac Newton and Francis Bacon . Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes . Descartes and Sir Isaac Newton . Connecting with Past Learnings In Grade you learned about the est that many ancient civilizations had in astronomy . Which European scientist would have been least interested in the ancients work ?

A Tycho Galileo van Johannes The event you learned about earlier in this course that was most responsible for the Scientific Revolution was A the Renaissance . the fall of Rome . the development of feudalism . the Crusades . THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 313

Writing , A Social Studies Report You play many roles when you write a research report . As a detective , you track down information about a subject . As a judge , you determine what information is credible . As a reporter , you write clearly about what you have learned . In the process , you can reach a deeper understanding of history . Assignment Collect information and write an informative report on a topic related to the or to the Reformation . Use one of these topics , or choose your own topic I The importance of Florence to the Renaissance I Martin Luther tions to the Reformation . Choosing a Topic ' choosing a Pom of Here are two keys to a good topic for research . I You find the topic interesting . View Your audience , I You can several sources of information on it . ti Eng A good topic is broad enough that you can information , but writing your report from row enough to cover in detail . You can narrow a topic by looking at a small part of it and breaking that part into even smaller parts . the point of view . That . Renaissance Renaissance Artists Leonardo Achievements means you never bring yourself or your own opinions into the report . Watch forthe pronouns I , me , and we . If you are using those words , you are bringing your own opinion into the report . Developing a Research Question Starting with a question helps focus your research . For example , here is a question on the topic The Achievements of Leonardo da Vinci How did Leonardo achievements the ideas of the Renaissance ?

The answer to your question becomes your thesis , or big idea . Finding Historical Information Look for answers to your research question in at least three sources of historical information besides your textbook . For each source , write down the kinds of information shown below . To help with taking notes , put a circled number next to each source . Encyclopedia article Writing Write research . Edition or reports . Book Author . City of Publication Publisher , Year . Internet site Author ( if known ) Document Web Site . Date of electronic Magazine or newspaper article Title of Publication na me . Date page number ( publication . Date tion wae ( url ) 314

Taking Notes As you read your sources , carefully write down facts , details , and related to your research question . Take these types of notes The source ideas in your own words Summaries The source main points in your own words Direct quotations The source exact words inside quotation marks Next to each note , write the number of the source and the number of the page that contains the information . Organizing Your Ideas and Information How can you organize your research information ?

Here are two good ways I Chronological order ( the order that events occurred ) I Order of importance ( usually least to most important ) Use one of these orders to organize your notes in an outline . Here is a partial outline of the main body of a paper about Leonardo da Vinci . Big Idea Because of his many talents and interests , Leonardo da embodied the sprit of the Renaissance . Leonardo artistic talents Painting . Sculpture Architecture . Leonardo other talents A . Inventor . Engineer Town planner . Leonardo interest in learning A . Nature . Technology . Write Here is a framework that can help you as you write a first draft . A Writer Framework Introduction Body I Start with a quote or an interesting I Present information about at least historical fact . three of your big idea . I Write at least one paragraph for each of these main ( points . I Include supporting details , facts , or examples in each paragraph . I State your report big idea . I Provide historical background readers need to understand your big idea . Checking other Sources Geta more complete picture of your subject by consulting sources with different opinions . For example , reading both praise and criticism of the Medicis will give you a more balanced view ofthe family . Conclusion I Summarize your main points . I Restate your big idea in slightly different words . I You might comment on howthe information in your report relates to other historical events . RENEWAL IN EUROPE 315

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH Attention grabber Statement of Thesis or Big Idea Body Paragraphs CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH Summary of Main Points Statement of Big Idea General Comment about the Topic 316 UNIT Studying a Model Here is a model of a research report . Study it to see how one student developed a paper . The and last paragraphs are shown in full . The paragraphs in the body of the paper are summarized . He may have been the greatest painter of the Renaissance . He was also its greatest sculptor and its greatest architect . In addition , he was a notable inventor , engineer , town , and mapmaker . In his spare time , he his sketchbook with detailed drawings of plants , animals , and machines . His name was Leonardo da Vinci . Many experts consider him to be the greatest genius in history . With his extraordinary talent and interests , Leonardo da Vinci embodied the spirit of the Renaissance . In the first paragraph of the body of the research report , the student describes a painting , a sculpture , and a building designed by Leonardo . For each example , the student cites expert opinions about the work merit . In the next paragraph , the student discusses Leonardo inventions and his work as an engineer and town planner . As in the previous paragraph , the student cites expert opinions . In the last paragraph of the body , the student gives examples of Leonardo interest in nature and technology . The student also discusses Leonardo notebooks and quotes expert opinions about the work . Artist , sculptor , architect , engineer , and observer of Leonardo displayed his genius in a wide variety of fields . A Renaissance person is someone who can do almost anything well . Since Leonardo da Vinci was a genius at almost everything , he embodied the spirit of the Renaissance . He was the ultimate Renaissance person . Notice that each paragraph uses the same organizational pattern as the entire paper . Each paragraph expresses a main idea , then provides information to support that idea . One difference is that only the last paragraph ends with Concluding statement .

. Evaluate and Revise Evaluating and Revising Your Draft Carefully read your draft . Ask the questions below to decide which parts of your first draft should be revised . Evaluating and Revising an Informative Report I Does the introduction begin with an interesting quotation or fact ?

I Does your introduction include a clear statement of your big idea ?

I Does your introduction give any needed background information ?

I Is the report clearly organized in either chronological order or order of importance ?

I Does the body of your report have at least three paragraphs , each developing one point under your big idea ?

I Are all facts , details , and examples accurate ?

Are they clearly related to the ideas they support ?

I Does the conclusion summarize the main points ?

I Does the conclusion restate the big idea in different words ?

I Have you included a list of at least three sources you used ?

Proofread and Publish Proofreading After your report , read it carefully before sharing it . look for these things . I Proper spelling and capitalization of names for people , places , things , and events . I Correct punctuation marks around direct quotations . Publishing Choose one or more of these ideas to publish your report . I Turn your report into an informative speech and share it with classmates . I Make a display that includes your report and helpful illustrations . Place it in a hallway display case or the library . I Submit your report to an online discussion group that focuses on the Renaissance or the Reformation . Ask for feedback . Practice and Apply Use the steps and strategies outlined in this workshop to research and write a research report on the Renaissance or the Reformation . Evaluating Sources Not all sources of information are equal . Some are not reliable or trustworthy . You have to be especially careful about Internet sources since anyone can create an Internet site . For example , do not use a Web page created by a to find information about Leonardo art Look for a reliable art historian or an art museum . Identifying Sources If yourteacher asks you to show your sources in the body of your paper , you can use parenthetical citations . Enclose the author last name ( or if no author is given , the first major word of the source title ) followed by the page number . Example Between 1485 and 1490 , Leonardo da Vinci created plans for advanced weapons and submarines ( Renaissance I ) RENEWAL IN EUROPE 311