Urban Literacy Learning to Read the City Around You Chapter 6 Housing

. HOUSING Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter you will be able to the housing tenure sectors Explain the causes and solutions to housing issues Consider the impacts of different generations of rent control strategies Explore how the definition of homelessness affects our understanding of this issue Understand the structural and proximate causes of homelessness Evaluate the effectiveness of common solutions to homelessness In this chapter , we will explore some of the key housing problems facing cities today . We begin by identifying the different ways that housing can be produced and distributed . Next , we discuss how housing markets operate and consider the housing problem . Then , we will examine the issue of homelessness . We it , explore its causes , and introduce some possible solutions . Housing Tenure Sectors Housing tenure sectors are broad categories that classify the ways in which housing is produced and distributed

160 in a Housing can be privately constructed by individuals , groups , or companies , or it can be publicly built by the government or by a agency , such as a housing authority . The public and private tenure sectors are further differentiated by how housing is acquired by a prospective resident . Housing can either be purchased or leased on the open market , or a prospective resident can meet to obtain their housing , like having an income below a certain threshold or holding a status or position , such as being a member of the military , a student , or having a disability . The market is a little misleading , since most occupants of this type of housing still pay to live in their residence . When these are combined , they result in three main housing tenure sectors private , public , and private The public sector does not produce housing for , therefore there is no public form of tenure . There are many variations within each of these general sectors . One major distinction within a sector is an individual relationship to their housing . The two main types of individual housing tenure status are and rental . For example , Habitat for Humanity , a organization in the United States , is part of the private , housing sector . They sell homes to families who are below a certain income threshold and contribute 300 hours of sweat equity helping to construct Habitat The qualifying family will be responsible for paying the mortgage on their home and will own the property , meaning they can pass it down to their heirs or sell it , if they choose . Not all residents living in , based housing own their homes . Many are renters . ohn Davis , Tenure Sectors , in The , ed . Andrew ( Thousand Oaks SAGE , 2012 ) Ibid . Portland Metro East Habitat for Humanity , accessed May 12 , 2020 ,

161 Housing Tenure Sectors ?

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some on any so BEE . oZ 163 In the United States , 90 of housing is and privately The remaining 10 is and publicly or privately built . This includes public , and military housing . There are million units of public housing , which were federally funded but were built and are managed by local housing authorities . To qualify to live in public housing , an applicant must make less than 80 of the median income for their area , and 40 of public housing units are set aside for the residents , those making less than 30 of the median income . Local housing authorities can also add other preferences for their buildings , such as being elderly , disabled , or a veteran . The public housing program began in 1937 and continued to expand the number of units it built and managed up through the , reaching a peak of million units in Public ownership and management of housing fell out of favor during the and was replaced by policies that favored the and sectors , like the Section vouchers , which residents can use to subsidize the cost of their rental housing . Not all countries are as heavily skewed toward private , sector . In Singapore , 90 of residents live in public sector housing ! This highly developed public housing sector was established after Singapore became independent from the British . When the gained in the and independence in 1965 , it embarked on an ambitious housing development program aimed at improving the living conditions of its residents , many of whom were living in substandard , dwellings . Providing affordable and safe housing became a cornerstone policy for the People Action Party , which has ruled the country since 1959 . It is politically unthinkable in Singapore to oppose the goal of universal housing . Much of the land in Singapore is , which makes it easier to plan and implement a universal . Davis , Tenure Sectors . Alex Schwartz , Homing Polity in the United States , Second Edition , New York and London , 2010 ) Beng and Wong , No one left homeless Universal provision in Singapore , in Homing Polity , and Social Development in . Studies in International , Rebecca Lai Har Chin , and Ha ( Boca , Press , 2018 )

164 housing The Housing and Development Board ( which constructs the mostly modern apartment units , began selling housing to in 1964 . All working citizens contribute a mandatory percentage of their income to an , account called the Central Provident Fund . This is their retirement savings account . When a purchases a unit from the , the monthly mortgage payment is deducted from their retirement account , which means that they effectively maintain their same level of pay . However , to qualify to purchase a home , the household must show that they can afford the cost and still save for retirement . Over time , the has created additional programs to increase access to housing . One grant provides Families with enough money to cover up to 75 of the purchase price . Another pays a bonus into the retirement account of elders who downsize and move into a smaller unit once they are no longer working . As a result of these housing policies , 80 of who acquire their housing through the public sector own their unit . The public sector housing program allows the government to control housing prices and keep them affordable , which in turn , keeps wages relatively Since housing costs do not reduce pay , companies , many of which are also , can pay workers less , which makes them competitive in the global market . In addition , housing policies incentivize workers to and maintain steady jobs and to increase their levels of personal savings . As seen in the case of Singapore , providing access to housing can have an impact on broader economic policy . Universal housing policy with an emphasis on in Singapore workers relationship to employment and increased the nation competitiveness in the global marketplace . In the , Federal policies began encouraging in the and As a result of these policies , the transitioned from being a majority renter population in the to becoming a majority homeowner society in the . For individuals , is one of the largest sources of personal Wealth refers to the total assets that a household owns ( for example , a home , stocks , or a business ) Ibid . Ibid . Schwartz , Homing 10 . Pew Research Center , Income and Wealth by Income Tier , accessed May 13 , 2020 , 20 .

I 165 minus the debt they owe . For middle and households in the , buying a home is the most common way of accumulating wealth , while households are more likely to gain wealth by purchasing stocks or owning a business . Your home or other forms of wealth can be sold or borrowed against to gained additional money for unexpected expenses or to get capital to open a business , purchase another house , make home improvements , or Fund a family member education . In addition , the housing market plays a critical role in the economy . Housing makes up more than 20 percent of the gross domestic product in the In the , is associated with independence , security , and freedom . Homeowners can make changes to their unit without having to seek out a landlord permission . They also have some protection against rising housing costs , especially if they have a mortgage where payments are guaranteed to remain the same throughout the life of the loan . Homeowners have more security , since they can be evicted or have a lease terminated due to landlord turnover . However , owning a home also comes with responsibility and additional costs . Repairs , maintenance , property taxes , and bills can make more burdensome for people who with low or incomes . Owning a home also keeps you tied to place , and it can be more difficult to make sudden , necessary moves . Additionally , not all communities have equal access to opportunities . Historically , the housing market was characterized by segregation and discrimination . Both this legacy of discriminatory housing policies and the persistence of bias in the real estate industry have led to wide racial gaps in the rates . In 2020 , of white households owned their own home , while only 44 of black households , of Latino households , and of Islander households were The lack of access to , which is the most accessible way to build wealth in society , has led to a pernicious racial wealth gap . The median white household owns more than 10 times what the median 11 . Schwartz , Homing , 41 . 12 . Census Bureau , April 28 , 2020 , Quarterly Residential Vacancies and , First Quarter 2020 ,

13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 166 HOUSING black household does and nearly seven times what the median Latino household When last measured , in 2000 , the median wealth for white Families was times that of Native American households . While the wealth gap in Germany is high by European standards , wealth is far less concentrated there than it is the . Although Germany also has one of the lowest rates in Europe , its relatively large wealth gap is not attributed to housing policies . Instead , the growth of single person households , changing labor conditions and the resulting income gaps helps Fuel Germany also lacks a wealth tax and is home to many corporations that accumulate large sums of money , which is used to reinvest in the The low rates of in Germany are not viewed as problematic . In large German cities , more than 75 of residents are In 1971 , Germany instituted strict tenant Landlords can only evict tenants with cause , and they must provide three months notice . The Rent Regulations Act limits how much landlords can increase an existing tenant rent each year . Many tenants live in buildings that are owned or managed , rather than run by a private owner . As a result of these strong tenant protections , renting isn stigmatized in Germany . Many Germans prefer the that renting provides and associate with having children and a career . is not viewed as a means to wealth nor is it seen as a ste from . Kimberly , Racial Wealth Gap in the United States Is there a way to close it and the divide ?

accessed May 19 , 2020 , Growing Unequal ?

Income distribution and Poverty in Countries , accessed May 19 , 2020 , Florian , A Look at Germany Extremely Unequal Wealth Distribution , Der , Jan 26 , 2018 , Anna , City Strategies for Affordable Housing The Approaches of Berlin , Hamburg , Stockholm , and , Irma and Housing . 19 , 2019 ) Ham Owner ) lie and Related and in Eight European . Homing and Urban Policy 32 . Amsterdam Press , 2007 )

167 Cooperative Housing Cooperatives ( are housing that is collectively owned . Housing are often family buildings , but the model can also be applied to individuals who live together in a single family home . Members of a purchase a share in the building , rather than just their own individual unit . members make collective decisions about how their building is managed and maintained . In large this might entail electing a board . In smaller buildings , residents might all share the responsibility for running the building . Cooperatives are more popular in European countries than in North America . In , nearly a quarter of housing units are owned . In the United States , only of households live in . They are most popular in New York . Some cooperatives are , which means the amount of a member can make by selling their share is capped . By limiting the resale price , the coop stays permanently affordable . Hilary Silver , Cooperative Housing , in The Encyclopedia of Housing , edition , ed . Andrew ' Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2072 ) Steven , Limited Equity Cooperatives , in The Encyclopedia of Housing , edition , ed . Andrew ' Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , Inc , 2012 While renting and in either the public or private sectors are the predominant types of housing tenure in cities in Europe and North America , in much of the rest of the world , a sizable portion of homes are on land that is occupied by squatters . Squatting means taking possession of an unoccupied

168 I building or piece of land without the owner permission for It is estimated that there may be up to one billion squatters worldwide . In the cities in the Global South , the typical squatter builds their own home on a piece of land that they have occupied with other families . These squatted neighborhoods are often referred to as informal You read about some of the challenges these communities face in Chapter Two . In the cities of the Global North , squatters are more likely to occupy abandoned buildings , which they sometimes rehabilitate to make more livable . Squatting in many European cities is associated with autonomous political movements where squats not only provide housing , but also nurture alternative ways of living and served as sites of political resistance . Regardless of the form squatting takes , it is driven by a lack of access to In other words , it is a result of the failure of the private market and the government to provide an adequate and affordable supply of safe , habitable housing . People squat because they have no viable alternative to securing housing . Squatting is a way of making do . Squatting can also be thought of as a When squatters occupy a plot of land or a building , they usually construct a simple , temporary shelter or make minimal repairs , because their situation is tenuous . As time goes on , squatters will improve the space , and makeshift housing will be replaced by more permanent structures . As the inhabitants are able to save more money , they may build additional rooms or add a second story to their home . Over the long term , families might add a separate wing for their adult children and their families . A study of informal settlements in Bogota , Colombia , and Mexico City found that 30 years after these neighborhoods were initially squatted , 80 of the homes were occupied by the original builders or their children , and structures had been added to and improved . 21 This process of making home improvements over time is often associated with informal neighborhoods in the Global South , but the same process plays out in squatted buildings and communities in North American and European cities too . Dignity Village , a tiny home community located near the airport in Portland , Oregon , was initially established in 2000 as a roving tent city . 18 . The makeshift city , Program in Human , 39 , 2015 ) 19 . Ibid . 20 . Ibid . 21 . Peter Ward , Housing Rehab for Consolidated Informal Settlements A New Policy Agenda for 2016 II , 50 ( 2015 )

I 169 A group of homeless pitched tents on a piece of publicly owned land under a bridge downtown and called their community Camp When they got evicted , they moved their homes and belongings to another piece of public land . After a number of moves , the city agreed to provide the roving tent city with a space on land near the airport . The community pitched their tents and started construction on individual tiny homes . Today , the village provides homes to 60 people , and it has communal gardens , a shared kitchen building , showers , and for . In addition to transitioning from temporary to more permanent structures , over time , squatters may also gain more security and access to infrastructure and services over time . The process of making public investments and bringing infrastructure and services to informal communities is known as upgrading . The upgrading programs started in Latin America and spread around the globe in the and In Indonesia , the Improvement Program was launched in in 1969 . In its years , the city was able to build roads , extend water , sewage and waste pick up , and provide health and education services to million people living in informal settlements , and it cost only 13 per person . 24 Upgrading initiatives may also include granting title to squatters , especially if the land they built on is publicly owned . In New York City in the and , a movement emerged in the South Bronx and on the Lower East Side of Manhattan The city was in a major crisis it was losing population to suburbanization , and housing abandonment was a serious issue in neighborhoods . Neighbors organized takeovers of empty tenement buildings and began them up . Eventually , the city launched a program that granted squatters titles to the buildings they occupied and provided money to buy materials to make repairs . In the Lower East Side , more than 30 buildings were and turned into housing cooperatives until federal funding for the program was cut . 22 . Dignity Village , Origins , accessed December 19 . 2020 , 23 . Housing provision and improvement programmes for low income populations in the developing world . A review of approaches and their in the European context , Bulletin ) 18 , 18 ( 2012 ) 24 . The World First Slum Upgrading Programme , UN Habitat , June , 2006 , 25 . Clayton Patterson , A ! and ' New York Seven Stories Press , 2007 )

26 . 27 . 28 . 170 I HOUSING Squatting can also be thought of as both a result of and a response to urban is a term used to describe the tenuous economic and social conditions that exist in century capitalist nations . As workers are increasingly employed in the gig economy and other temporary arrangements , their ability to and maintain stable housing is jeopardized . Squatting can be seen as a viable alternative to having to make expensive housing payments each month , so it is a result of the increasing precariousness of urban life . Squatting is also a response to . Squatting often involves groups of people working together to create solutions to their situation . Whether it an informal neighborhood or an urban homestead , the act of collectively producing shelter challenges the individualist isolation and the precariousness of modern urban life . Housing Markets and Shortages In countries like the United States , where the bulk of housing is produced and distributed in the private market , the cost to rent or purchase a home is affected by the dynamics of supply and demand . Only of the housing on the market in any given year is new construction , so most housing is bought , leased or sold , and resold multiple times during its The price of new or existing homes is determined by a number of different factors . If there is increased demand for housing , due to an of population in a particular city , prices will rise . Having access to credit or lower interest rates can also help drive housing demand as the ability to purchase a home becomes more accessible and the cost of obtaining a loan more affordable . If the demand to purchase homes increases , some landlords might sell their rental properties or convert them into condominiums . As the supply of rental housing shrinks , prices might rise . If there is a high vacancy rate , meaning a number of apartments or rental homes are sitting empty , landlords might lower the price to attract tenants . Housing shortages can cause prices to skyrocket . During World War I , New York and other cities experienced a severe housing In the years leading up to the war , there was a large of , Makeshift City Christophe Andre , Housing Markets . The Encyclopedia , edition , ed . Andrew , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2012 ) Robert , The Great Rent Wars . New Haven Yale University Press , 2013 )

171 immigrants into the city , and New York passed the Tenement Law , which introduced building codes designed to improve the quality of housing . Apartment construction boomed . By 1916 , more than 40 of apartments had been built after 1903 . The production of new housing easily offset the housing that was demolished to comply with the standards set by the Tenement Law . Renters were able to move into better housing , and landlords began to offer incentives to attract and retain tenants . When there is a glut of rental housing , the production of housing begins to decline . The decline in housing construction coincided with the start of the war . As wartime production increased , the cost of building materials rose , construction laborers were in short supply , and war workers into the city . The units that had been empty just a few years before quickly . Construction virtually stopped , leading to a severe housing shortage in the following years . When housing is in short supply , like it was in New York , the price rises . Landlords can afford to be about who they rent to and may demand large deposits or long leases . Renters might end up living in housing that is overcrowded , substandard , or not meant for living . While the New York City housing shortage was caused by unique historical circumstances , restrictions in housing supply still occur . It is fairly common to see prices skyrocket after natural disasters , especially if a large portion of the housing stock is temporarily uninhabitable or destroyed . Housing shortages can also be caused by a sudden in population due to an industrial boom , which has happened in the North Dakota oil and gas . Fluctuations in supply or demand are not the only determinant of housing costs . Starting in the , the cost of housing across North America and Europe rose faster than , even doubling in some places in just 10 This global increase in housing costs wasn due to changes in supply or demand , but rather to the transformation of how housing was and . The subprime mortgage market provided loans to people who did not qualify for traditional mortgages . Subprime lenders also aggressively marketed their products to , Black , Latino and elderly homeowners , many of whom actually for traditional mortgages . In addition to subprime lending , new products called securities were created , sold to investors , and traded in the markets . backed securities are a type of bond that consists of bundles of real estate loans sold by the banks and brokers who issued them . Investors who purchase these securities get payouts , which are based upon the mortgage 29 . Housing Markets

172 i holders monthly payments . When banks and brokers can sell their loans , they have less incentive to make sure that the lender can repay them , since they are essentially passing the risk of default on to the investors . As housing and home loans became investment opportunities , prices Housing costs had once followed the same trajectory as wages . If wages rose , demand for housing increased , but if they remained stagnant , buying power decreased and demand dropped . As real estate become an investment opportunity disconnected from actual buyers and sellers , prices no longer homeowners wages . Over the past few decades , housing costs far outpaced the rate of . Housing Housing costs may rise or fall , but the cost alone doesn predict housing . The concept of considers how paying for housing impacts one ability to purchase other goods and services . Since housing is a durable good that can not easily be traded in for a cheaper option , and it is usually the bill a household prioritizes , measures of consider the relationship between housing and all other basic needs . In the United States , banks , landlords , and government agencies will examine an applicant income to housing cost ratio when they are making decisions about whether someone for Most housing providers and lenders use a 30 rule when determining whether an applicant can afford to pay for housing . In other words , housing should cost no more than 30 of one income . The Department of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) considers anyone who spends more than 30 of their income on housing as cost burdened , and those who spend more than 50 of their income on housing as severely cost According to HUD , households with the worst case housing needs are those who are both severely cost burdened and who are very income earning less than 50 of the median family income in their community . Taking into account the total amount of income a household earns is important when identifying those who have the housing needs . Families who spend a large percentage of their income on housing but have a large overall income may not struggle to pay their rent or meet their basic needs . housing 30 . Andre , Housing Markets 31 . Lucy , and Melanie . in , edition , ed . Andrew , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2012 )

173 simply by the percentage of income one pays for housing may not accurately measure the impact that housing costs have on people ability to pay for food , transportation , education and other The residual income approach looks at the amount of income a household has to spend after housing costs are subtracted . Michael Stone uses the residual income approach to measure shelter Shelter poverty is when a household can not meet their basic needs due to a limited income and unaffordable housing costs . To measure shelter poverty , the amount of income households of various sizes would need to meet all of their basic expenditures is calculated . The percentage of income left over is the percentage that the household could spend on housing . If a household is spending more than they can afford , they are considered to be shelter poor . Since 1970 , the percentage of households that were shelter poor has between . This is roughly the same percentage of households who are considered cost burdened under HUD measure of housing . In 2020 , approximately 45 of all renter households were Households of color were disproportionately likely to be paying more than 30 of their income for rent . Fifty four percent of Black renter households , 52 of Latino renters and 44 of white and Asian renters were burdened . If the shelter poverty measure is used , 50 of renter households and 25 of homeowners are shelter While the overall numbers of households that are and shelter poor are approximately the same , the makeup of those groups differs . When the shelter poverty measure is used , the population struggling with housing includes more families with children and fewer couples and households . Latino households are most likely to be shelter poor , followed by Black families , Asians , then whites . Women and households are also more likely to be shelter poor . For homeowners , single mothers and the elderly make up a disproportionate share of the shelter poor . National and local governments can address housing issues by increasing the supply of affordable options or by reducing demand for housing . Affordable housing policies can be directed 32 . Michael Stone , Shelter Poverty . in The , edition , ed . Andrew , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2012 ) 33 . oint Center for Housing Studies . State of the Nation Housing 34 . Stone , Shelter Poverty

174 I towards the public or private sector . On the supply side , the state can produce housing to increase the availability of affordable options . Public or social housing refers to units that are constructed , owned , and managed by a government housing authority . In the United States , the production of public housing began with the 1949 Housing This act authorized urban renewal or the wholesale clearance of dilapidated neighborhoods and created the public housing program as a replacement option for demolished units . Although the Housing Act aimed to produce units within six years , that goal wasn met until 1968 . Construction of public housing continued for a few more decades reaching a peak of million units in 1994 . Since then , the number of public housing units has declined . By the , public housing fell out of favor with lawmakers who instead opted to fund housing programs like the Section subsidy . The number of public housing units has steadily declined since the 1994 peak , and the new construction has been limited to replacing units that were demolished as part of public housing redevelopment programs . One of the major for developing public housing projects in the United States was to improve the overall quality of housing . In 1920 , only of housing units in the had indoor plumbing and By 1970 , plumbing and electricity were nearly universal . In Europe , housing shortages were one of the primary for initiating a public or social housing program . Cities were devastated by World War II , and many European governments launched social housing programs to respond to housing Unlike public housing in the , European social housing was not limited to people with the lowest incomes . housing was made available to working and middle class families . In the Netherlands , Austria , and Scotland , 30 of all housing is social housing . In England , social housing makes up 20 of the housing stock . Denmark , Hungary and France continue to add publicly constructed units to their housing stock . Social housing is widespread in Asia . In Hong Kong , 30 of all units are publicly The Hong 35 . Schwartz , Homing 36 . Christine . Whitehead , Goering , Local Affordable Housing Dynamics in Two Global Cities Patterns and Possible Lessons ?

25 , 2021 ) 37 . Kathleen Scanlon , Christine Whitehead , and Melissa Fernandez , in . Estate . Somerset WILEY , 2014 ) 38 . Nicole , and Glen , Urban the . London Macmillan UK , 2017 ) 175 Kong government is able to produce housing because the state owns the land , which makes it easier to construct housing that is affordable . Substandard housing and Families struggling to housing sometimes find themselves living in unhealthy or dangerous conditions . the only housing that is affordable is in poor repair . The 1949 Housing Act aimed to provide a decent home and suitable living environment for all . In 1940 , 30 of homes in he US . lacked indoor toilets . While nearly every home has indoor plumbing today , habitability problems persist . Forty percent of . homes have at least one serious issue broken heating , holes in walls , problems with plumbing , insect or rodent infestation , leaky roof , falling plaster , crumbling foundation , radon , lead , mold , or missing smoke detectors . These conditions can cause physical health problems . ore than children have elevated lead levels , mostly due to exposure in their homes . Mold , roach infestations , and poor ventilation can contribute to asthma , which peop in the US . Poor living conditions can also cause stress and anxiety . People living in substandard conditions may lack the power and the resources to improve their housing . Homeowners may not be able to afford repairs . Renters may be afraid to ask their landlord to make repairs out of fear of losing their housing or having the rent raised . Housing habitability issues can not be fully addressed without also dealing with issues of housing and tenants rights . Deborah Howe , Substandard Housing , in The Encyclopedia of Housing , edition , ed . Andrew ' Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2012 ) National Center for Healthy Housing , United States 2020 Healthy Housing Fact Sheet , accessed on , 2027 , While other countries have embraced publicly constructed housing as a strategy for providing affordable

176 I HOUSING units to people of various income levels , the United States has moved away from solutions . Very little new public housing was built after the . Instead the government has focused on housing solutions . Over the past 50 years , the programs have focused on using tax credits and other subsidies to incentivize and some developers to build and manage housing . The Low Income Housing Tax Credit ( established in 1986 reduces the tax liability of housing developers who build affordable units or The credits can also be sold to investors who can use them to reduce their tax bills . The has funded the development of more than million units of affordable housing , which surpasses the number of public housing units . But this program has some major drawbacks . Units developed with tax credit can convert to housing after 15 years . Additionally , many of the households can not afford housing unless they have some other kind of subsidy . Rent in public housing projects is capped at 30 of a tenant income , so if that tenant has very little income , they pay very little rent . In contrast , most housing has a set rental rate that is supposed to be affordable to tenants making below a certain income threshold . If the tenant income is far below that threshold , they may end up paying much more than 30 of their income on rent for affordable housing . Public sector interventions can help increase the supply of affordable housing , distribute housing to those most in need , and offset housing costs through subsidies , but governments can also impact housing through private sector regulations , incentives , and taxation . Cities can encourage private sector housing production by streamlining the development process and by , or increasing the number of units allowed on a parcel of When the supply of housing is increased , tenants and can exert more over the price . If a landlord or seller sets the price too high , they may not be able to an interested renter or buyer . In order to attract a buyer or tenant , the owner will have to lower the price . In addition , units like or apartments are less costly to produce than single family homes , since more units can be developed on a single parcel of land . This makes these options more affordable to renters and . Cities can also incentivize the production of affordable housing by allowing homeowners to build accessory dwelling units on their lots . Accessory dwellings are independent 39 . Schwartz , Homing 40 . Local Housing Solutions , Increasing the Housing , examples , 2021 ,

177 housing units that are attached or detached from the main structure on a lot . Accessory dwellings are also called apartments , granny flats , or depending on their size , tiny homes . They can be structures , garage or basement conversions , or additions to the main housing unit . Accessory dwellings can be more affordable than conventional units , and they encourage more intensive development of land parcels , which can help lower costs . In addition to changing zoning regulations to allow for denser development , cities can also adopt zoning programs . zoning programs require developers to produce a certain number of affordable They usually require that at least of units in a development over a particular size be made affordable to households . The program might also include incentives for builders to help offset the cost of developing affordable units . Offsets could include allowing more stories on buildings or waiving requirements like parking or development fees . This type of land use regulation can offset exclusionary zoning practices . Exclusionary zoning regulations might prohibit housing or require large lot sizes , which make housing less affordable and promote economic and racial segregation by pricing out households and households of color who are more likely to have lower incomes due to historic and ongoing discrimination . Unlike public housing or properties , units produced under zoning programs are more integrated throughout a jurisdiction , which creates opportunities for people to move into neighborhoods they might not otherwise have access to . However , the units produced under these programs may not necessarily be fully integrated into the overall development . They might be located in a separate building , and under some programs , developers are allowed to meet their obligations by funding the development of affordable units on a different site altogether . While zoning programs are effective tools for increasing the affordable housing stock , these units are often priced too high for the renters . The regulatory strategy that cities can use to keep housing prices affordable is rent control . Rent control can take many different forms . Early rent control programs put a hard cap on the amount of rent that landlords 41 . Daniel , Zoning . in The Encyclopedia , edition , ed . Andrew , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2012 ) 387389 .

42 . 43 . 44 . 45 . 178 could Rent control was instituted in the United Kingdom in 1915 to curb housing cost during World War At the time , 90 of the British lived in private market housing . New York created its rent control regulations in 1920 and expanded them in 1943 when World War 11 led to housing shortages and price inflation . These early rent control programs were intended to be temporary , but they lasted much longer than the housing crises they were designed to address . These early rent control strategies are sometimes referred to as generation rent control First generation rent control measures required landlords to keep rents below an established ceiling , except in circumstances . The New York program was designed to be temporary , but once soldiers returned home from World War 11 , housing shortages persisted , so New York kept its protections in place even as most other cities repealed their rent control programs . The New York City program placed a cap on rents in units built before 1947 . Economists are highly critical of generation rent control programs because the hard caps can result in housing market distortions . A study of rent controlled units in New York in 1968 found that they were listed at 40 below market rates . If landlords are unable to meet their costs and to , they have little incentive to keep units on the market , or they might stop doing basic maintenance or make necessary repairs . Rent control also tenants to stay in a unit when they otherwise would move to a more spacious place , to downsize , or to relocate to a more convenient neighborhood . This lack of turnover makes units unavailable to those who might need them and eventually results in a mismatch where the neediest tenants are unable to get a rent controlled unit , while some of those who are occupying them may be able to afford market rents . Finally , landlords may ways around strict rent control laws by charging exorbitant key fees or pushing tenants out , if regulations allow for rent increases between . These critiques do not necessarily apply to second and third generation rent control Second Hugh Grant , Rent Control . in The , edition , ed . Andrew , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2012 ) 597599 . Whitehead and Goering , Local Richard , Richard . Time for Revisionism on Rent Control ?

journal ' 1995 ) Grant , Rent Control Hanna and , Rent re in Euro ers , 2020 , Time for Revisionism 179 generation rent control programs are the dominant type of rent regulation in the United States today . These programs allow rents to rise each year by a certain percentage and let landlords raise them further to pass on the cost of repairs or upgrades to the unit . Third generation rent control strategies are used in parts of Europe and put caps on increases for the length of the tenancy , but allow the unit to be when the tenants leave . These rent control strategies are more effective at controlling prices without creating for landlords to uphold their responsibilities . Rent control also needs to be considered as part of a larger , overall housing regime . The concept of a housing regime refers to the ways in which housing is produced and distributed in a area and the ideologies that guide that For example , in the United States , property rights are sacrosanct , home ownership is viewed as the desirable form of tenancy , and in general , the rights of landlords to often outweigh tenants protections , although tenants may have more rights in jurisdictions that have a high percentage of renters . In Norway , where rates exceed the United States , renters have far more protections . Norway push for was tied to a housing regime that viewed landlordism as a form of exploitation . In 1951 , Norwegian Labor Party leader spoke before Parliament and asserted that owning other people homes as a of private enterprise was unacceptable . Norway subsidized and encouraged both and cooperative ownership of properties . Tenants , despite making up a relatively small percentage of the population , have fairly strong protections . leases are common , and there are protections against large rent increases . The Swedish housing regime also gives more power to renters . Sweden rates are similar to the , but rents on units are set through negotiations between the Swedish Union of Tenants , publicly owned housing corporations , and private landlords . If the parties can not come to an agreement on the appropriate price for a particular unit , a rent tribunal sets the price . Homelessness The word homeless evokes images of people sleeping on park benches , under bridges , or in makeshift camps 46 . Rethinking the Concept of Housing Regime , 2020 ) and , Rent Regulation .

180 HOUSING along freeways , but coming up with a comprehensive to describe this situation is a far more complex task than it seems . People sleeping outdoors are obviously homeless , but what about those staying in a shelter ?

How about people who are able to scrape together enough money to pay for a motel for a few nights ?

What about those living in cars , at campgrounds , rest stops or in recreational vehicles ?

How about the young person who couch surfs and stays with different friends each night ?

What about the family that is living with relatives because they lost their housing ?

Are these people homeless ?

The way in which homelessness is is culturally , socially , and politically In , there is no word for homelessness in any of the country main languages . It is considered shameful for a family to allow one of their members to stay unhoused . Homelessness exists in , but the government it very narrowly . It only considers those living outdoors to be homeless . In many nations in Latin America and Africa , homelessness is as both lacking shelter and being outside of society ( a drug user , criminal , or mentally ill ) In India , rural migrants may be homeless in the city they work in , but they have a home back in their village . homelessness too narrowly can leave people out who do not have an adequate place to sleep at night . In , people who are living in shops or makeshift shelters would not be considered homeless under the government But it too broadly can obscure the issue and make it to prioritize those who live under the direst of circumstances . For example , the South African Homeless People Federation , which is a grassroots coalition of people living in inadequate housing situations , includes people living in squatter settlements , shacks built on other lots in the townships , and staying in hostel accommodations in their of homelessness . Under this , one in South Africans is considered homeless . The United Nations Habitat program has recently revised its of The organization 47 . Graham Tipple , and Suzanne Speak , of Homelessness in Developing Countries . 29 , 2005 ) 48 . Tipple and Speak , Homelessness in Developing 49 . Institute Homelessness , from the Commission on Social Development , accessed , 2021 , Tipple and Speak , Homelessness in Developing Countries .

181 spent more than a decade updating its to make it more of the global situation . The prior placed too much emphasis on the ways in which homelessness is manifested in the North American and European and not enough on the rest of the world . The new recognizes that homelessness is not merely a lack of physical housing , but is often interrelated with poverty , lack of productive employment and access to infrastructure , as well as other social issues that may constitute a loss of family , community and a sense of belonging , and , depending on national context , can be described as a condition where a person or household lacks habitable space , which may compromise their ability to enjoy social relations , and includes people living on the streets , other open spaces or in buildings not intended for human habitation people living in temporary accommodation or shelters for the homeless , and , in accordance with national legislation , may include , among others , people living in severely inadequate accommodation without security of tenure and access to basic services Having a clear of homelessness is important . Without agreed upon criteria that the variety of ways that homelessness is manifested across the globe , international organizations can not measure the scope of the problem . It is estimated that between 100 million and one billion people worldwide experience homelessness . With the new , countries can begin to more accurately measure of how widespread the problem is . The government homelessness as lacking a , regular , and adequate nighttime This can be vague and different agencies within the government use more or less expansive versions of this to determine whether someone for services . The European Federation of National Organizations Working with the Homeless ( uses a more holistic that includes four categories of homelessness . refers to those who are sleeping outdoors and have no shelter of any kind . Houselessness includes people who are staying in shelters or other temporary institutions . People with insecure shelter means those facing eviction , squatting , or living in an unsafe situations due to abuse or domestic violence . Finally , those living in inadequate housing includes people living in cars , caravans or campers , substandard or extremely overcrowded conditions . The typology more fully captures the ways in which homelessness occurs in Europe and North 50 . MacKenzie , Homelessness , in Encyclopedia and Home , ed . Susan Smith , Hill Science and Technology , 2012 )

51 . 182 America and also acknowledges how people cycle through these different categories . Many people who lose their housing do not immediately end up on the streets . They may stay with friends or family . Once they wear out their welcome , they may spend a few nights in a motel , sleep in their car , or camp in someone backyard . When they run out of options or if they have no support system to provide them with a temporary place to stay , they turn to the shelters or the street . The estimates of the number of people experiencing homelessness vary widely . Some of that variation is due to the conflicting that homeless census takers Simply tallying the number of people using shelter services or identifying those sleeping on the streets may not give you an accurate count of the numbers of people who lack adequate , permanent shelter . In the United States , the issue of homelessness entered the public consciousness in the when due to economic recession and policy changes , people began visibly living on the streets in most major cities . The early attempts to count the number of homeless individuals relied upon data from shelter and services providers . In the , it was estimated that people were homeless at any given point in time . This estimate only included those who were literally homeless and had accessed or attempted to access services . In addition to narrow focus on the literal homeless , these counts provide limited data about how widespread homelessness really is . In 1994 , Dennis and a group of researchers looked at homelessness service providers data in Philadelphia and developed an estimate of the numbers of people who experience literal homelessness during the course of a They discovered that of the city population overall and 10 of those living in poverty cycled through the homeless shelter system at some point during the year . National estimates based upon methodology indicate that between and million people become literally homeless at some point during the course of a year , which represents of those living below the poverty line . Estimating the number of people who experience homelessness over the course of a year provides a more complete picture of the scope and size of this problem . This annual projection captures the variation of people experiences . Some may be homeless for a brief time period , others may cycle in and out of Martha Burt , Homelessness , and Estimates of in David , Thousand Oaks , USA SAGE Publications , 2004 ) 52 . Burt , Homelessness , Estimates

183 homelessness , and a smaller subset may remain homeless during the entire year . However , it is more difficult to collect data over the course of an entire year . Even if service provider data is used , it would have to be to determine the number of unique users . Due to these data collection difficulties , the or counts are now conducted annually in all major metropolitan areas . Most counts today include both the number of people using homeless services and a census of people living outdoors . Some cities employ dozens of census takers who attempt to count unsheltered people in downtown areas and residential neighborhoods . Despite the aforementioned limitations of these counts , they do provide a snapshot of literal homelessness in the and allow communities to track changes in the population over time . In 2020 , the national counts found that people were literally homeless in the Sixty percent of those were staying in shelters or transitional housing and the remainder were unhoused . One quarter of those counted were considered chronically The term chronically homeless refers to individuals with physical or mental disabilities or addictions who have been continuously homeless for at least 12 months or who have experienced at least episodes of homelessness in the past years including one that lasted for at least a year . This term was devised by policy makers who wanted to identify the most difficult to house populations in order to focus resources on them . Compared to the overall literal homeless population , the chronic homeless are more likely to be unsheltered . The annual counts are not the only national census of homelessness in the United States . Every public school district in United States students who qualify as homeless under the Vento Act , because they are eligible for protections and During the school year , almost million children and youth in the public school system experienced homelessness . This number is far greater than the people counted in the annual census , especially when considering that only 53 . Department and Urban Development , The to , January , 2021 , 54 . National Center for Homeless Education , Federal Data Summary , School Years and , Education for Homeless Children and Youth , April 2021 ,

184 30 of those in the point counts were families with One reason for the difference in these estimates is that the student counts capture homelessness over the course of the entire school year . But this alone doesn explain the large discrepancy between the two . The main reason for the large difference between the school district numbers and the annual time counts is the of homelessness that is used . The counts only capture those experiencing literal homelessness living in shelters or on the streets . School district personnel use a much broader of homelessness that includes people who are with other households due to housing loss or economic hardship and those living in motels or percent of the students who were identified as homeless were living with friends or family because they had lost their housing , and an additional were living in motels or hotels . Homelessness a continuum of experiences continuum of homelessness Families with children and youth who are living on their own are more reticent to go to homeless shelters and will do anything to avoid having to live on the streets . Parents often worry that the state might take their children away if they do not have housing . 50 families who lose their housing are more willing to rely on friends or family for help . Unaccompanied youth , which refers to young people who are living on their own , might be concerned that if they seek services , they may be returned to an abusive or unsupportive household or be placed in foster care . Unaccompanied youth only made up of the national homeless counts , but a recent comprehensive study of youth homelessness found that , or nearly in 30 , youth aged 55 . HUD Annual Homeless Assessment 56 . National Center for Homeless Education , Federal Data Summary

185 experienced homelessness over the course of a When the young adults aged are included , nearly 10 had become homeless at some point during the year . Black , Latino , Native American , and parenting youth were disproportionately likely to be homeless . Couch , or staying temporarily with friends or family members , was a key strategy that homeless youth and young adults used to avoid going to shelters or sleeping on the streets . However , these arrangements are unstable , and many youth and young adults move around frequently , and some may cycle in and out of shelters or on or off the streets . Like youth and young adults , women are also more likely to avoid homeless shelters , to hide their situation , and to stay out of the public Women living in public spaces are vulnerable to sexual and physical assaults . One study found that 92 of mothers experiencing homelessness had been sexually or physically abused at some point in their Thirteen percent of women interviewed in another study reported being sexually assaulted within the last 12 months , and half of those had been assaulted more than once . Another research project found that nine percent of homeless women had been sexually assaulted within the last month . Women with mental illness who lack housing are especially vulnerable to sexual victimization . percent of mentally ill homeless women had been victims of violence or sexual assault during their lives , and 28 report being physically or sexually assaulted within the last month . To survive , many women hide their Women on the streets or in shelter represent just a fraction of the female homeless population . Women tend to stay in cars or with friends or family . Some may choose to stay in an abusive situation rather than live on the streets . Women may also a partner on a nightly or longer term basis in order to avoid the streets . In some countries , there are no shelter spaces for women . In others , single women who are homeless may be stigmatized and ostracized , because they are not part of a headed household . 57 . Matthew Morton , and United States Department of Housing Urban Development Office of Policy Development Research Issuing Body . Voice of Count Comprehensive Report Youth in America Report to the US . Department and Urban Development , Washington , Department of Housing and Urban Development , Office Development and Research , 2019 ) 58 . Keri Weber , Global Female Homelessness A Problem . 25 , 2008 ) 59 . Lisa Goodman , Fels , Catherine Glen , No Safe Place Sexual Assault and the Lives Women , September , 2006 , 60 . Global Female Homelessness

61 . 62 . 63 . 186 I It is estimated that 22 of the homeless population in the is female , and women make up of homeless population in European countries . Since women are more likely to be part of the hidden homeless , or those who are not visibly living on the streets or in shelter systems , it can be difficult to get an accurate count of the numbers of women who lack housing . In addition , if the that is being used to identify homeless people isn broad enough to encompass the ways in which women experience homelessness , they won show up in the statistics . Overall , any attempt to quantify the number of homeless people on a global , national , or local level will only produce an estimate of the population that lacks adequate of homelessness need to be broad enough to capture the myriad ways in which different populations experience homelessness . Drawing conclusions about the size , scope , causes , or impacts of homelessness based upon the most visible populations can lead to assumptions that do not reflect the complexity of this issue . The Causes of Homelessness If you ask someone how they ended up staying in a shelter or living on the streets , they might tell you a story about a job loss , a bad relationship , a struggle with addiction , or a physical or mental health issue that led to their current situation . Are these situations the causes of homelessness ?

When thinking about the causes of homelessness , it is important to delineate between the proximate causes or the precipitating events that lead to someone losing their housing and the structural conditions that create The proximate causes can help shed light on the populations that are vulnerable to homelessness , but identifying the structural conditions that produce homelessness is necessary for lasting policy solutions . Homelessness is produced when housing markets , labor markets and markets create grossly unequal Homelessness is also caused by the political failure to meet the needs of those left out of the housing or labor markets . If governments do not those gaps , people will be forced to inadequate Burt , Homelessness , Estimates Paul , Causes Overview , in Encyclopedia , ed . David , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2004 ) Graham A . and Suzanne Speak , in . Series . London New York , 2009 )

187 housing alternatives or live on the streets . In many cultures , extended family networks play a critical role in providing housing and support to their indigent kin . However , if a family resources are strained , they may not be able to provide for all of their members . In societies where extended family ties are and the nuclear family dominates , individuals who are at risk of becoming homeless have fewer resources they can rely upon . Therefore , family breakdown or social isolation can also contribute to homelessness . If someone does not have a strong social network and support system and their government ignores their needs , they could end up on the street . In some parts of the world , housing markets simply fail to produce enough housing for the population . In 2002 , India was in need of at least 19 million additional housing units . Sometimes , the market produces housing , but it is unaffordable for large swaths of the population . In , a house leased on the private market would cost a family making the median wage their entire monthly salary . percent of residents can not afford to pay for the housing produced by the private market . In , the typical laborer spends 70 of their income on basic food and clothing needs , leaving little left over to pay for housing . In places where private market housing is out of reach for large segments of the population , they have to rely upon alternative survival strategies like squatting unused pieces of land and homes . Having insecure tenure rights makes people more vulnerable to homelessness , and informal settlement housing is often inadequate . In addition , informal settlements may lack access to potable water , sewage , or other utilities . These neighborhoods also might not be served by transportation networks or by public education systems . The United Nations Habitat updated of homelessness notes that a lack of security of tenure , access to infrastructure , and basic services are hallmarks of In the United States , there are enough housing units to provide shelter for all households , but there is a major shortage of units available that are affordable to those with the lowest Prior to the , the 64 . Institute Homelessness , from the 65 . National Housing , The Gap A Shortage Rental Homes , March , 2021 , Alex , Sir Shadow , Maestro of the Last ofthe Bowery , New Times , December 28 , 2018 ,

188 poorest urban residents could afford to rent basic housing . Most had skid row neighborhoods that contained concentrations of housing of last resort . Housing of last resort was often a single room occupancy ( unit , which is a basic room with a shared bathroom down the hall that rents by the night , week , or month . were even cheaper than . are communal lodgings where you can rent a bed for the night . Some are also known as cage hotels , because residents rent beds in a large open room that is divided into cubicles , which are separated from others by partial walls or chicken wire . In the , there was a surplus of these units , but many of these buildings were razed in downtown redevelopment projects , and by 1989 , there was a shortage of more than million units that were affordable to those with the lowest incomes . Currently , no state has an adequate number of rental units available that are affordable to the households . In the most extreme cases , there is only affordable unit available for every renter households , and even in the lowest cost housing markets , there are only units available for every 10 households . When people can not afford to pay for private market housing , they make do in a variety of ways . In many parts of the world , people will their homes on an unused piece of In places where building one home is not an option , people make do by with friends or family , by renting inadequate housing options , or by spending portions of their paycheck on rent . All of these situations are unstable and put people at risk for homelessness . An argument with a friend or family member or an unexpected expense could potentially lead to a loss of housing . Living in a substandard unit could also pose a health or safety risk that might lead someone to lose their housing . An array of different types of housing market failures lead to the production of homelessness , but this is just one side of the housing crisis equation . Labor market failures also play an important role . If workers are not paid enough to cover housing costs , it not just the housing market that is failing , the labor market is too . In much of the world , the majority of people work in the informal The informal economic sector refers . Tipple and Speak , The Hidden ' Causes of Homelessness 66 . Tipple and Speak , The Hidden International Labor Organization , Women and Men in the Informal Economy A Statistical Portrait , Third Edition , 2018 ,

189 to businesses that are unregistered and unregulated . These businesses can be based within a household , or they can be organizations . Informal sector workers have no legal protections and lack , guaranteed employment contracts , and basic workplace rights . Informal workers labor in a wide variety of types of trades , from street vendors to garbage pickers to unlicensed construction workers to drug smugglers . According to the International Labor Organization , 60 of laborers , or more than billion people worldwide , work in the informal sector . While not all informal sector workers are impoverished , informal workers are more likely to be poor than their formal sector counterparts Although informal work is more prevalent in rural areas , in many cities the majority of people are employed in the informal sector . In North America , only 18 of workers hold informal sector jobs , but in Latin America , 53 of workers are informally employed . In , 63 of workers are employed in the informal sector . Informal sector work can be unpredictable and Common informal jobs like being a caterer , waiter , rickshaw driver , porter , or construction worker are either seasonal or customer dependent , so workers are not guaranteed regular hours or pay . Many informal workers have multiple jobs . Despite its unpredictability and comparatively low wages , people engage in informal employment , because they do not have access to formal employment opportunities . Having more education closely correlates to being employed in the formal labor market . People who have never attended school or are illiterate are far more likely to work in the informal sector . Women are less likely than men to be employed in the informal sector worldwide , but women in income countries have higher rates of informal sector employment than men . The very young and the elderly are also more likely to work informal sector jobs . Even with steady hours and pay , informal workers may not earn enough to pay for their basic living expenses . In , the average informal worker only makes enough to pay for a meal and a bed in a communal lodging house . Some informal workers try to save money by not paying for housing . Homelessness can be a survival strategy , especially for those who migrate to cities and are working to support their family who remain in their rural community . Sixty percent of India urban homeless send money back to their villages . Not all informal workers are homeless , and workers who hold formal sector jobs still might not make International Labor Organization , Informal Economy 69 . Tipple and Speak , The Hidden International Labor Organization , Informal Economy

190 I HOUSING enough money to pay for housing , especially if they live in place with an expensive housing market . In the United States , people experiencing homelessness tend to have extremely low incomes . The average homeless individual made just 12 of the median income and earned a wage that put them at just 50 of the poverty line . With such low wages , it is nearly impossible to affordable housing on the private rental market . When housing and labor markets fail , the state can step in to provide income or shelter to those who are left out . The state can produce public sector housing that is affordable to those with the lowest incomes , or it can provide subsidies to purchase housing in the private market . The state can also provide welfare to people with very low incomes or to those who are unable to work . In addition , the government can strengthen labor laws and raise the minimum wage to ensure that people who are working can afford to meet their basic needs . The United States has a patchwork system of social service programs . As homelessness was becoming a major urban issue during the , the Reagan and Bush administrations were ushering in substantial cuts to housing and welfare Public and rural affordable housing programs were slashed deeply . Unlike food stamps or social security , the Section housing voucher program is not an entitlement , meaning that the government does not guarantee funding for enough vouchers for all who qualify . As a result , only 24 of people who actually qualify for housing vouchers receive one . Those who fail to qualify can sit for years on a waiting list . Housing wait lists in many cities are closed , and people in need will have to wait for the list to periodically reopen . Some places hold lotteries to determine who will win a spot on the waiting list , because the need is so great . Since housing programs are not sufficient to address the need , the government could provide cash assistance to households to help the housing gap , but cuts to welfare programs have made it for poor individuals and families to access cash assistance . Cash assistance programs mainly serve 70 . Western Regional Advocacy Project , Decade Housing , and Policy , San Francisco WRAP 2006 ) Dylan Matthews , 76 Who Qualify for Housing Aid Get It , May 31 , 2014 , 71 . Peggy Berger , Peggy , and Kenneth , Welfare Reforms Impact on Homelessness . journal and the , 1999 ) Liz , State General Assistance Programs Very Limited in Half the States and

HOUSING I 191 families with children . The 1996 welfare reform legislation placed strict time limits on welfare recipients and added job search and training requirements . Prior to welfare reform , at least 20 of welfare recipients had been homeless at some point in their lives . As families cash were terminated , states began to see an uptick in shelter usage . Unlike families with children , single adults rarely qualify for cash assistance . Most states used to offer general assistance , which was a monthly cash subsidy for individuals , but now only 11 states offer assistance to single adults . The amount of assistance is extremely low , ranging from 120 a month in Alaska to a high of 600 a month in Nebraska . Politicians who pushed for welfare cuts and reforms insisted that poverty could be solved if people would work instead of receiving assistance . Not only does this political stance ignore the fact that many jobs do not pay enough to lift people out of poverty , but it also fails to take into account people who are unable to work . People with physical or mental disabilities may require government support to meet their basic needs . The Social Security program provides monthly cash to people of all ages who are too disabled to work . However , the rate has failed to keep up with the cost of In Seattle , the cost of housing rose by over 600 in a time period , but the average disability had increased by only 50 , leaving many households unable to housing . The maximum individual disability provides an income that is only 75 of the federal poverty rate , leaving recipients struggling to affordable housing and , therefore , vulnerable to homelessness . In many countries , the government does not have the revenue , capacity , or the political will to provide assistance to address housing and labor market failures . In countries that do not have a strong social welfare system , families often play a critical role in preventing homelessness among their kin . In , families traditionally lived in compound houses , which provide shelter for an entire extended family including Nonexistent in Others , Despite Center for Budget and Policy Priorities , July , 2020 , 72 . David , Once a safeguard against homelessness , disability payments can keep up with the rent , Crosscut , 2019 , A Deadly Poverty Trap Asset Limits in the Time , Center for American Progress , April , 2020 .

73 . 74 . 75 . 192 HOUSING In family compounds , members share kitchen and bathing facilities and contribute to household and agricultural tasks . Relatives in need of a place to live can not be turned away from the family compound . However , compound life is not always easy . Interpersonal can drive family members away from the compound . Given the collective ownership rights of family members , disagreements might arise about who is responsible for upkeep and repairs . If the family faces economic hardship , collective ownership structures make it difficult to sell or borrow money against the property . Finally , women and their children can be kicked out of the family compound if their husbands dies or they divorce . Women homelessness is caused by the same structural factors that impact men ability to obtain adequate shelter , but women face additional housing barriers due to gender In many countries throughout the world , women are paid less than men , which makes it even more challenging to afford housing . It not surprising that households have a higher risk of homelessness than headed households do . Women may also face housing market barriers . In some parts of the world , women are barred from buying property or obtaining loans , which can make it difficult for them to housing if they do not have a male spouse or partner . In addition , women may lose their housing if their male spouse or partner dies or divorces them . Women lack inheritance rights in many countries , so if their husband dies , his family might inherit their home , leaving the widow with no place to stay . In Kenya , 70 of all informal sector households are headed by single women . One quarter of those lost their prior housing when their spouse died . Even in countries where women have inheritance rights , a woman may be reluctant to take her husband family to court , because she may believe that the court system will not rule in her favor . 75 Throughout the world , women are subjected to domestic violence . In the United Kingdom , 13 of the Esther , and , Family Compound Housing System Losing Its Value in A Threat to Future Housing ofthe Poor . Homing Policy Debate 30 , 2020 ) Global Female Tipple and Speak , The Hidden Women Rights Project , Domestic Violence and Homelessness , 15 , 2021 , Institute for Children , Poverty and Homelessness , The Intimate Relationship between Domestic Violence and Homelessness , October 27 , 2018 ,

HOUSING I 193 homeless population lost their housing after they a violent partner . In the United States , statistics vary widely , with anywhere from one quarter to one half of all women seeking out homeless services reporting domestic violence as the precipitating cause . In New York , 80 of homeless mothers reported experiencing domestic violence at some point in their lives , and one third of all homeless families lost their housing due to intimate partner violence . Domestic violence exacerbates all of the other structural causes of homelessness . An abusive spouse or partner will attempt to control all aspects of a woman life , including preventing her from working , isolating her from her family and friends , and denying her access to bank accounts or credit cards . If she has no income and lacks a strong support system , a woman might stay in an abusive relationship to avoid living on the streets . Children have even fewer rights than women do . The World Health Organization and estimate there are more than 100 million homeless children differentiates between children who are on the street and children who are of the street . Those who are on the street spend time working or playing on the streets of their city , but they have a home to return to at night . Children who are of the streets are literally homeless and are homeless on their own , not with an adult relative . This typology is somewhat simplistic , and it doesn account for the full range of homeless children experiences . For example , in India , many children who are on the street return at night to their families , who are also sleeping on the street . Like adult men and women , one of the major causes of children homelessness is poverty . Nearly all children of the street in countries come from poor families . In countries where child labor is prevalent , young people might leave their homes in rural areas and go to the city to look for work . Even if they work , they most likely will not be able to obtain shelter . Some street children work to provide money for their families . In Zimbabwe , 35 of homeless children send money to their family . Throughout the world , family dysfunction leads to children and youth becoming homeless . Young people run away from abusive adults in their family . Family violence and neglect can make living on the streets appear to be a safer option than remaining at home . In sub Africa , the AIDS epidemic has orphaned many children . If relatives are unable or unwilling to care for their orphaned kin , they may end up on the streets . Children homelessness is inexorably intertwined with women rights . In countries where women rights are 76 . Tipple and Speak , The Hidden

194 HOUSING limited , mothers may be unable to protect their kids from abuse by leaving their spouse or partner , leaving her children vulnerable to homelessness as they the abuse on their own . In the United States , family dysfunction is one of the leading causes of homelessness for youth who are living on their A disproportionate number of homeless youth have been in foster care or have shuttled between different relatives . Many report living in unstable family situations or having unstable housing situations before they became homeless . Physical or sexual abuse can also force youth to leave their homes . Discrimination also plays a role . Families who are unsupportive of a young person sexuality or gender identity can also make it unsafe or untenable for them to live at home . While poverty , affordable housing shortages , family breakdown , and a lack of a social safety net produce homelessness , it is also important to consider the precipitating events that can lead to an individual becoming The proximate causes of homelessness can lend insight into the risk factors that make an individual vulnerable to losing their housing . In the United States , people experiencing homelessness are more likely to have a severe mental illness or to have struggled with substance abuse than the general population . Various studies indicate that between of the homeless population has severe mental illness and 50 have substance abuse issues . However , these issues may be understated depending upon how homelessness is and which subset of the homeless population was surveyed . Interestingly , people experiencing homelessness who struggle with mental health or substance abuse issues have more in common with the general homeless population than they do with housed populations who are mentally ill or have substance abuse disorders . This seems to indicate that these contributing factors may have exacerbated an individual risk for homelessness , but addiction or mental illness alone are not the primary cause of their lack of housing . Substance abuse and mental illness are not the only precipitating causes of homelessness . Having a history of housing and family instability may also raise a person risk for homelessness later in life . A disproportionate segment of the homeless population spent time in foster care , an orphanage , or other institution during their formative years . In the year prior to becoming homeless , most individuals report some type of major change in their lives . Many report losing jobs or income others had major physical or mental health issues , and some 77 . Robertson , Marjorie . Youth , Homeless , in , ed . David , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2004 ) 78 . Paul , Causes

195 report an increase in their use of drugs or alcohol . Having a change in their relationship or family situation was also common . Breakups , divorces , or giving birth can all raise someone risk of homelessness . Living in an unstable housing situation and having a very low income or precarious economic situation makes it difficult to weather the unexpected events and crises that can be the precipitating cause of homelessness . If you are already paying more than half of your income for rent and you have a limited social support system , a breakup , job loss , worsening addiction , or health problem can end up pushing you over the edge and onto the street . Homelessness Solutions When the modern homeless crisis emerged in the , cities across the responded by establishing temporary shelters so people would not have to sleep on the By the early , there were shelter beds available nationwide . A shelter is a place that provides a temporary accommodation . Most shelters are large , congregate facilities where people are provided a bed or cot for the night . In addition to a place to sleep , many shelters offer meals , showers , and basic supplies and services . Shelters allow residents to stay for the night and often require them to leave during the daytime hours . Shelters commonly prohibit drug and alcohol use , segregate residents by gender , and do not allow pets . Some shelters may place limits on the amount of time that someone can use their services , and others provide accommodations to residents who volunteer to help run the institution . Shelters provide temporary housing for people who are homeless , escaping domestic violence , or fleeing a natural disaster . Shelters are usually run by public , or religious groups . In addition to these officially designated shelters , there are also facilities that become de facto shelters . De facto shelters are places that serve another purpose , but they end up also providing lodging to those who are homeless . Some examples of de facto shelters include jails , emergency rooms , bus or train stations , subways , and campgrounds . The presence of de facto homeless shelters in most cities reveals the limitations of relying upon the emergency shelter system as the primary solution to homelessness . Emergency shelters were established as the 79 . Kim Hopper , Shelters . in ' ed . David , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2004 )

196 initial response to the modern resurgence of homelessness in cities , because most viewed the rise of homelessness in the as a temporary problem that would recede as the economy improved . However , the problem continued to persist and grow , and the number of homeless quickly outpaced the number of available shelter beds . Currently , there are enough shelter beds to serve only 51 of the single adults who were as homeless during the annual homelessness count in Not only are there not enough shelter beds to meet the need , but for most people experiencing homelessness , having access to bed for the night does not help them permanent housing . During the , cities began to focus on providing more comprehensive solutions and creating term shelter A tiered system emerged . People would access emergency housing for a limited time period , then move into a transitional housing facility . Transitional housing programs allow residents to stay for longer periods of time , anywhere from a few months to up to two years . The purpose of these programs is to provide temporary housing and services for a target population , such as families with children or people in recovery , to help them transition into permanent housing . Transitional housing units can be occupancy or apartment units . In addition to increased privacy and security , transitional housing programs provide supportive services , such as job readiness programs , counseling , or mental health care . However , just like emergency shelters , these facilities also require residents to adhere to strict rules or regulations . Transitional housing programs are more effective at getting people into permanent housing than the emergency shelter system is however , since residents occupy units for longer periods of time , there is slower turnover and a severe shortage of beds . In addition , some people have trouble complying with the facility rules or may be ineligible for services , because they are active substance abusers or have a criminal record . People experiencing homelessness and housing advocates began to question the need to transition people into permanent housing . Why not move them directly into a permanent place to stay ?

A new approach to homelessness services emerged in the early . Housing First moves people directly from the streets 80 . National Alliance to End Homelessness , State 2020 Edition , 81 . Martha Burt , Aron , and Edgar Lee , Emergency Shelter Housing ?

Washington Urban , 2001 ) Susan Barrow , Housing , Transitional . in , ed . David , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2004 ) 197 into permanent This approach recognizes that people need to be housed before they can address any other issues they may have . Without stable housing , it is nearly impossible to maintain good health , get job training , or seek treatment . Housing First offers permanent supportive housing , which is a accommodation where people can access an array of services . Residents are not required to obtain services , and there are no barriers to entry , so someone with a criminal history or active addiction can qualify for a unit . The Housing First approach is primarily targeted toward the chronic homeless , or the , visible street population who can be to house . While this approach has been successful , it can be expensive . Unlike transitional housing programs , housing residents are encouraged to stay in their units for a long time , which can require deep , ongoing , public subsidies . Emergency shelters , and transitional and permanent supportive housing facilities are all public policy approaches to addressing homelessness , but people experiencing homelessness have developed their own collective solutions as well . These solutions include both formal and informal encampments , housing , and squats . Sometimes squats and encampments are set up as protest sites designed to demand additional shelter and housing options from local governments . In the in Seattle , SHARE and WHEEL , two organizations run by homeless men and women , established a tent city downtown to protest the city sweeps of homeless encampments during the Goodwill The city eventually allowed the community of over 150 people to convert an abandoned bus garage into a temporary , homeless shelter . When the bus barn shelter closed , the city provided with a building where they created a transitional housing facility . Encampments and building occupations by homeless people have been successful at creating new emergency , transitional , and permanent housing options . The resulting housing options have taken many forms from tiny house communities to car and tent camping sites to cooperative apartment buildings . Housing options that have been developed as a result of grassroots pressure are often , rather than administered by a staff . When people experiencing homelessness 82 . Department and Urban Development , First in Homing Brief July 2014 , 83 . Seattle Housing and Resource Effort and Housing Equality and Enhancement League , History , accessed on July 28 , 2021 ,

198 design and demand their own solutions , they not only want more housing options , they also want to live with dignity and autonomy . Not all encampments or squats are as protest sites . The vast majority of makeshift housing communities are developed for survival . A communal encampment or squat not only provides shelter , but living with others also provides protection and allows people to pool their resources . Sometimes , housing communities engage in protest , even though their settlements were not established as protest sites . In Fresno , California , residents of local encampments successfully organized to demand portable toilets and garbage cans from the Other homeless communities have fought sweeps , or evictions . Throughout most of the world , solutions play an integral role in stemming homelessness . Shelters are rare in countries in the Global Only India , and South Africa use shelters to address homelessness . In India , people who sleep on the streets are often wary of shelters , which split up family members by gender and mix people from different communities and castes . Many homeless people the streets are safer than shelters in India . Rather than focusing on providing emergency shelter options , most countries use their limited resources to increase or upgrade the housing supply . In China , the government tightly controls rural to urban migration . Only residents with an official permit can move to cities . Controlling the pace of rural to urban migration has allowed the Chinese government to plan for growth and provide an adequate affordable housing supply . The South African government gives subsidies to the households to construct or improve their housing or to purchase a plot of land . However , some families have struggled to maintain their upgraded housing because of the monthly bills they incur as a result of adding electricity or running water . Other families are unable to purchase plots of land near their workplace , which can result in transportation cost burdens . Sometimes community members will pool their subsidies to make collective improvements . livin in an informal can make one vulnerable to literal homelessness , movin eo le 84 . Jessie Speer , The Right to Infrastructure A Struggle for Sanitation in Fresno , California Homeless Encampments . Urban 37 , 2016 ) 85 . Tipple and Speak , The Hidden

199 out of informal areas and even off the streets into newly built housing elsewhere can also produce unintended hardships . Families may be relocated far from their place of work , and the survival networks they established within their community might be disrupted . When informal housing settlements are evicted in , entire neighborhood economies can collapse . Transportation workers , nannies , food , vendors , and can disappear if a neighborhood is cleared . Evicting people from informal settlements and moving them into newly built neighborhoods is not only disruptive , it also costly . Rather than building new housing , most governments focus on providing services to informal communities and resources so residents can improve their own structures . An organization in Ecuador produces housing kits made from local materials that are affordable to the These homes can be assembled in a day and cost far less than the most affordable public housing . Families purchase the kits by paying monthly installments equal to of the minimum wage for two years . The title to home is the names of the mother and children in the family , ensuring stability . The poorest households are prioritized . More than families have built housing using these locally produced kits . Throughout the world , the most effective solutions to homelessness involve providing resources directly to individuals and communities so they can improve their shelters and Upgrading existing makeshift housing and making infrastructure improvements to informal communities creates jobs and can potentially increase a household income if they can expand their home enough to be able to take in boarders . Countries can also prevent women and children from losing their housing by making changes to property and inheritance laws . Brazil adopted a legal provision that puts land titles in the name of both partners in a household regardless of their marital status . In countries that do not have the resources to provide housing to everyone who is living on the streets , strengthening labor laws and ensuring access to basic services can improve homeless people lives . Making sure that people have access to toilets and other sanitary services as well as to education and health care are essential . In addition , homelessness needs to be decriminalized . No one should face the added burdens of being swept or 86 . World Habitat Awards , Crista , accessed July 27 , 2021 , 87 . Tipple and Speak , The Hidden

200 HOUSING evicted from public spaces . can result in homeless people losing their source of income , their property or their liberty . A Right to Housing Every nation in the world has at least one international agreement that recognizes the basic human right to have adequate Having a right to housing does not necessarily mean that governments have to take responsibility for building enough homes for all of their citizens , but rather , it involves extending legal protections to prevent people from being evicted or displaced , ensures tenure rights , and guards against housing discrimination . Some nations , like Mexico , South Africa , Russia , and Portugal , have language guaranteeing a right to housing in their constitutions . However , language ensuring a right to housing is worthless without policies that allow that right to be realized . The Right to Adequate Housing In 1991 , the UN Committee on the Economic , Social and Cultural Rights outlined what an international right to adequate housing entails . Security of Tenure Regardless of whether one rents , owns , or owns their home that is in the public or private sector , they should be protected from forced eviction or harassment . Services and Infrastructure Housing should include access to safe , clean drinking water , energy for cooking , heating , lighting , access to waste disposal and sewage , and emergency services . 88 . UN Habitat , The Right to Adequate Housing , Fact Sheet Number 21 , Rev . 2009 ,

201 . Occupants should be able to pay for housing and still meet their other basic needs . Housing costs should be aligned with wages . Costs may include construction materials when housing is . Habitability Housing should protect occupants from weather and the elements . It should be free of disease vectors , structural issues , and other health and safety risks . Accessibility Housing must be provided to all without discrimination . The specialized needs of various groups should be accommodated for in the housing that is provided . Location Housing should be sited in areas where there are jobs , educational facilities , and services . Cultural adequacy The cultural functions of housing need to be taken into account in its design and provision . Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , General Comment The Right to Adequate Housing , In 2003 , Scotland updated its Homelessness Act to include language granting anyone who ended up homeless the right to be permanently housed in a public or private rental With this new legislation , Scotland became the first country in the world to guarantee homeless people the right to be immediately housed in a permanent housing unit for as long as they need . Prior to this act , Scotland already had a very expansive of homelessness , which made people living in domestic violence situations , those who were up , or those living on a boat or in a caravan eligible for housing services . Scotland legislation basically provides a right to housing . Under this act , local governments must enact 89 . Eric Tars and Caitlin , Great The Scottish Plan to End Homelessness and Lessons for the Housing Rights Movement in the United States , Georgetown journal on , Law and Policy , 16 , Winter 2009 )

202 plans to create additional housing units and to reduce the percentage of unhoused people . In 2020 , 80 of people who applied for homelessness assistance were permanently housed , and many of the remainder ended up moving back in with friends or family ?

Only of those who applied for homelessness assistance in 2020 had been sleeping on the streets . Less than of those who applied for assistance had been evicted or lost their housing . Most had been living with family and friends and were forced to leave after some kind of dispute . The reason that the percentage of homeless who lost or were unable to pay for housing is so low is because the Scottish government provides a wide array of homelessness prevention For example , if your home is foreclosed , the government has the option to purchase it and rent it back to you . When people are evicted from their housing , the landlord must notify the local public housing authority , so they can provide accommodations . Finally , people being released from prison or from health care facilities are moved directly into housing . The Scottish system is far from perfect . Many individuals and families end up living in temporary housing for far too long , but the country has made great strides in holistically addressing homelessness and as a result has reduced the numbers of people who end up sleeping on the streets . There is no right to housing in the United States . New York City , Washington , and the state of Massachusetts guarantee a right to shelter , which does not mean that state or local governments are required to connect people to permanent In these places , unhoused people are more likely to be sheltered , but that often means warehousing them in large , emergency shelters . The city of Sacramento is considering passing a The mandate would obligate the city to provide more units of affordable housing . As it is currently proposed , the mandate would also be tied to an obligation to accept shelter . Some advocates are critical of linking the mandate to an obligation to accept shelter , arguing that it is contrary to the concept of human rights , which recognize the inherent dignity and autonomy of individuals . 90 . Scottish Government , Homelessness in Scotland , une 29 , 2021 , 91 . Tars and , Great Scot ! 92 . Molly Solomon , What would Housing as a Human Right look like in California ?

February 12 , 2020 , 93 . Shawn , Sacramento a New Homelessness Strategy Legally Mandating Housing , New York Times , June 30 , 2021 , 202 .

203 Summary Housing comprises a large swath of the physical infrastructure within a city . Housing can be produced by public or private entities and can be leased or sold on the open market or criteria can determine who is to move into a unit . Housing is a major issue in many cities across the globe . A lack of affordable housing can be caused by housing shortages , a mismatch between housing costs and wages , or by mortgage loans and other functions of the housing sector . A household is considered or shelter poor if they are paying too large of a portion of their income for housing . Cities can address the lack of housing by producing more housing units . Affordable housing can be constructed by the public or private sector . Tax credits and zoning tools can help incentivize builders to create more affordable units . Cities can also subsidize housing costs for their residents . Rent control and tenant protections are important tools that cities can use to address the affordable housing crisis . generation rent control programs have fewer unintended consequences associated with them . When housing and labor markets fail to produce housing that is affordable to all , homelessness can result . Homelessness encompasses more situations than simply sleeping on the streets . Having a more holistic of homelessness can produce a more accurate picture of the problem . In addition to housing and labor market failures , homelessness can also be caused by a lack of a social safety net and family support . Solving homelessness involves more than just simply providing people with a bed for the night . housing solutions , often accompanied by services , can be more effective . Recognizing a right to housing can spur governments to take a comprehensive approach to preventing homelessness and providing immediate support for those who lose their housing .

204 Test your Urban Literacy Think about how the concepts in this chapter apply to your own city . Name the three housing tenure sectors . Provide examples of housing developments in your community that represent at least two of these sectors . What does the concept of housing mean ?

What criteria should be considered when developing a tool to measure whether a household housing costs are affordable ?

Identify three tools that cities can use to make housing more affordable for their residents . What are the strengths and weaknesses of these three approaches ?

How would you define homelessness if you wanted to get an accurate portrait of this problem ?

What are the pros and cons of using an expansive definition of homelessness ?

Describe three factors that cause homelessness . How do these factors produce homelessness ?

What can cities do to address homelessness ?

Find three examples of programs in your city that address the problem .

205 Learn to read the city around you Apply what you ve learned in this chapter by completing a activity in your own city . Create a prototype portable shelter Design a cheap , lightweight , portable shelter that can be used by people living on the streets . The shelter should be waterproof and protect the user from extreme temperatures . As you design your shelter prototype , think about what the potential users may need . Make sure you think about the need for privacy , mobility , and security . Create drawings of your shelter design , and a plan that outlines who might be able to use these shelters , where and how they might be deployed , and how they could be distributed . Present your prototype and plan to your classmates . Calculate the housing wage in your community A housing wage is the hourly , monthly , or annual salary that a person must earn to be able to afford the cost of housing in a particular community . The housing wage assumes that a household should pay no more than 30 of their income on housing . To calculate the housing wage , you will need to out what the average rent is your area . The housing wage will fluctuate depending upon the size of a unit that a household needs . You should calculate the housing wage for at least two household types ( for example , a single adult , or a single parent with two children ) Once you calculate the housing wage , do some more research to learn what people are actually earning in your city or metropolitan area . Write a report about your findings . Analyze real estate ads Collect real estate advertisements from different neighborhoods in your city . Try to find ads from a variety of publications and websites that represent an array of different housing types . Analyze the pictures and texts in your advertisement collection to determine who these homes and units are being marketed to . Think about the demographics

206 of the potential tenants or buyers . Compare different housing types and housing in different neighborhoods . Consider the images and that are used to market housing . What types of messages about home , family , and neighborhood do they reinforce ?

Write a short essay about what you learn and include pictures and texts from the advertisements to support your ideas . Compile your personal or family housing history Think about the role that housing has played in you and your family lives and how housing and other social policies have influenced where you lived . Compile your own or your family housing history . If you are collecting your family history , go back as many generations as you are able to . Write down where you or your family have lived , what type of housing you lived in , whether you rented , owned or shared your home , and how you ended up living there . Think about the broader policies or events that shaped your own or your family housing history . Present your housing history in a narrative form or as an annotated timeline . If you create a timeline , make sure you also include the dates of specific policies or events that influenced your housing history . Design a flexible housing community Design a housing community that can meet the needs of diverse households . Imagine that you have one square block to build a flexible housing community from scratch . Your community will need to serve households of various sizes , incomes , and family types . Think about how to create housing units that can meet the needs couples , single disabled adults , families , and so on . You will need to think through how the individual units will be designed and how they will fit into a larger building and community . Also , think about the spaces between the buildings . Will there be shared public spaces ?

What will they be used for ?

As you design your housing community , think about how you can encourage interaction among residents . Create drawings of your community that show floor plans and the overall design for the block . Present your plans to your classmates . Write a letter advocating for new homelessness policies Write a to letter to an elected official encouraging them to institute a specific policy that you think

207 would help address homelessness in your community . You will need to find out what your community is already doing to address this issue . You discover that your city has already adopted some effective strategies . If this is the case , you might highlight why you believe these strategies are effective and push for more funding or resources for them . If you find gaps in your city approach to homelessness , you may wish to propose a new policy or strategy . This can be a strategy that you come up with , or it can be something that has been developed and implemented in another city or country . When you write your letter , make sure you describe your proposed policy change in detail and address why you think it would be more effective . You will want to persuade your elected official , not alienate them . Think about ways to establish common ground . Develop a myth and fact sheet about a housing issue in your community There are persistent popular myths about various housing issues . Select a housing issue that the public may be misinformed about . Create a myth and fact sheet that challenges commonly held beliefs by presenting clear and verifiable information . Make sure you cite your sources . Explore the relationship between housing and home Consider how our ideas about home relate to the production , distribution , and design of housing . Choose a creative way to examine this issue . You may want to conduct interviews with people in your city and create a short film about the meaning of home . You might approach this topic by reading poems or listening to songs about home . You could do a linguistic analysis or philosophical exploration of the importance of home . Capture your thoughts through a creative medium ( poetry , art , sculpture , collage , film ) and share them with the class .