Urban Literacy Learning to Read the City Around You Chapter 1 Cities

. CITIES Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter you will be able to . Define the key characteristics that make a place a city Identify the main features of ancient cities Understand how the physical characteristics of a city create unique social relationships Compare and contrast urban and traditional societies Examine how the design of cities create opportunities for intimacy , anonymity , and new forms of social interaction Articulate the role that public space plays in influencing urban social life What makes a place a city ?

When we think about cities , often the first thing that comes to mind is a skyline dotted with tall buildings . But some cities , like , Morocco or San Jose , California , have , and towering structures can exist outside of urban areas . There are giant grain silos in small farming towns and soaring lighthouses perched on isolated , rocky shores . If cities are not by their , then how can we differentiate urban places from small towns or rural communities ?

In this chapter , we will identify the features of cities . We look at how cities emerged and how they changed social relations in the ancient world . We will then focus on the contemporary elements that CiTiES are common to all cities no matter where they are located . Finally , we will explore how these characteristics of cities shape the lives and relationships of the people who live within them . Ancient cities Within the broad scope of human history , cities are a relatively recent phenomenon . The earliest cities were established nearly years ago in the Middle East . The emergence of these initial urban centers coincided with the development of agriculture . As ancient peoples began to farm rather than hunt and gather , they were able to establish more permanent settlements . When these communities began consistently producing a surplus of food , it allowed some residents to devote their time to tasks , such as religious duties or art , which resulted in differentiated social roles and more complex forms of community organization . Cities appeared in earnest around years ago , developing simultaneously across the globe from North Africa to East Asia to the Americas . Despite their geographic and cultural differences , these ancient cities shared many common These were densely settled communities made up of permanent structures with a specialized division of labor that supported a ruling class or a group of people whose sole function was to make economic , political , or religious decisions . Residents of early cities had to contribute a portion of the goods they produced as a tax or tribute to a centralized authority . That surplus was used by authorities to construct temples , civic buildings , and monuments , and in exchange for their contributions , urban dwellers were granted certain rights and were guaranteed protection . Many ancient cities developed systems of writing that helped keep track of citizens contributions and made advancements in the sciences and art . Finally , these cities conducted trade and imported raw materials from areas beyond their borders . Not all early cities had monumental architecture or developed systems of writing While initial scholars of ancient cities the physical characteristics that early urban settlements shared , more recently , researchers have focused on the social and cultural characteristics that differentiated the urban experience from village life and on the relationship between ancient cities and their surrounding . Alexander Thomas , Urbanization before Cities Lessons for Social Theory from the Evolution , of , 18 , 2012 ) Natalie May and Ulrike , The Fabric ' Urban Topography and in , Greece , and Rome . Culture and ' Boston , 2013 )

Regardless of the types of buildings they contained or systems of accounting they used , all ancient cities were centralized settlements that held political , economic , or cultural over the outlying countryside . Urban societies developed forms of specialization , had population diversity , and created institutions or networks of power that shaped the political , religious , economic , or cultural life both within and outside of the city walls . Ancient cities did not arise in isolation . The emergence of cities was closely tied to the developments that occurred within the larger societies that they were a part of . Cities should not simply be understood as a major mark of progression in human history , but as a product of societies that were engaged in a scale process of developing more complex community systems and In other words , before cities could be developed , economic and social infrastructure such as trading networks already had to be in place to support their rise . Still , Babylon and other ancient cities differed from the smaller villages and migratory communities they replaced . Not only were they visibly different in terms of their physical size , population densities , and notable structures , they also created new ways of living , forms of social organization , and culture . Not all ancient cities had kings Until recently , not much was known about ancient cities in Africa due to biases in archeology and the lack of archeological digs on the continent . The ancient city ( was located along the Middle River valley in Mali . Unlike early urban settlements in other parts of the world , contained an outer wall , but it had no palaces , elite residences , or other monumental buildings . Instead , there was a clustering development pattern where smaller compounds were grouped closely together . The . Alexander Thomas , Urbanization before Cities Lessons for Social Theory from the Evolution , of , 18 , 2012 )

10 archeological evidence indicates that there was a variety of types of economic activity and a diversity of burial practices , suggesting that the city contained a people from a number of different cultural groups who specialized in particular trades like herding , agriculture , fishing , or . Rather than being organized in a hierarchical manner and ruled by force , appears to have had a more decentralized form of government that was based on trading relationships . There is evidence that people may have migrated there from other parts of the Sahara as the climate began to change and lakes and rivers dried up . The city of endured for more than 1500 years , and archeologists have found no evidence of warfare during that time . As we learn more about the ancient cities of Africa , our understanding about how early urban settlements came about and subsequently , how cities function may change dramatically . Roderick , Different Cities and African Urbanism , in The Cambridge World History , Cambridge Cambridge University Press , 2075 . Three characteristics of urban places While cities had existed for thousands of years , in the late and early centuries urban populations grew exponentially as countries in Western Europe and North America industrialized . In the first half of the century , England began to urbanize at a rapid rate and before the end of that century , a majority of Europeans were living in cities . By 1920 , the United States became a majority urban As nations were shifting from being predominantly rural societies to urban ones , scholars observed and analyzed the impacts that rapid industrialization and urbanization had on society , community relationships , and individual behavior . Late century European scholars Ferdinand and Emile explored how urban society . Census Bureau , Urban and , 15 ,

11 differed from village life . used the phrase , which means communal , to describe typical village life , which is structured around shared values and has strict social roles and rules . He contrasted this with or society , which described a more complex and individualistic urban world that is governed by . Similarly , coined the term mechanical solidarity to characterize the shared culture and values of traditional rural life . His concept of organic solidarity referred to the structure of urban society , which is based more upon selective interdependence and governed by institutions and laws rather than shared cultural traditions . Both theorists were concerned with the demise of traditional communal life and worried that rapid urbanization would produce an overly individualistic society . However , neither theorist the criteria that makes a place urban or rural . Traditional ( rural ) society What labelled and called Mechanical Solidarity Homogeneous Static roles Shared beliefs , values , social ties Places the community above the individual Urban society called this and used the term Organic Solidarity Heterogeneous Social mobility and economic specialization Held together by interdependence and voluntary association , rather than communally driven

12 In 1938 , Louis , a sociologist , argued that previous philosophers of urban life had equated urbanization with industrialization and capitalism . set out to separate the city from the economic and social changes that were fueling its growth and development . He described the city as a relatively large , dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals In order to fully understand of the city , we need to break down each of the statements within it . states that a city must be a relatively large place . But , what exactly does large mean ?

According to the Census Bureau , a community must have at least residents to be considered However , having residents spread out over 100 square miles wouldn constitute a city . In addition to having a certain number of residents , the Census Bureau also stipulates that this population needs to be clustered in a fairly compact space that contains mixed such as homes , businesses , industries , government institutions , and other types of services . Other nations use different population thresholds to differentiate urban places from rural ones . Given this variation in of communities , the United Nations has declined to create a uniform of a city , instead accepting the that each nation uses to and count its own urban But basic of urban places include both a population threshold and some marker of density as identifying features . Having a large population in one place produces particular characteristics and conditions . argued that large populations create increased specialization and diversity . As cities have grown and developed , the level of specialization within them has also increased far beyond the , scribes , and priests that once distinguished ancient urban societies from rural ones . While you rarely a movie theater that specializes in Japanese horror from the 19703 or a vegan delicatessen that sells meat substitutes in a small town , you would not be surprised to discover such a place in a city . Having a large population size allows groups of people to one another and bond over obscure interests . Specialization and diversity . Louis , Urbanism as a Way ofLife , of Sociology 44 , I , US Census Bureau , Geography Urban and Rural , accessed June 17 , 2017 , United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs , World Urbanization Prospects The 2014 , accessed June 30 , 2017 ,

13 are also evident in urban economies . While there may be only one or two restaurants in a small town , cities often have a of eateries that cater to diverse tastes . That specialization contributes to the outsized role cities play in the world economy . The 600 largest cities in the world are home to just 20 of the global population , but will soon generate 60 of the worldwide economic The largest of these cities are called . The United Nations considers any city with a population of more than 10 million a . There are currently 29 in the world , many of which are located in Asia , Latin America , and Africa . While the concept is a useful way to identify the shared challenges large cities face , it is often used in an alarmist fashion to draw attention to the resource strains and struggles that cities in countries face as large numbers of rural residents migrate to them . Even though many struggle to provide adequate resources to their inhabitants , residents almost always have greater opportunities and a higher standard of living than people do in the surrounding rural areas . Top 10 The ten largest in the world by population ( including their metropolitan areas ) Tokyo , Japan 37 million . Delhi , India 31 million . Shanghai , China 28 million . Sao Paolo , Brazil 22 million . Mexico City , Mexico 22 million . 22 million . Cairo , Egypt 21 million . UN Habitat , Cities 2016 and Emerging Futures , accessed June 17 , 2017 ,

14 . Beijing , China 21 million . Mumbai , India 20 million 10 . Osaka , Japan 19 million , The Twenty Largest Cities in the , Architecture Daily , April 21 , 2021 , Cities not only impact those within their immediate boundaries but also the regions around them . The Census Bureau differentiates between cities and areas . A metropolitan area ( also referred to as a Metropolitan Statistical Area , or an by the Census Bureau ) refers to a city and its surrounding suburbs and neighboring towns that are interdependent in terms of geography , economics , and infrastructure ?

The concept of an or metropolitan area is not unique to the United States it exists around the world . In China , the official boundaries of a city may encompass a variety of land uses from a densely populated urban core to still undeveloped farmlands , because cities are as political administrative While an entire metropolitan area or administratively city zone may share important traits , life within the core city still differs dramatically from life within the less densely populated areas around it . For example , life in a suburban Long Island town has a different pace and rhythm than life in New York City does . And a small farmer living on the edge of Chongqing may interact with her immediate community in different ways than her counterpart in the city does . The key characteristic that differentiates the city proper from its surrounding communities is the density of . Census Bureau , and , 17 2017 , 10 . Wing Chan , Problem with China Urban Population Data , 17 , 2017 ,

I 15 its population . argued that density leads to intense competition for space and a tendency for people to take advantage of one another . As a result , he concluded , cities need to develop forms of social control to keep this chaos organized . also believed that density exposes urban residents to stark contrasts , which some of the social critics of his day worried could lead to urban dwellers adopting a blase or callous attitude towards other residents . The negative associations that ascribed to densely populated places have been challenged by other urban theorists . Jane Jacobs chronicled the of daily life on her New York City block and concluded that density produced uniquely urban forms of cooperative social Jacobs cataloged her neighborhood sidewalk ballet , a highly choreographed and complex form of organic organization that kept her neighborhood functioning in a way that made residents feel safe and intimately connected to others in the community . Regardless of the impacts that size and density have on urban life , these are features of urban places . also noted that cities are characterized by their heterogeneity . Cities are with different types of people , some of whom have lived there for generations and others who were born elsewhere but are drawn to the economic or social opportunities that urban areas offer . Cities diverse economies and cultures attract migrants who may be from nearby rural areas or parts of the globe . Since urban residents come from different places seeking out better opportunities , cities often have a more diverse and social structure . noted that urban residents interactions with diverse groupings of people led to more in one social status and position . While village or small town residents are often assigned a set role to play within their community , may adapt and shift their identities over time and even within the course of a day as they interact with different groups of people . This social can provide increased individual opportunity and advantage , but and many of his contemporaries argued that it also led to a loosening of traditional community bonds and a loss of social connection . 11 . Jane Jacobs , Death and , Cities ( New York Vintage Books , 1992 )

16 Urban In the , sociologist Claude Fischer further explored the concepts of size , density and heterogeneity and arrived at a very different conclusion than Louis While based his ideas on how anonymous city dwellers reacted to other strangers in public spaces , Fischer instead focused on the unique norms and values that develop among individuals in their private networks . Fischer theorized that the large , dense , and heterogeneous character of the city allows for to develop and . A critical mass of individuals who share a particular interest , ideology , or identity can connect with one another and form a network . That network , in turn , may develop unique behaviors and values that become a distinct subculture . A subculture is a community within a larger society that develops a set of values , norms or behaviors that is different than or in opposition to the dominant culture . Sociologist Dick views as expressions of the social experiences of their In , fashion , music , hairstyles , or leisure activities become key symbols of the group redefinition of itself . For example , the punk music scene emerged in the United Kingdom during a time of economic recession when the dominant political discourse was concerned about despair and national decline . Punk fashion embraced those narratives of decline by donning torn clothing , wearing everyday objects like safety pins as jewelry , and appropriating profane symbols in a way that jeered at the British economic and political system . Hip hop A New York subculture goes global are influenced by the time and place where they developed . Hip hop emerged in the South Bronx in the . During this time , the city was facing an economic crisis that was 12 . Fischer , Claude The Subcultural Theory A Year Assessment , a , 101 , 1995 ) 13 . Dick , Subculture The caning ( London Taylor and Francis , 1979 )

CITIES 17 felt even more intensely in Black and neighborhoods in the Bronx . White flight and deindustrialization gutted neighborhood infrastructure , leading to a lack of entertainment and recreational spaces for young people . Neighborhood youth hosted block parties in the abandoned lots and buildings that featured local . like Kool who were part of the Jamaican dub scene would play extended breaks or musical interludes during which people could show off their best dance moves . or ( later shortened to or ) would dance on makeshift cardboard stages . eventually began rhyming over the breaks to encourage the dancers , and were born . culture had four main elements , break dancing , and graffiti . Each element was influenced by the cultures of the people who lived in the Bronx and the urban landscape they were a part of . Jamaican , Black , and Puerto Rican musical traditions shaped DJing and the rhyming structure of . Break dancing was influenced by capoeira , a Brazilian martial art developed by enslaved people , and other dance traditions . Graffiti artists who painted their tags on subway cars developed unique styles of writing that were designed to be seen in motion . Today , hip hop is a global youth culture . While the early elements of this cultural style that was born in the South Bronx are still evident today , the sounds and traditions of different hip hop scenes around the world are shaped by their local cultures and cities . For example , Aboriginal and hip hop artists in Australia and New Zealand incorporate traditional dances into their performances and rely upon their communities long oral traditions when writing lyrics . While the histories of indigenous people in settler colonial societies differ from the experiences of African Americans , the hip hop subculture speaks to the shared experience of oppression . Through hip hop , bonds of solidarity are built and strengthened . Ibrahim , and , Global Linguistic Flows Hip Hop Cultures , Youth Identities and the Politics of Language ( New York Taylor and Francis , 2008 ) Rory , Hip Hop History from the Streets to the Mainstream , Collective , November 25 , 2019 ,

18 I Fischer argued that urbanism facilitates the development of . The presence of contribute to cities reputations for being places where alternative ways of living or interacting can develop and thrive . For example , many cities are known for having strong lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender and queer ( communities . Cities with large communities are sometimes located in very conservative regions , not often known for being Louisville , Kentucky , was recently recognized for its policies by the Human Rights While Kentucky is not usually known for its progressive politics , cities in states or regions that are conservative become strong beacons to young adults who may feel isolated living in nearby small towns or rural communities . Having a critical mass of community members , even in areas that may be somewhat hostile , can provide a sense of solidarity , strength , and safety and allow a supportive subculture to develop . These can in turn , the cities and regions that incubate them . Cities not only provide the population size , heterogeneity , and density that are necessary for to form , but they can also offer physical spaces that incubate alternative cultures . These physical spaces can take many forms , from the collective punk house that hosts shows in the basement to the community rooms in public housing projects that sponsored early hip hop parties to entire neighborhoods where people who are marginalized can feel safe and supported . The term refers to an urban neighborhood that has a concentration of institutions and residents and is associated with Some famous include the Castro district in San Francisco , Greenwich Village in New York , and Soho in London . Both and Fischer agreed that the size , density , and heterogeneous nature of cities leads to unique 14 . New York Times , The Upshot , Arm with , and , Gay Population , 2017 , 15 . Human Rights Campaign , Index , Accessed July , 2017 , 16 . Andrew , In , ed . Abbie Goldberg , Abbie , Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE Publications , 2016 )

I 19 forms of social organization and life . Having a critical mass of people in a dense setting from different backgrounds leads to complex specialized economies , allows diverse and obscure businesses to develop , helps communities and cultures , and nurtures new ways of living and interacting . network of villages ?

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , and his contemporaries painted a negative picture of urban life . They believed that industrialization and urbanization created a new type of human being that was individualistic , uncaring , and completely free of all community responsibilities . Observing people in any busy , downtown public area could easily lead one to this conclusion . You would see city dwellers moving quickly through the streets avoiding eye contact , ignoring pleas for spare change or shouts of street hawkers selling wares . Claude Fischer city of vibrant and creates a different picture of urban life . In Fischer city , residents are not strangers to one another , but rather are so closely tied that they create new ways of interacting and behaving . However , the close ties Fischer observed were relationships formed by choice , not tradition . So his work provides little insight into the debate over whether traditional community ties are incompatible with urban life . In the 19503 , sociologist Herbert Gans moved to a , neighborhood in His intention was to study life in a community that had been declared a slum and was slated for redevelopment under the federal Urban Renewal program . Gans questioned many of the assumptions urban planners made about people living in blighted neighborhoods . He wanted to learn firsthand how living in a community affected residents lives . Gans not only discovered that many of the common assumptions about slum neighborhoods were not true , but he also uncovered a community structure in Boston West End . Residents socialized in small circles of extended family and close friends and emphasized communal values and loyalty to their immediate social group , rather than identifying with larger organizations or social structures . Gans described the neighborhood community life as a subculture . The close ties of West End 17 . Herbert Gans , The Urban ' New York The Free Press , 1962 )

20 I residents challenged earlier urban scholars of city life as isolating and individualistic . The neighborhood relationships Gans described more closely resemble traditional community ties than they do the cold depictions of city life that were painted by early urban sociologists . Despite the insular nature of people social ties , the dense urban fabric of the West End neighborhood and the issues tenants faced with deteriorating housing drew people together beyond their immediate peer groups . In the late , Carol Stack , a white urban anthropologist , moved into a predominantly African American housing project to conduct a research study . She noticed a similar interdependent network and strong reliance on communal bonds among the residents she worked Like their counterparts in the West End , occupants of The Flats formed close relationships with extended family members and longtime friends . These communities repeatedly pooled their resources and spread the limited income and material goods they had around in order to maximize group members welfare . Stacks description of the strategies within this community mimic the bonds that early scholars claimed city life had destroyed . As with the West Enders , urban characteristics density , economic inequality , and heterogeneous populations helped shape the mutually community networks residents of the Flats established . The size and density of the housing project allowed residents to easily share and swap resources . The heterogeneous character of the community led many to adopt longtime friends and neighbors as honorary family members , and the economic deprivation they faced necessitated a communal approach to stretch the limited resources each household had . But these communal survival strategies can be jeopardized when neighborhood conditions deteriorate . In a more recent study of communal networks in a public housing project , Danielle found that residents engaged in selective High rates of crime and violence led to wariness and distrust among residents , so they were careful about who they interacted and shared resources with . Residents tended to keep to themselves and were hesitant to involve people who they observed to be spending time out on the streets in their networks . Survival strategies require reciprocity and trust . If someone is thought to be untrustworthy or unwilling to provide mutual support , they may be not be invited to share resources . 18 . Carol Stack , All ( New York Basic Books , 1974 ) 19 . Danielle , I Stay by Myself Social Support , Distrust , and Selective Solidarity among the Urban Poor . Forum , 31 , no . 2016 )

CiTiES i 21 These types of ties are not unique to communities in cities . A 2015 survey of neighborhoods in Cairo , Egypt , also documented strong , mutually supportive ties among residents , especially in informal or Communities in the areas closely resembled the like interdependence that Gans , Stack , and documented . Since informal neighborhoods often lacked basic urban services , community members had to work together to provide security , health care , and connections to electrical power sources . Some of these communities also had a shortage of businesses and community spaces , so holiday and religious celebrations took place in the streets , further providing opportunities for residents to interact and cement their ties . communities are not incompatible with urban environments . In fact , having a strong sense of community can help city dwellers overcome the isolation and sense of fear that and earlier researchers associated with living in a crowded place . Residents who feel a strong sense of attachment to their neighbors are less afraid of crime than those who are more socially Jane Jacobs , the urban theorist who documented daily life on her New York City block , observed that some of her neighbors acted as eyes on the street , noticing who seemed out of place in their busy neighborhood . While it seems that size , density and heterogeneity would promote a sense of safety , in communities , residents are aware of the rhythms of daily life in their neighborhood and take note when someone behaves in a way that is out of the ordinary . Neither stranger nor friend Neighboring and relationships in urban environments Cities are not just collections of people who are strangers to one another there are neighborhoods and within them where people lives are very closely intertwined . But how do these relationships develop ?

Rick studied neighboring the process of forming relationships with those who live 20 . Sarah , Community and Neighborhood in Egyptian Context , Case Formal and , Science and , 2015 ) 21 . ohn , Jun Woo Kim , The Impact of the Built Environment on Crime and Fear in Urban Neighborhoods , Technology , 1999 )

22 nearby in his home city of Los Angeles . He outlined the stages in the neighboring The first stage begins with simply living within a certain geographical proximity of a potential neighbor . considered potential neighbors to be those who live within a network of walkable . A includes all of the buildings that line both sides of a city block from one intersection to the next . Since meeting one neighbor requires contact , noted that some blocks serve as barriers within a neighborhood . For example , neighbors might know those who live a block or two away , but they may not know the neighbors who live on the other side of a busy street or just across an intersection with lots of . The geography of a potential pool of neighbors would include all of those living on either side of the block that you would come in contact with if you were walking along the residential streets in your immediate neighborhood . Your likelihood of developing a close relationship with someone who lives across a major street or commercial thruway is low , so these residents would not be included within the potential pool of neighbors . Developing a relationship with a potential neighbor starts with recognition . Through regular contact with one another , you may begin to wave or nod when you pass by . Once this more distant Form of neighboring is established , the relationship may progress to conversation or to deliberate interactions , then , into a stage of friendship and then a sense of mutual trust that resembles the ties early sociologists wrote Stages of neighboring 22 . Rick , From the Ground up Geography into Neighbor ( Princeton Princeton University Press , 2009 ) 23 . Ground Up , 30 .

23 St . Living in very close proximity ( on the same floor or block ) to someone will increase the chance , even passive interactions Proximity Stage Two Passive Living nearby and crossing paths frequently enough that you begin to recognize or Contact acknowledge each other Stage Three Choosing to interact with someone who lives nearby ( having a conversation , borrowing Intentional Contact things , visiting one another ) Stage Four Mutual Having a closer connection that involves trust and reciprocity ( kids playing together , Trust collecting your mail ifyou are on vacation , having a ) Rick , From the Ground up Translating Geography into Community through Neighbor Networks ( Princeton Princeton University Press , 2009 ) The network of in a neighborhood creates an opportunity to establish relationships with the people in an immediate area . Easily walkable neighborhoods with no steep hills or other impediments encourage pedestrian Communities that are not solely residential , but have shops and stores mixed in , also promote more walking . People who take leisurely walks through their neighborhood are more likely to 21 61136 . Public space and community among strangers It is not just the residential areas of a city that promote social interaction . Public spaces play a role too . Lewis 24 . Lisa Wood , Lawrence Frank , and Billie , Sense and its Relationship with Walking and Neighborhood Design , Social ' 70 , May 2010 )

24 I CITIES described the city as a theater of social 25 He believed that cities were places where grievances between groups get worked out , where cultures experiment and grow together , and where individuals exposed to this constant drama and action develop their own tastes and personalities from it . In concept of the city , the public spaces , parks , streets , shopping areas , and transit lines are the stage for an ongoing , social drama . The metaphors that uses to describe the city not only capture the cosmopolitan aspects of urban life , but also imply that cities are places of liberation . The number of diverse groups of people coming together in a tightly packed space creates opportunities to collectively reimagine life , which in turn , reshapes our cities . drama plays out in the public spaces of the city . The streets , shops , parks , libraries , transit centers , and playgrounds are the social infrastructure of a Although the primary function of these spaces may not be to produce social interaction , these are the metaphorical stages that allow life to happen in cities . They are spaces where strangers can interact and subconsciously cooperate with one another . You may not notice the intricate social dance that occurs as people stroll along a sidewalk , because these unspoken rules for navigating shared space are invisible until those norms are disrupted . One example of social infrastructure is the central plaza or that is found in many Latin American cities . The typical is bordered by a church , the market , and important political or municipal These public plazas host a variety of city dwellers who use the space throughout the day for different purposes . It can be a place to play , shop , exercise , rest , converse with friends , eat , relax , or gather . The is also a site for organized events , like political rallies , concerts , and celebrations . In the mornings , the square may be with elderly friends or parents with small children . In the afternoon , workers eating lunch , schoolkids on break , or shoppers pass through . In the evenings , friends , couples and families flock to the town square to simply stroll around . Different vendors and entertainers frequent these squares during different times 25 . Lewis , What is a city ?

in City , Richard and Frederic Stout ( London and New York , 2000 ) 26 . Alan , Social Infrastructure and the Public Life Studying Urban Sociality and Public Spaces . 13 , no . 2019 ) 27 . Low , On the Plaza Space and ( Austin University of Texas Press , 2000 )

25 of day , catering to whoever has gathered . Plazas provide opportunities for people of all social classes , ages and backgrounds to interact . Having adequate public space is important , but an abundance of space alone does not necessarily lead to deeper engagement within cities . Spaces that are too tightly controlled or unwelcoming will not allow for the types of interactions among strangers that increase trust and tolerance . A sense of trust is developed by interacting with strangers in the unregulated , messy public spaces of the These are spaces that are often crowded , contain a multitude of activities and may seem chaotic to outsiders . negotiating these spaces with hundreds of other strangers is a quintessentially urban experience . Sociologist Lyn argues that urban life entails being comfortable as a stranger in the midst of Geographer Ash Amin has developed this concept He describes the situated surplus that emerges when people effectively and navigate densely packed , busy , and seemingly chaotic public spaces . Regularly encountering this type of unregulated public space produces a tolerance for difference and sense of connection as people learn to trust the situation in these spaces . That connection and tolerance is built not by conforming to particular rules , but by constantly adapting to situations that break the organic patterns that develop in crowded spaces . For example , people in a hurry in a subway station might climb past those who are standing still on an escalator . The may move to the right to allow someone to pass on the side , but if a parent and small child are sharing a stair , the passer might have to stop and wait for them to rearrange themselves , or the parent might pick up the child in anticipation of the passer . This constant breaking of unwritten patterns and the instantaneous adjustments that are made produce a sense of freedom and . This comfort around strangers then carries over into other interactions and spaces within the city . Not all spaces encourage this type of Spaces where people are static and engaged in similar activities may not allow for the constant patterning and that occurs when people move through 28 . Ash Amin , Collective culture and urban public space , City , 2008 ) quoted in Mark , Cities Edition ( Boston Bacon , 2017 ) 16 . 29 . Amin , Collective Culture 30 . Oleg , Public Spam Facing Challenge and . Frankfurt Am Main New York Academic Research , ahn , Li Buildings . Washington Island Press , 2011 )

26 a space and use it for different purposes . The design of a space can also affect how it is used . People use public spaces for three main types of activities necessary , optional , and social . Necessary activities include traveling to work or school , grocery shopping , or other errands . Optional activities are those which are dependent upon weather and the design of a space . Some examples of optional activities are going on a walk , running , or sunbathing . If there aren good paths or sidewalks , or if there a lot of traffic , it could discourage some optional uses . Social activities like meeting a friend are dependent upon both the design of a space and the amount of other activity going on there . If there are not a lot of necessary and optional activities taking place , a space may not feel welcoming to those who are going there to socialize . Some observations about the use of public space . Activity attracts activity People are more likely to use spaces where there is lots of activity going on . Human activity attracts more attention than physical infrastructure does People pay more attention to street performances , construction work or other activities than they do to shop windows or buildings . Pedestrian oriented streets attract more activity Areas with high traffic volumes have fewer pedestrians . Social interactions in city streets and commercial centers is more superficial Passive contact , like overhearing conversations , is still a form of social activity . More depth encounters take place in public spaces where people are likely to know each other such as near schools , workplaces , or in neighborhoods . Pedestrians prefer direct paths Walkers seek out the shortest path between two points and look for shortcuts . People linger in edge zones The areas that divide one space from another are used as gathering places where people gravitate if they want to stay for a while . People need places to sit A public space without adequate sitting spots will not be a place where people gather

CITIES 27 . People like to see what is going on Public spaces should be open enough and small enough for people to be able to see what is happening throughout the space . Life between Buildings . Washington Island Press , 2071 ) In city as a theater of social action , the public spaces are where are worked out and new ways of relating to one another are developed . While Amin situated surplus increases tolerance and cooperation , it does not produce new forms of being and relating . However , urban public space can be an incubator of fundamental change . When urban residents appropriate a public space in the city and change its intended use to meet their needs , an emancipatory space can One example of this is the encampments that were set up during the Umbrella Movement in Hong Kong . Protesters not only tents where they could sleep , they also created makeshift bathing areas , medical stations , a Lennon Wall where anyone could add a note with their thoughts , ideas or favorite song lyrics or poetry stanzas , and revolutionary art honoring the movement and movements that preceded it both locally and from around the world . The campers organized themselves into villages where they connected and collaborated with friends and strangers . This emancipatory space was not just a protest site , but it also was a living demonstration of how people in Hong Kong could organize themselves to meet their own needs . The airport in Berlin is another example of an emancipatory space . When the city closed the airport , residents began to use the large open space and abandoned runways for biking , kite boarding , and gardening . When the city attempted to redevelop the old airport , Berliners successfully resisted the planned luxury housing development . In this case , the vision that ordinary citizens had for this space became its permanent use . 31 . Hui , The Umbrella Movement Ethnographic Explorations of Communal . journal of Cultural Studies . 20 , 2017 ) Brigitte , Urban Commons Dissident Practices in Emancipatory Spaces . in Urban , ed . Brigitte ( Berlin , Munich , Boston De , 2015 )

28 Summary Cities are by their size , density , and heterogeneity . While these characteristics lead to increased specialization and individuality , they can also inspire feelings of isolation and behaviors . However , these same conditions create opportunities for people to bond together in and to invent new ways of interacting and living . In the smaller components that make up urban areas neighborhoods or housing complexes social life may more closely resemble the tightly woven bonds that exist in small towns and villages . These bonds are often found in networks of close family and friends , but the geography of neighborhoods creates opportunities for people to relate on a variety of levels from acknowledging a shared familiarity to becoming an intimate friend . On a larger scale , the public spaces of the city create opportunities for social groups and individuals to come into contact with one another . These points of contact may produce conflict or cooperation . They can fundamentally reshape the communities involved and the city as a whole . At the very least , the social dramas of the city expose its inhabitants to new ways of thinking and behaving . In all of these of the city , one thing remains constant . The physical and demographic makeup of urban places fundamentally alters the social ties of city dwellers . Urban places produce new forms of social organization and relations . Test your Urban Literacy Think about how the concepts in this chapter apply to your own city . List three criteria that make a place a city . These characteristics should be present in cities throughout the world . Provide examples from your own city of how it meets these particular criteria .

29 . Identify a criteria that makes a place a city that was not discussed in this chapter . Argue for why this criteria should be part of a definition of what makes a place a city . Density produces heterogeneity and specialization . Use an online mapping application to explore the types of businesses that line a downtown or busy urban neighborhood shopping district . Find examples of heterogeneity and specialization . While elements associated with traditional or rural societies may be present within some urban neighborhoods and communities , cities allow individuals to play more social roles to highlight different aspects of their identity as they interact with different groups . Describe how your own social role or identity shifts as you engage with different people in your city throughout the course of your day . What are associated with your city ?

Do these operate in particular neighborhoods or spaces ?

Public spaces provide the social infrastructure in cities , but not all public spaces produce the types of conditions that are necessary for creating what Amin called a situated Identify some public spaces in your city where people could experience the give and take that is involved in being a stranger in the midst of strangers .

30 Learn to read the city around you Apply what you ve learned in this chapter by completing a activity in your own city . Create a map Draw a map of a frequently travelled route that you take in your neighborhood or city . You could trace the route you take to a transit stop , your friend house , a local coffee shop , the grocery store , or work . Your map should include the names of the streets that you walk on and should highlight any important landmarks along the way , like a park or businesses . It should also identify your or the people that you regularly see as you walk this route . A includes anyone who is you orthose whose faces you recognize even if you never spoken . This could potentially be your neighbors , shopkeepers , regular customers , or just people who hang out in the area . For each familiar face you encounter along your route , create symbols and a key that ranks the depth of your relationship ( familiar face , acquaintance , good friend ) with that individual . Observe the sidewalk ballet Get to know the rhythms and patterns of urban life on a busy block , at a transit stop or intersection , or in a park , plaza , or indoor public gathering space . Over the course of several days , note the activities and people flows that occur in this space during a consistent block of time ( ie weekday mornings from ) Document how many people move through the space at different times , what activities they engage in , if there are regular events or frequent users of that space , how long people spend in the space , the times that activities occur , and any other details you think could help describe daily rhythms of life . Pay attention to the context of your observations by noting weather patterns , holidays , or other major events that might affect the patterns of use and interaction . Use your notes to compile a detailed narrative description of daily life in this corner of your city . You might also

31 include maps or diagrams of the space of people flows in . Explore the of your city Find at least three places , events , publications , websites , or other media , or organizations that are representative of a subculture within your city . Learn more about this subculture by attending an event , visiting a place , or by reading , viewing or listening to their media . Write a short review of your exploration that notes what you learned about this community , its relationships , and its contributions to your city . Identify what makes this subculture unique , where and how it can be accessed , and how it is connected to other communities within the city . Collect all students reviews and compile them into a subcultural atlas of your city . Collect data about heterogeneity in your city Explore census or neighborhood data to find data points that demonstrate heterogeneity in a neighborhood or in your city . Try to find data points that represent different aspects of heterogeneity from population demographics to economic statistics to building and land use types . Present your findings in a one page that highlights the heterogeneous character of your neighborhood or city . Create an urban movie setting Film two , short ( less than 23 minute ) opening scenes for a movie that identify its setting and establish a sense of place . For the first scene , film an opening sequence that could represent a city anywhere . You will want to find images and scenes that are representative of all cities . For the second scene , create a montage that specifically depicts scenes from your own city . In this scene , an audience should immediately be able to recognize your particular city , so you will need to find images that are unique to your location . Identify the unwritten rules for a busy public space Find a busy , public space that qualifies as the type of place that describes as contributing to the situated surplus . Visit the space at least three times and observe how people interact with one another . Take notes on the types of interactions you see . Identify the unwritten rules for navigating this space . For example , do shoppers at a farmers market enter and exit booths in a particular pattern ?

Provide examples for each rule from your notes . Your examples may include situations where people break the rules . Present your findings to the class .