Urban Literacy Learning to Read the City Around You Chapter 3 Development

. DEVELOPMENT Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter you will be able to Describe how a layout and form reflect its history Articulate the impact that new modes of transportation had on urban development patterns Explain how globalization impacts cities and sparks new types of development Understand the role that local governments play in the redevelopment of urban neighborhoods Identify grassroots development methods and alternatives to development . At the beginning of this chapter , we consider the factors that a city physical form , structure , and land uses . We then explore how a city morphology its history and how transportation technologies affect growth and development patterns . Next , we will investigate how changes in the global economy have reshaped cities and fueled urbanization . Then , we will also look at the ways in which local governments direct and spark redevelopment , changing who lives where and what our neighborhoods look like . Finally , we examine different forms of development and alternatives to traditional ideas about urban growth and development .

64 DEVELOPMENT Historical Urban Development Patterns If you walk the streets of a city anywhere in the world and pay close attention to the layout and design , you may be able to identify when a particular area was developed . Cities that emerged during different historical time periods have distinctive forms . For example , ancient cities were very compact and were surrounded by a defensive wall , and cities that were established as colonies during the Roman Empire are laid out in a grid pattern with two major thoroughfares , one running and another in an orientation Despite their cultural and geographical diversity , ancient cities built between years ago share some similarities . Two features that were present in ancient cities across the globe were the outer walls that surrounded them and their inner , or walled within the city that were the center of religious and political Cities in the Mesopotamian region were , while ancient Chinese cities had a square In some ancient cities , settlements grew up outside of the city walls , but when ancient Greek cities grew beyond their capacity , a new satellite was formed . were constructed in many ancient cities . In Western European cities , castles , a form of a citadel , were built in the center of the city , a Kurdish city in Iraq , is home to the longest , continuously inhabited citadel in the world . The citadel complex is years old This World Heritage site contains the Grand Mosque , where residents of the city still worship , a museum , a few businesses , many residential and commercials buildings that are in various states of ruin , and one family home . The presence of this lone home preserves this citadel status as the world longest , continuously occupied city center . The newer parts of the city radiate out from the citadel and resemble more modern urban forms , but the citadel remains a relic of the city early history , and it continues to play a central role in the lives of residents . mar An to study of the ' Urban book series ) New York , London , and Springer , 2016 ) History and City Planning , Cliff Ellis , accessed October , 2017 , Urban . Ibid . Ron , After year , one family and lots , The New Times , 10 , 2017 , 46 .

DEVELOPMENT 65 Ancient cities were primarily concerned with protecting themselves from outside threats , hence their walls and inner . In Mesopotamian cities , the areas located closest to the citadel were designed and planned intentionally and had an ordered structure to them , while the farther from the citadel you went , structures were more informally built and Those living outside of the city walls were less influenced by the religious , social and architectural customs of the city . However , cities in other parts of the world were more cohesively structured . Ancient Chinese cities were laid out in a grid pattern with the major thoroughfares leading to the city The Greeks and the Romans also used a grid pattern to plat streets in their colonial While the ancient cities cores were intentionally designed and planned , residential neighborhoods were more in . Neighborhoods in ancient cities were usually bounded by a natural feature , such as a river or stream , but the street layouts and built environment shifted as the needs of the inhabitants changed ?

Neighborhoods were often populated by residents who shared a common occupation , religion , or ethnicity , but they were heterogeneous and included people of different status . In the ancient Mexican city of , large apartment complexes were built to house between people who all shared the same occupation or Homes were sites of production as well as residences , and in some ancient cities , neighborhoods included where crops were grown . After the fall of the Roman Empire , cities in Europe were repeatedly attacked and When cities began to in the and centuries , urban settlements were designed around commerce and trade . While these medieval cities also contained outer walls , as the cities grew , new concentric walls . Ellis , History of Cities . Urban . ohn Short , Urban Order to ' Culture and Pawer , Cambridge , MA and Oxford , 1996 ) Natalie May and Ulrike , The Fabric , Urban Topography and ' in , and Rome . and ' Boston , 2013 ) 10 . Geoff , Sarah Clayton , Urban Landscapes Transforming Spaces and Reshaping in The Cambridge World History , ed . Norman , Cambridge Cambridge University Press , 2015 ) 11 . Urban .

66 I DEVELOPMENT were built to accommodate the growing population . In ancient cities , houses opened up to inner courtyards and the outer walls were designed for privacy . Medieval homes were with the bottom occupied by businesses and the upper ones designed as residences . The central plaza of the city was used as a marketplace , rather than for religious or political purposes . During the Renaissance period , European cities continued to highlight commerce and trade but were also concerned with aesthetics and art . Cities that developed during this era have plentiful public spaces and made major investments in urban culture . Renaissance cities often have a primary main thoroughfare that was dotted with public artworks like sculptures and fountains . Cities that were established during this era are dense with radial street patterns that included wide main streets that could accommodate horses and carts , and smaller pedestrian only lanes in the residential areas . The industrial revolution caused an exponential growth in the size and number of cities . In 1800 , only of the world population lived in a settlement that contained more than By 1900 , 10 of the world population was living in cities . Today , more than half of the globe resides in cities , and by 2050 , an estimated 70 of the world will live in an Cities that developed or grew during industrialization looked different than their predecessors . As populations expanded , the need for perimeter protective walls disappeared . Massive factory districts were constructed near city centers . New communities were built around these large , factory complexes . In Manchester , New , the Manufacturing Company was established on an undeveloped plot of land along the River in 1837 , and the company built the town around its massive The factory owners laid out a street grid around the textile mill complex and sold lots to developers to build 12 . Short , The Urban , 37 . 13 . Human Population Urbanization , Population Reference Bureau , accessed October 15 , 2017 , 14 . Nancy , Chang and Economy , Belmont , CA , 2006 ) 15 . Tamara and Randolph , Life and in an American Factor , New York Pantheon , 1978 )

DEVELOPMENT 67 housing for their workers . Manchester urban form is typical of many industrial cities with a central business and industrial district surrounded by working class residential areas . In addition to street patterns , industrial cities also contained central business districts , or downtown areas where commerce , government , and business functions were Factories and manufacturing zones were initially centered in or just outside of the central business Adjacent to the manufacturing zones were working class housing districts that were overcrowded , poorly built , and heavily Residents levels of wealth , access to open space , and decent sanitation increased the farther one traveled away from the central city . Unlike ancient or medieval cities where the powerful lived near the center , those with wealth and power lived outside the industrial city in single family homes where open space and fresh air were plentiful . segregation was evident in both the physical geography and layout of industrial cities . The wealthiest residents lived far enough away from the factories they owned or managed to escape the smoke , wastes , toxins , and smells that these industries Roads , and later , railways made it possible for the wealthy to travel to and from the central city without having to pass through working class districts . In his description of industrialized Manchester , England , Friedrich explained how all of the roads leading out of the central business area were lined with commercial enterprises , which helped hide the squalor of working class housing districts that were located off the main road . These commercial arteries effectively served to conceal from the eyes of wealthy men and women of strong stomachs and weak nerves the misery and grime which form the complement of their In the industrial cities of the northern and midwestern United States , residential segregation was not only based on class , but also on race . Even prior to the Great Migration , when the Black population in northern cities was small , there was evidence of racial segregation . In 1899 , noted sociologist . 16 . Change , 17 . Ernest , The Growth of the City An Introduction to a Research Project , in The City Reader Edition , ed . Richard and Frederic Stout , London and New York , 2000 ) 18 . Friedrich , The Great Towns , in The City Reader Second Edition , ed . Richard and Frederic Stout , London and New York , 2000 ) 4655 . 19 . The Great 20 . The Great Towns ,

68 DEVELOPMENT documented the discrimination that African American residents faced in Philadelphia in housing , employment and political Blacks were concentrated in the inner city Ward and faced higher housing costs than whites did . They were to some of the worst housing in the city , and landlords routinely refused to make repairs on dwellings occupied by African American tenants . While not barred by law from living in majority white districts , when Black families moved into white areas , they faced outright hostility and harassment from their neighbors . These patterns of segregation , and violent discrimination would come to characterize African American experiences in cities throughout the twentieth century . in the Industrial City Nineteenth Century York Although York was established years ago and survived numerous conquests and plagues , northern English city population grew rapidly and exponentially during the Industrial Revolution . the early in the poorest districts of the city , 30 of the houses were built bacl , which meant three sides of the dwelling were attached to neighboring units leaving only one side available for windows and ventilation . Some homes were built along narrow lanes and alleys were only feet wide . Less than half of the homes had an indoor water tap the majority wad to share a common tap with up to 20 other households . The water tap was usually located in a shared courtyard that also contained midden privies , or latrines , that were also used multiple households . Most courtyards were paved and waste from the privies often seeped into surrounding soil . Homes were damp with brick floors that were laid directly upon the ground with no foundation . The city had more than 94 slaughterhouses , which dumped their waste directly into open sewers 21 . William Edgar ( A Social Study , Philadelphia Published for the University , 1899 )

DEVELOPMENT 69 that ran through worl neighborhoods . Small dairy producers maintained in residential areas . York was more densely populated than most US . cities at the time , but was less crowded than Manchester or London . However , the worl neighborhoods were heavily populated with densities of more than 300 . Nineteenth century reformers considered densities of more than 25 to be unhealthy . The crowded , unsanitary conditions led to high rates of infant mortality . In England and Wales , infant mortality rates were already high with newborns not surviving past their first year . York worl districts infant mortality rates were . The leading cause of death was dysentery , and typhoid fever , another disease caused by poor sanitation , was also prevalent . Children who did survive were malnourished . They weighed less and were shorter than their peers in other districts . The mainstay of most worl families diets was bread with butter or jam , supplemented with small portions of meat or vegetables , if the family could afford them . Poverty , a Study of Town Life , London Macmillan , 7901 . Although the Industrial Revolution sparked widespread urbanization in Western Europe and North America , most of the World remained largely rural . European colonization and North American imperialism facilitated industrialization and urbanization in the core parts of the world through the mass extraction and export of raw materials from periphery nations in Africa , Asia , and Latin Just as agricultural surpluses fueled the development of ancient cities , industrialization was enabled by the mass plunder of resources and people from Africa , Asia , and Latin America . Colonization not only involved the complete subjugation of the indigenous economic and political systems 22 . David Clark , Urban ?

City , Second , London and New York , 2003 ) 70 DEVELOPMENT for the of the colonizer , but it also transformed the geography of the colonized Colonization left its imprints on many cities in Asia , Africa , and Latin America . Some of the characteristics of cities that were subject to colonization include extensive infrastructure geared toward the transportation and export of agricultural and mining products , Western in architecture , and and massive inequality between the sectors of town that were inhabited by colonial settlers and the areas that were home to indigenous populations . Core and to describe the global imbalances of power The terms core and periphery are used to describe the unequal economic , political and cultural relationships that exist between the wealthier nations in North America , Europe , Australia and parts of East Asia and the rest of the world . The terms core and periphery replace outdated and imperialistic terms like developed and less developed that are still used by international organizations to distinguish between nations that are advantaged in the global economy and those that are disadvantaged . Rather than grouping nations on their levels of development , which implies that nations who were colonized have the same opportunities to build wealth that their did , the terms core and periphery more accurately describe the economic , political , and cultural imbalances of power that exist among regions ofthe world . Even after independence , colonialism left lasting imprints on layout , planning , and design of African Port cities located along the coast or rivers had the most highly developed economic and political infrastructure . They had been developed under colonial rule as export centers . Additionally , the colonial governments limited indigenous Africans ability to settle in these cities . Europeans also concentrated urban 23 . Time and , 2012 ) Urban beyond the A , London , New York , 2012 ) 24 . Garth Andrew Myers , African Theory and , New York Zed Books , 2011 )

DEVELOPMENT 71 planning functions within the national government , rather than allowing local authorities to manage their own growth and development . After independence , many of these cities experienced large waves of rural to urban migration , and local governments were unable to provide housing and infrastructure to accommodate them . Since many of the cities that were by colonization had already been in existence long before any settlers arrived , to understand cities in Asia , Africa , or Latin America as being solely shaped by their colonial experience only reinforces a worldview . Despite sharing some similar characteristics , cities throughout Asia , Africa and Latin America are diverse and their structure is by their unique development histories before , during , and after the colonial period . Some African nations sought to break free from legacies of colonialism by constructing new capital cities based upon indigenous traditions was planned and built in the and and became the capital of in 1991 . Despite being intentionally planned as a capital , replicated some of the characteristics of colonial cities , including having a central business district that is dominated by government institutions and housing districts that are highly segregated along class lines . Although the city was built using a master plan , it is a patchwork of formally constructed areas , remnants of the indigenous villages that existed prior to its construction and informal settlements . is another African capital that has been more successful at dismantling colonial urban forms . Established in 1974 , was planned to be a physical manifestation of , which was an African political and economic philosophy that built upon traditional village communalism , and interdependence . Residential neighborhoods in were designed in pods of 10 homes that were built around a communal green space meant to replicate rural Tanzanian village life . While rural to urban migration outpaced the ability to construct formally planned neighborhoods , experienced less of an influx of residents than did . Residents living in the planned communities worked with residents in informal areas to regularize these areas , to pressure the government for resources , and to involve residents in the planning . 25 . Myers , A .

26 . 27 . 28 . 72 I DEVELOPMENT Transportation and Urban Development In the United States , cities expanded their urban footprints over time , while European cities remained more densely settled . The lower densities of cities were due , in part , to the relative abundance of undeveloped land , but cities also grew in concert with advancements in transportation Throughout time , the borders of cities have consistently been established at distances that are approximately 45 minutes travel time from the city center . As new , faster transportation modes emerged , cities began to open up more land for development , and the edges became more distant from the center . Until the the predominant form of travel within cities was by foot or vehicle . Cities built during this period were small , dense and highly Wealthier citizens could afford to travel by horse and carriage and , therefore , could live farther away from the city center . In the , the electric streetcar facilitated development of lands that were once considered too far away to be developed . Residential neighborhoods , known as streetcar suburbs , emerged around these electric trolley lines . The growth of streetcar suburbs produced a development pattern with residential neighborhoods expanded out on either side of the trolley line , but remaining within walking distance of the railway . In these streetcar suburbs , the avenue the trolley ran down became a thriving commercial zone , with residential streets laid out along a grid on either side . Streetcars were the form of mass transportation , and the communities that emerged along the lines varied in make up from lower working class enclaves to middle class neighborhoods . The introduction of the automobile in 1916 reshaped the urban development As car ownership grew , the undeveloped areas in between various streetcar lines became attractive sites for . These new neighborhoods reduced the demand for constructing new streetcar lines . As car ownership grew , automobiles began to compete for road space with trolley lines and mass transit fell . Peter Muller , Transportation and Urban Form Stages in the Spatial Evolution of the American Metropolis , in The Geography , Third ed . by Susan Hanson and Genevieve , New York The Press , 2004 ) Ibid . Ibid .

DEVELOPMENT I 73 The rise of the automobile not only helped spark development in unbuilt sections of cities away from rail lines , but it also led to an exodus of residents to new communities being developed outside of the In the and , or roads that were designed strictly for automobiles were constructed outside of major cities . These roads were precursors to freeways and took urban motorists out into the countryside . The earliest suburban communities sprung up alongside parkway routes . were not only embraced by real estate speculators , but also supported by farmers , because these thoroughfares allowed them to transport their crops to urban markets more efficiently . By 1929 , every state had instituted a gas tax to fund new road construction to accommodate the nation growing of automobiles . While state and eventually the federal government viewed road building and maintenance as public services that should be funded by tax dollars , mass transit projects like streetcars received no subsidies , yet were forced to keep their fares low under local regulations . As road construction accelerated and automobile usage grew , streets no longer functioned as multipurpose public spaces ) During the century , the street was more than just a transportation thoroughfare through urban neighborhoods . It was a place for recreation , a place to sell goods , and a neighborhood gathering spot . With the rise of the automobile , streets were built and designed for fast travel . The speed and number of cars made it unsafe for people to use the street for any purpose besides traveling from one place to the next . After World War II , federal housing policies and subsidies coupled with advancements in construction technology fueled massive suburban Veterans returned from the war to a nation that had a severe housing shortage . Few housing units had been built during the Depression or the war , and young were eager to start their own families . In response to the wave of home foreclosures during the Great Depression , the government guaranteed mortgage loans through the Federal Housing Administration ( and later through the Veterans Administration ( VA ) These loans made accessible to white , working class families . The underwriting rules used by the and VA and adopted by private sector lenders favored newly constructed , homes in racially and ethnically 29 . Kenneth , Frontier of the United Slam , New York and Oxford Oxford University Press , 1985 ) 30 . Ibid . 31 . Ibid .

74 DEVELOPMENT homogenous neighborhoods . These homes were likely to increase in value , so families looking to purchase new suburban homes had no trouble getting . These same underwriting rules viewed inner city communities , Black neighborhoods , and racial and ethnically heterogeneous areas as too risky to lend to and refused to issue mortgage loans in these communities . This racial and bias in home lending often made it cheaper for white families to purchase a new home in the suburbs than to continue to rent in the city . One of the enduring legacies of racial biases in the mortgage industry is the large gap that persists to this day . In 2017 , of whites owned their own homes , while only of Black families were The availability of federally insured home loans coincided with developments in the construction industry that enabled the mass production of roads and and the surge in automobile ownership opened up farmlands outside of cities for development . began to purchase cheap farmland to construct large residential developments . One of the nation largest , and Sons , used an construction process that allowed them to quickly build simple homes with identical floor plans and . While these innovations in didn originate with the , they became associated with them due to the publicity their developments received and the sheer number of homes they built . The constructed more than homes . The first on Long Island was the largest housing development ever constructed by one company . It contained more than identical homes that were designed to be easily expanded as families grew . The development included some playgrounds and green space , but initially , there were no stores , schools or other amenities . came to characterize the suburban homogeneity that was captured in the lyrics of Reynolds 1962 song Little Boxes Little boxer on the , little boxer made boxcar all same . 32 . Breaking down the Gap , ung Choi , accessed on December 19 , 2020 , 33 .

DEVELOPMENT 75 Characteristics of the Post World War II Suburbs Located outside the urban core Dominated by , detached homes with yards Homogeneity in terms of design , with just a few different home plans available in developments across the country for white working and middle class households ( who were able to obtain mortgage lending ) Racial segregation Class segregation Dominated by young , Mostly residential As a result of the postwar suburban boom , cities became far more decentralized then they were in the past . cities retained their walking city cores , but the central city was now surrounded by multiple rings of suburbs that decreased in density the farther away from the core you As white began to move en masse to suburban areas , manufacturers and retailers soon Followed . The resulting development pattern was polycentric with multiple business centers within a single metropolitan area , and communities that are along class , race , age , lifestyle , and occupational lines . Today suburban residents are now far more likely to work in their own or a neighboring suburb than they are to commute to the central The Los Angeles metropolitan area is representative of the prototypical urban Form in the 34 . Muller , Transportation and Urban Form 35 . Commuting in America 2013 The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends , American Association of State Highway and Transportation , accessed on October 30 , 2017 , Flow .

76 DEVELOPMENT century . Rather than a dominant central city surrounded by residential suburbs , it is more of a city region with multiple networked employment and industrial centers that maintain ties to other parts of the region as well as to global production Scholars have new elements of the city region . Joel uses the term edge city to describe the centers of industry , retail , and space that have emerged on the metropolitan Edge cities develop in existing suburbs or in , or newly developing areas , on the outer suburban fringe . Edge cities are hubs of employment , office and retail space , and some are centered near airports or other transportation hubs . Robert Fishman describes the as a sprawling , suburban agglomeration of companies , parks , retail , housing , and agricultural spaces that emerge along highway corridors and span multiple towns and An example of a is the eastern Seattle suburbs that line highways and 405 and are home to the headquarters of and other tech giants . Globalized Cities By the and 19805 , cities were increasingly decentralized with poorer residents clustered in declining inner city neighborhoods and wealthier residents living in newer , more socially homogenous suburbs away from the urban core . Many cities populations shrunk as a result of the mass exodus to the suburbs . European cities did not follow this model . Greater state involvement in planning and welfare provision , more regulation , a relative lack of land to expand upon , and longer urban settlement histories produced cities where wealth and power were concentrated in the urban core , while impoverished residents were relegated to suburban Cities in Asia , Africa , and Latin America followed a model similar to the European one , with the poor living on the edges of the city and the wealthy settling in the center of town . However , due to different historical trajectories , these cities exhibited characteristics not seen in Western Europe or North America . Cities in the Global South have concentrations of power and wealth in central city areas that were 36 . Edward Soja , My . 15 ed . Berkeley University Press , 2014 ) 37 . Joel , Edge City on . Garden City , 1991 ) 38 . Robert Fishman , Utopia ' New York Basic Books , 1987 ) 39 . Change ,

DEVELOPMENT I 77 once dominated by a colonial Some of these cities also have suburban commercial business districts , and most have vast neighborhoods of informal settlements often built in vulnerable areas like hillsides or plains that may lack adequate housing , water , sewage , and other basic infrastructure . Toward the end of the century , the process of globalization began to reshape urban development patterns around the world , blurring some of the regional differences that had cities under earlier world economic systems . Globalization is the strengthening and deepening of world economic ties enabled by innovations in technology , like the rise of computers , mobile networks and container These technological advances coupled with changes in political and economic policies have exponentially increased global trade , reshaped labor networks , facilitated the movement of people , goods and cultural products around the world , and changed how our cities look and function . What is Globalization ?

Capitalism has always been a world system . Since its rise , industrial capitalism has consisted of global supply chains of raw materials , labor , and manufacturing . For example , the cotton that fueled the textile mills in Manchester , England , was imported from the American South and was planted , tended , and harvested by enslaved Africans who had been kidnapped from their communities and forced into labor by a global human trafficking system . What distinguishes our current system of globalization from the capitalist networks that emerged 500 years ago ?

40 . The Developing City A comparative analysis of urbanization in Africa and Latin America , Dara MacDonald , accessed on October 30 , 2017 , 41 . What is Globalization ?

Levin Institute , accessed on October 31 , 2017 , 78 I DEVELOPMENT According to geographer David Harvey , globalization produces compression the elimination of traditional barriers of distance , borders , and space . Since money and information can travel the world in mere milliseconds , two cities separated by thousands of miles are now more intensely intertwined . The click of a keyboard in one city can determine the fortunes of a place across the world . Financial transactions made in a city thousands of miles away may now have more of an impact on the economic wellbeing of a community than a policy made by their national government . The new globalization phenomenon developed as a result of technological innovations in computing and container shipping that enabled a faster exchange of goods and services and revolutionized the structure of the global economy from being organized around industrial production to creating a system where knowledge and information drive profit and development . Sociologist Manuel calls our current iteration of capitalism the Information In the Information Age , simply having more knowledge is as important as finding new ways to process and apply that knowledge . The new knowledge networks reshape our economic , political , social and cultural relationships leading to new spaces of inclusion and exclusion . Harvey , David . 1990 . The condition of an enquiry into the origins of cultural change . Oxford England . Manuel . The Rise of the Network Society . Vol . 2070 . Two of the main features of globalization that have heavily life in all cities are the mobility and investment and the subsequent New International Division of Labor . Technology has made it easier for companies to stretch production across the globe . As a result , the management , research and development functions continue to take place in wealthier regions of the world , while manufacturing and services have moved to regions in Asia , Latin America , and Africa . Many and Western European cities were built or developed during industrialization . These cities must now ete with re ions for em lo ment and need to rebrand themselves to

DEVELOPMENT I 79 attract technology , and other service . As the New International Division of Labor was beginning to emerge , industrial cities engaged in by offering large tax breaks and incentive packages to retain and attract new As competition increased and the types of jobs and they were chasing after shifted from manufacturing to technology and services , cities launched extensive campaigns . These campaigns included branding and advertising , but cities also invested in , projects that provided little immediate economic for their residents , but politicians hoped would help put their city on the map . These types of projects include building new sports stadiums to attract or hold on to a major league sports team , bidding to host events like the Olympics or World Cup , or constructing new art museums or cultural centers , preferably designed by internationally renowned architects . By investing in splashy projects , sports franchises , and cultural institutions , cities aimed to provide the lifestyle trappings that appealed to CEOs and upper management however , these were not the only projects cities embraced to promote economic development . As manufacturing moved offshore , large , factory and warehouse districts were left empty . Many cities launched waterfront redevelopment projects that created parks , retail , restaurants and housing along rivers and Historic and arts districts emerged in inner city communities , pushed along by public and private funds . Cities hosted annual music , arts and cultural festivals and built convention centers to attract tourists . These trends are visible in the central business districts and inner city neighborhoods across North America and Western Europe . The core areas of most cities contain retail , cultural , and entertainment zones alongside more typical business functions . In many cities , old warehouses have been converted into lofts and pricey apartments . Inner cities have been redesigned to attract wealthier residents and tourists . These neighborhoods are outwardly oriented , not only serving local residents , but also attracting visitors from across the region and around the globe . While North American and Western European cities are noted for their rising economic inequality , cities in periphery have also been affected by changes in the global economy . As late as 1950 , most of 42 . ohn Short , Alabaster Urban ' University Press , 2006 ) 43 . Short ,

80 I DEVELOPMENT Asia and Africa were predominantly Countries in the Global South , unlike their North American and Western European counterparts , were unable to create an industrial base , because their natural resources and wealth were being exported to fuel urbanization and industrialization in Europe and North ' Andre Frank described this process as the development of However , globalization and the resulting New International Division of Labor sparked urbanization in Asia , Africa , and throughout the Global South . The reason the world has now become majority urban is because of the massive urbanization process that is happening in Asia , Africa , and Latin in the Global South became home to large manufacturing complexes . Rural residents , pushed off land from industrial agriculture , to cities in search of jobs and These rapidly growing cities attracted more industry and services and were seen as new markets for consumer goods , but they were also characterized by economic inequality . Cities in the periphery are home to an internationally oriented elite , a growing consumer class , the urban poor , and recent migrant populations . Rapid urbanization has given rise to a large and complex informal sector . The informal sector refers to economic activities that are not officially registered with or regulated by governing authorities . Informal sector workers are often , and they engage in a wide variety of activities from selling food or drink , to child care , to collecting or recycling waste , to parking cars , to manufacturing . Informal sector work is integrated into the formal economy , even though it is not officially recognized . In some nations in the Global South , of the gross national product is created by informal 47 sector workers . 44 . Clark , Urban City . 45 . Conflict . 46 . Clark , Urban City . 47 . Clark , Urban , 116 .

DEVELOPMENT 81 The Globalization of Sports African players in European football leagues Sports are a reflection of society . Soccer may be the universal sport , but talented football players across the globe are not granted equal opportunities to compete professionally , and globalization has reinforced longstanding economic inequities even as the professional landscape has shifted for players on the African continent . In 1995 , new rules were adopted that allowed European soccer leagues to recruit more international players . By 2019 , more than half of the players in the top leagues in England , Italy , and Germany were born abroad . Soccer had truly become a globalized sport . Thirty percent of international players are from the African continent . While this represents a significant increase in the number of African players in the European leagues , not all talented African football players have an equal opportunity to reach the Premier League or the . Most of the expatriate players hail from five West African , Ivory Coast , or . Some of the focus on these nations can be explained by their colonial histories . For example , Ivory Coast is a former French colony , and France has a long history of recruiting players from nations it had colonized in Africa . But this does not fully explain the different opportunities players have on the continent . In many West African nations , migrating to Europe or North America to pursue economic or educational opportunities is fairly common . Families sometimes pool their resources to send a member abroad . While migration networks are in this region , people in the East African nations of Kenya , and tend to pursue economic opportunities within their home countries or in a neighboring nation . Football players from these nations are rarely recruited by European soccer leagues . The West African soccer players who are drafted by European clubs are often initially paid less than their peers from other parts of the world . While African soccer players are competing at the highest levels , their personal achievements haven translated into major revenue for the soccer

82 DEVELOPMENT in their home countries . African leagues do not have the same resources that soccer do in Europe or South America . As a result , players are recruited to European clubs at a younger age and are sent to platform nations like Belgium or Switzerland , where they receive additional training to prepare to compete in world top soccer leagues . ot all soccer migration occurs from the Global South to the Global North . Players in East Africa are recruited by leagues in other parts of Africa , and South African clubs are emerging as a destination spot for players throughout the continent . In addition , which is scheduled to the next World Cup , is establishing local football academies in Africa to recruit players to for their national team . Poli , African Migrants in Asian and European Football Hopes and Sport in Society 13 , no . 2070 ) and Schmidt , Why Are East African Players Absent in European Football ?

Localizing African Football Migration along Structural Constraints , Colonial Legacies and Voluntary immobility of Sport and Social Issues 44 , no . 2020 ) The differences between cities in the core and cities in the periphery have become less apparent over time . When scholars began to theorize about how globalization was reshaping cities , they noted that characteristics that used to be associated with cities in the Global South were becoming more prevalent in the global cities in the Globalization scholars initially focused their attention on cities that sat at the top of world urban hierarchies . The concept of the world city was developed by Peter Hall in the Hall world cities , which included New York , London , Tokyo , Moscow and others , were described as places 48 . Michael Bounds , Urban Social Theory City , Society , Oxford and New York Oxford University Press , 2004 ) 49 . The Remarkable Legacy Hall The World Cities ( 1966 ) Taylor , accessed on October 31 , 2017 ,

DEVELOPMENT 83 that were home to large concentrations of globally oriented businesses , government agencies , educational and cultural institutions and acted as a headquarters for their nation interactions with the world . built upon Hall notion of a world urban hierarchy when she explored how globalization was reshaping cities . Her global cities are places where the makers of the world economy are She argued that cities like New York , London , and Tokyo , despite their different histories and cultural , share similar characteristics that are a result of their place in this global urban hierarchy . These cities produce a concentration of highly paid and managerial service workers who require a larger group of retail , restaurant , clerical , and other service sector workers to support their needs . This results in a bifurcated economy , where workers drive up the cost of living for workers in sectors . noted how makeshift housing and the informal economy , elements that used to be associated with cities in the Global South , are now deeply entrenched in these global cities . The concept of world or global cities has been critiqued by researchers for failing to capture how ordinary cities , which don contain a high concentration of services , are being reshaped by globalization . Jennifer Robinson argued that the focus on global cities replicates a North American and Western European bias and instead suggested that all cities , regardless of where they sit in a global urban hierarchy , are connected to larger transnational networks that restructure the social relationships and spaces within the She highlighted how Manila is home to a large number of employment agencies that recruit workers for , temporary jobs abroad . The presence of this employment network impacts family , economic and community life in both the city of origin and the destination city . The Process of Redevelopment While a re ion economic niche , its , and trans infrastructure all sha a cit form and structure , decisions about where , how , and whether things will get built , demolished or also la a critical role in how a cit functions and rows . The ma of structures in most cities are built private market developers , but the rules and regulations governing what gets built where are determined by city 50 . Bounds , Urban . Robinson , Global and World Cities A View from Off the Map , and Regional Research 26 , no . 2002 ) 53154 .

84 I DEVELOPMENT governments . One of the primary ways that local governments shape the built environment is through zoning . Zoning laws regulate the purpose and uses of a building , minimum lot sizes , the percentage of land that can be built upon , building features , parking , setbacks , and much more . Prior to the adoption of zoning laws in 1916 in New York City , there was no separation between businesses , industries , and residential areas , so a tannery or slaughterhouse could operate next to an apartment Zoning improved safety and livability in cities , but it also became a tool that was used to enforce segregation . Wealthy communities could apartment buildings by only allowing single family homes or by requiring that homes be built upon a sized lot , effectively making it too expensive for people to live in their town or neighborhoods . In inner city communities , industrial and commercial land was , so speculators could purchase an apartment building with plans to eventually tear it down and convert the lot into a more commercial or industrial use . is when city governments increase the density of structures allowed on a parcel of land . If a lot that has a single family home is to allow for a duplex or apartment complex , investors might purchase the home with the intent to demolish the structure and develop the land into a more use . Land speculators have little reason to invest in the property current use , which can lead to owners refusing to make any repairs and can subsequently result in substandard and unsafe housing conditions . Local authorities do not merely regulate land uses , they can also play an active role in developing parcels . In the , cities have the authority to condemn , purchase , and redevelop land , if it is in the public interest . The Housing Acts of 1949 and 1954 provided funding for cities to purchase and demolish blighted or slum neighborhoods and sell the parcels to developers for Cities were supposed to build replacement housing units for those that were destroyed , although they did not have to construct them on the same site . This process was known as Urban Renewal . During its duration from , housing units were destroyed on over square miles of land , and people were Two thirds of those who were displaced were Black or , prompting noted author James Baldwin to dub the program , 53 . Douglas and Nancy Demon , and the . 76 , Cambridge and London Harvard University Press , 1993 ) 54 . Short , Alabaster , 20 .

. 56 . 60 . DEVELOPMENT 85 Negro Public housing units were built as replacements for the demolished communities , but these projects were usually high density , located in existing ghetto neighborhoods , and sometimes required the demolition of additional housing units in order to construct In some neighborhoods , as few as 10 of displaced residents ended up being rehoused in public housing Urban renewal as it was practiced before 1973 does not occur in cities today , although local governments still occasionally acquire properties for transportation or public interest projects . However , this level of government involvement in redevelopment occurs in other cities around the world . Between 1990 and 2005 , more than 85 of the traditional or housing in Beijing was torn down and replaced with modern apartment As urban populations increased in China , these courtyard homes were subdivided multiple times , and many housed 10 or more Many residents appreciated the new apartments that were built and saw them as an improvement over the housing conditions in the . In this case , ment im roved the situation for man dis laced residents however , the loss of this historic and unique urban form of housing raised alarms both in Beijing and around the globe . In 2005 , the government launched a program to preserve and upgrade the remaining courtyard complexes . redevelopment is not the only form of neighborhood change . or the process by which a neighborhood is transformed into a middle or area , can be viewed as . a private sector version of urban Like urban renewal , older , more affordable housing is renovated Emily Badger , Why Trump Use of the Words Urban Renewal is Scary for Cities New York Times , December , 2016 , and Denton , Short , A barter . Chinese Courtyard Housing under Chinese Socialist Market Economy , Donna Zhang , accessed on November , 2017 , Beijing The Lost City ?

asper Goldman and Carlo Ratti , accessed on November , 2017 , Displacement and the Role of Public Investment A Literature Review , Miriam , Ariel , Karen , Anastasia , Paul and Trevor Thomas , accessed on November . 2017 , 86 DEVELOPMENT or replaced by more expensive units , businesses change , and the original residents of the area are displaced . However , since relies upon myriad actors in the private sector making individual decisions to invest in a community over time , the process is patchy and chaotic . Neighborhoods face pressures when real estate is undervalued and there is a population of people who are willing to live in inner city areas and have enough income to purchase and renovate property or move into newly The undervalued real estate is the input of the process . Real estate investors and speculators will buy up cheap properties , if they believe they have an opportunity to resell them at a . The that occurred in inner city neighborhoods after suburbanization made these areas particularly vulnerable to pressures . Population losses , low rates due to discriminatory mortgage lending practices , and years of neglect by absentee owners drove the value of inner city real estate far below median prices . In addition , as the economy changed due to globalization , scores of factory buildings and warehouses were left empty in industrial neighborhoods . While and the changing urban economy provides a supply of real estate , also requires Starting in the and , younger singles and couples began moving back to the city from the suburban communities where they had grown up . The demand side of was also spurred by economic transformations . service and technology sector companies and their workers began moving into downtown and urban neighborhoods . As companies relocated to renovated warehouse and factory districts , their employees followed . While is primarily fueled by private sector investors , local governments do play a role in sparking Investors are reluctant to put money into neighborhoods that are neglected by city authorities . The initial investments made in these communities often come from the public sector in the form of a new park , transit line , arts facility , housing project , or other development . results in displacement , but the neighborhood changes can take decades to unfold and . ha ens in an uneven manner . renters , families with children and the are most at 61 . Ibid . 62 . Ibid . 63 . Ibid . 64 . Ibid .

65 . 66 . 67 . DEVELOPMENT 87 risk of displacement in communities . Homeowners are not as affected by rising housing costs , although as the value of their home increases , some may decide to sell , or they may also be displaced if their property tax bills rise as a result of increases in home values . Since longtime residents live alongside newcomers , can also produce neighborhood clashes or . Alternative forms of Urban Development While the public and private sectors play a large role in shaping our built environment , not all urban development happens from above . There are grassroots forms of urban development . Community development is when neighborhood or community groups organize to create , plan and carry out projects that will improve their own lives . development often refers to organizations that build affordable housing , provide small business assistance or job training programs , or make physical or social improvements in their In cities , community development corporations carry out revitalization projects in the neighborhoods they serve . The New Community Corporation ( in Newark , was founded in 1968 as was accelerating in the city due to major civil The organization focused on the Central Ward , which lacked many basic services . Their project was an affordable housing development on a two of land that was part of plan to redevelop a area to provide housing , jobs , and needed services like child care . Fifty years later , has created more than affordable housing units , provides support services to neighborhood families , has child care and health centers , offers job training and runs a credit union . The organization also operates a major grocery store . The store was , because Central Ward residents used to have to leave the city to do their grocery shopping . development strategies aim to bring resources and projects to underserved neighborhoods , but focusing solely on neighborhood redevelopment has its limitations . Redevelopment can George Kent , development planning , Third Review , no . August 1981 ) Community Development and Community Organizing Apples and Oranges ?

Chicken and Egg ?

Randy , accessed on November , 2017 , New Community Corporation , accessed 12 , 2020 , 88 DEVELOPMENT become so successful that it sparks private investment and , which can end up displacing the very people that the organization was designed to serve . Community development also doesn challenge the systemic issues that cause . Community organizing can be either an alternative or a complementary strategy to community development that can address these While community development invests in projects , community organizing invests in people . Community organizing is when a group mobilizes to gain political power or to force those in power to provide the resources needed to make improvements in their lives . One of the most famous examples of community organizing is the Back of the Yards neighborhood organization that Saul helped found . This , class Chicago neighborhood mobilized and took direct actions to force public and private institutions to invest resources in their community . They were able to win for home improvement loans that provided much needed renovations in 90 of the neighborhood housing Typically , development , whether on an international or neighborhood scale , implies a , linear model that measures achievement in terms of Sustainable development is an alternative approach to how development is measured . A sustainable development approach focuses on the viability of plans , emphasizes land and resource conversation , and strives for the improved health and being of A sustainable urban development philosophy aims to create a city that reduces its ecological footprint , builds infrastructure and programs that will current and future generations , and has an economy that meets residents basic needs . In South America , an emerging alternative concept of development is the Bum Weir approach . Bum is a philosophy that is heavily by and other indigenous Like sustainable development , Bum Vivir promotes ecological health , but it also emphasizes collective , rather than individual , 68 . Community Development 69 . Back of the Yards Neighborhood Council , Encyclopedia , accessed on November , 2019 , 70 . Kent , development 71 . Stephen Wheeler , Planning Sustainable and Livable Cities , in The City Reader Second , ed . By Richard and Frederic Stout , London and New York , 2000 ) 72 . Buen Vivir The Social Philosophy Inspiring Movements in South America , Accessed on November , 2017 ,

DEVELOPMENT 89 . Bum strives to create harmony among all community members , and in this worldview , all living beings human , plant and animal are considered community members . It placing a monetary value on interactions and exchanges and materialism . Elements of the Bum philosophy have been adopted into the Ecuadorian and Bolivian Summary Our cities layouts and built environments reflect the eras when they were developed . As transportation technologies changed , cities grew and developed in distinct ways . While North American urban regions , European cities remained more compact , with wealth and power concentrated in inner city areas , rather than in the newly built fringe . Cities in the Global South were shaped by colonialism and imperialism . The extraction of wealth from these nations fueled North American and Western European industrialization and urbanization , while nations in the periphery remained largely rural . Globalization has reshaped cities across the world , regardless of the role they play in the global economy . The of capital led cities to compete with one another for investment and jobs . The resulting marketing strategies created publicly funded festivals , events , and developments that were aimed at attracting outsiders , rather than serving the needs of local residents . The New International Division of Labor sparked widespread urbanization in Global South and created a new middle class , while the industrial cities in Western Europe and North America sought to redevelop waterfront and factory complexes . urban renewal efforts have been replaced by public and private sector cooperation to remake communities , resulting in of inner city areas and displacement . Development does not have to adhere to a model . development , sustainable development and Bum Vivir all advocate for greater accountability and community control over development decisions . 73 . Buen Vivir A New Era Social Change , accessed on November , 2017 ,

90 DEVELOPMENT Test your Urban Literacy Think about how the concepts in this chapter apply to your own city . How does the built environment of your city reflect the era during which it was founded and developed ?

Identify at least three examples of your city design and layout that are unique to the historical time frame during which it was developed . Urban neighborhoods look different depending upon what the dominant form of transportation was when they were developed . Compare two neighborhoods in your city that were built during different time frames . How do the neighborhoods differ from those that were built prior to the automobile era ?

Provide two examples of residential segregation in your city . How do you know that these particular neighborhoods are associated with a certain economic class or group ?

What aspects of the built environment provide clues to who lives there and who may be excluded ?

Globalization has transformed cities across the world . Think about how your city downtown area has been reshaped by globalization . Create a list of buildings , businesses , institutions , and public spaces that have been transformed by the deepening of global economic ties . The process of gentrification involves hundreds of private sector transactions , which means it happens unevenly across the space of a neighborhood . What does the slow , uneven nature of gentrification mean for the residents who live in a neighborhood that is undergoing redevelopment ?

What types of conflicts or potential opportunities for collaboration and transformation exist in neighborhoods that are undergoing gentrification ?

Choose one alternative method of development ( ie . sustainable development ) and consider what your city might look like if these principles were adopted .

DEVELOPMENT I 91 Learn to read the city around you Apply what you ve learned in this chapter by completing a activity in your own city . Map patterns of inequality Collect statistical data points that demonstrate different aspects of inequality within your city or region . Your data can come from different local institutions , like health authorities , housing bureaus , or criminal justice departments . Some potential data points could include educational attainment levels , housing tenure , housing conditions , traffic accident rates , disease rates , income or unemployment levels , or crime rates . You will want to make sure that the data you choose is available on the neighborhood , ZIP code , or Census tract level . Once you collect your data points , map them . Do you notice any patterns ?

Are there neighborhoods that are more socially advantaged and others that are socially disadvantaged ?

If you see patterns of inequality , choose two advantaged neighborhoods and two disadvantaged neighborhoods . Collect more data about them . Are there any trends that you notice ?

For example , are neighborhoods more disadvantaged , or are neighborhoods located farther away from the urban core more socially advantaged ?

What do these patterns reveal about segregation within your city or region ?

Repurpose a vacant suburban shopping mall You are part of an urban planning committee that is tasked with coming up with a proposal to repurpose an empty shopping mall . Your suburban community hopes that the renovated mall project will spark further investment in your town . Your community has become increasingly poor over the past two decades , and the town desperately needs more property tax revenue to repair roads , build new schools and maintain parks . While many businesses have left within the past decade , there is some hope . There is a large , recent immigrant population that has opened a

92 DEVELOPMENT number of new , small businesses in the downtown core , which is an area that was badly in need of investment . You also have a large senior citizen population , many of whom live on fixed incomes . Your community is located near a rail line , which potentially makes it attractive to young professionals who are being priced out of the neighboring large city . The town has an opportunity to spark new investment , raise tax revenues and meet the community needs by redeveloping a shopping mall . The mall has two big box anchor stores and 20 shops in between . It also has a large parking area and is across the street from the rail station . Design a plan to repurpose this empty shopping mall . How would you develop this space ?

What types of businesses or other uses ( industrial , residential , recreation ) should occupy this space ?

Write a plan that describes how the mall is to be . Include a detailed planning map that shows how the indoor and outdoor spaces will be used . Make a photo essay about One of the features of gentrification is the juxtaposition of two seemingly different worlds sharing the same space ( new , etc ) Make multiple visits to a area in your city and document what you see . Organize your photos into a visual essay or slide show . Think about how the images relate to one another and how you want to use these photos to tell a story . You may include short captions under each photo , or you could let the images tell the story on their own . Trace a transnational network Identify a transnational network that your city is a part of . You might find transnational connections within local industries , like auto manufacturing or sportswear , or tied to specific businesses , such as a multinational corporation headquartered in your area . You may also have communities that have transnational ties . For example , your city may be home to people from a particular region of Mexico or to a small religious sect from Iran . You can also find transnational connections within your local university or within arts or cultural institutions . Find out as much as you can about the geography of this network . Create a diagram that shows the different geographic nodes within this network , how they relate to one another and the role each one plays within it . Write a short reflection about the impacts each node in the network has on the others .

DEVELOPMENT 93 . Outline small steps your neighborhood or campus could take toward sustainability Imagine that your city has decided to integrate a sustainable development perspective into its policies and programs . Define what sustainability means and how you will use this perspective to guide . Outline 10 small action steps ( place recycling cans in all school buildings ) your neighborhood or campus could take to become more sustainable . Compose a letter to the local newspaper protesting urban renewal Identify a neighborhood where urban renewal occurred . The neighborhood may be in your city or can be in another . Research what the neighborhood was like before it was bulldozed and what it was replaced with . Write a short ( 250 word ) letter from the perspective of a resident or business owner who is going to be displaced by urban renewal . In your letter , describe why the neighborhood should be saved . Adapt your city to the transportation of the future Choose an emerging form of transportation that might become more commonplace in the near future ( like cars or rail ) What types of infrastructure will this form of transportation require ?

How will it change the ways in which we get to and from places ?

Will it spark new ways of living , working , and socializing ?

Create a booklet that outlines how this new form of transportation might change how our cities are structured , laid out and will function . Compare two business districts from different eras in your city Visit a part of your city that was built in the walking or streetcar suburb era and then visit an neighborhood . Take a walk in the neighborhood and record your observations . You can film the area and narrate what you see or you can take notes and photographs of your observations . Create a short video or essay that compares the land uses , layouts , and social life in these two neighborhoods .