The History of Our Tribe Hominini Textbook Part IV Pleistocene Epoch Chapter 36 Homo sapiens

36 . Homo sapiens Early Anatomically Modern Humans Homo sapiens ( 200 kya ) human I capable of discerning ) Figure Scene from the Upper Quaternary Paleolithic Period . Painting by Jose Maria ( Mexican ) the upper Paleolithic Period Art Project by Cultural Institute is in the public domain . Africa 221

Kenya Ethiopia and Herto Democratic Republic of Congo South Africa Border Cave and River Mouth Asia ( the following are earliest regional sites ) Israel and Europe ( the following are famous sites ) France Cro ( the most famous site in France ) Germany , Italy , Spain Australia ( the following are earliest regional sites ) Mungo Lake and Kow Swamp New World ( the earliest regional site ) Chile Mesa Verde PEOPLE Too numerous to mention , as one or more individuals work at each site and sites are numerous , especially in INTRODUCTION My discussion of early will cover their existence and culture prior to the Mesolithic period ( kya ) only and will focus primarily on European sites due to the paucity of information from earlier and European sites . PHYLOGENY The origin of our species is thought to have occurred in Africa sometime prior to 200 kya , based on fossil and genetic evidence . We may be descended from an African population of Homo ( times referred to as Homo ) or an earlier common ancestor of , based on recent genetic evidence . Fossils characteristic of a transitional form , termed Homo , are found at the South African site of and dated to 260 kya . Material from the Herto site in Ethiopia ( Middle Awash area of the Afar Depression ) is dated to 160 kya and sometimes referred to as Homo or Homo sapiens . Homo may be descended from the earlier South African form ( and the most recent ancestor of . Groups of made one or more out of Africa during the Late . The ancestors of some Southeast Asians and the earliest Australians ( as well as inhabitants of surrounding islands and those 222 The History of Our Tribe

that were used as stepping stones ) may have left Africa kya . There are sites dating to kya in the Middle East . A later group left prior to 50 kya and populated and the New World , and made their way to the South Pacific as well , where they must have come into contact and with the previously existing humans there . The ancestors of with , so that living descendants have inherited an average of of genes . Some Southeast inherited both and van genes , due to interbreeding , and they carry of genes from those two species . DISCOVERY AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION Most of the oldest material has been discovered in more recent times , relative to early discoveries of Asian Homo erectus and remains . The earliest material is dated to kya in East Africa ( and Herto in Ethiopia , in Kenya , and in ) 180 kya in central Africa ( in the Democratic Republic of Congo ) and 160 kya in South Africa ( River Mouth ) Later sites dated to 115 kya are found in Israel ( and caves ) and South Africa ( Border Cave ) Due to increasing during the Late of Africa , researchers speculate that there were few areas that would have been habitable for early . South Africa and other coastal areas likely served as during those times . By 125 kya , it would have been possible for to have left Africa during a short interglacial period ( see Figure for routes and dates of arrival throughout the world ) Middle Eastern sites dated to 120 kya preserve evidence of . The Arabian land bridge likely served as a corridor to Southeast Asia , just as it had for the ancestor of Homo erectus . By kya , that early wave of humans made it all the way to Australia . Archaeological sites dated to over 50 kya are found in Japan and Australia ( with cave art possibly as old as 75 kya ) and fossil material from Australia is dated to 40 kya . Some researchers see similarities between early Australians and early Africans , supporting the idea of at least two African and multiple human migrations into the South Pacific . The first wave left Africa first and arrived by 50 kya . Ancestors of that left Africa during the second exodus followed at a later point in time . It is not known when they arrived in the various areas of Southeast Asia or whether they made it to the same destinations as the colonizing group , prior to modern times . The earliest date for in is from the site in at 50 kya . reached Western Europe by 35 kya . Sites are found in Germany , France , Italy , and Spain , with the site being the site in Les , France . The site gave the name to the earliest people of Europe and is the location where the Old Man of ( see Figure ) was found in 1868 by Louis . By 15 kya , humans had spread throughout the world . They reached the New World , either by rafting along the shoreline from Asia during extremely low sea levels that characterized the last glacial maximum ( kya ) or by crossing the Bering Land Bridge at a later point in time . Dates in South America ( kya ) are older than those in North America and represent the former mode of travel . Sea levels dropped by as much as 120 in during that time . Crossing involved traveling between two ice shields and was likely a difficult undertaking . PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS are distinguished from Home and by a suite of cranial characteristics and continued loss of robusticity , both cranially and . skulls were more vertically oriented with thinner bones . While the cranial capacity ( mean 1450 ) was lower relative to , the brain was architecturally different , and corresponding behavior was more complex and indicative of greater . The parietal and frontal lobes were expanded , resulting in high maximum width and breadth 36 . Homo sapiens I 223

Figure Human arrival dates Homo sapiens , early . Spreading homo by is licensed under . Figure The Old Man of ' by 120 is licensed 31 ! and a more pronounced forehead . Those areas of the cerebrum are involved with higher ing skills related to association , speech , and all of the other cognitive capabilities that make us unique to other species , past and present . The face was shorter , the orbits were more rectangular , and the brow ridges were less pronounced . The brows are termed bipartite in that they are characterized by a slight bulge on either side of the nose , with a break in between . While the nose may have been pronounced , the nasal opening was narrower , and the midfacial prognathism seen in earlier forms was absent . Jaw and 224 The History of Our Tribe

' Thyroid cartilage , I ' I laud jugular mic of ( Figure muscle . Plate 1194 from Anatomy . by Henry Carter is in the public domain . tal robusticity became further reduced . are characterized by a chin , or mental eminence ( an morphic , or unique , trait in ) While the mandible was less robust , the morphology ( described as an inverted ) was strong and stress resistant . Because they had more gracile and hence lighter faces , they needed stronger anterior neck muscles to flex the head from an extended position , ie . from a to a position . The mastoid muscle ( see Figure ) accomplishes that action , along with some rotation . The muscle originates on the sternum and clavicle and inserts on the mastoid process ( bony projections posterior to ears see Figure ) The mastoid process became more pronounced to handle the additional power that was ( Campbell 1998 ) exhibited narrow hips , long legs , and thinner long bones than or . While they were seemingly not as as , they moved into northern and survived through the last glacial maximum . It is strange that the seemingly more humans survived and the robust did not . However , their long legs and more gracile morphology were less energetically costly and afforded them greater endurance and a longer stride and hence greater speed . In addition , cultural adaptations to the climate must have occurred or they could not have survived . They are thought to have made better clothes , shelter , and weaponry and were skilled hunters . sapiens 225

Figure Mastoid process . From Gray Anatomy . by is in the public domain . ENVIRONMENT AND WAY OF LIFE Early arose and lived during the latter part of the Epoch , which was characterized by intermittent glacial and interglacial periods . They ventured into northern latitudes by kya and stayed and survived in extreme conditions during the period prior to , during , and after the last glacial maximum . Populations that stayed in Africa and other warm regions would certainly have continued with life as usual in the absence of climatic upheaval . Figure old drawing by is in the public domain . hunting a in South America . Being large and , they were hunted to extinction within two millennia . Painting by Heinrich Harder ( Until the advent of agriculture and the beginning of the modern geological epoch ( the ) approximately 10 kya , humans were mobile to . They exploited whatever flora and fauna were native and available in the various regions they inhabited and colonized , from mastodons in the far north to wallabies in the far south of the Old World . We really do not need to discuss much about how made a living because we have living and historic examples in the ethnographic record to show us how people lived and adapted , even to environmental extremes , from the cold of the Arctic to the deserts of the world . We have a record of Stone Age populations whose way of life disappeared within my lifetime , such as Australian Aborigines and Amazonian Indians . Like modern , population density would have been low , and life ranged from easy to hard , depending on the availability of resources , seasons , and climatic terns and disasters . One estimate of mortality rates has 50 of people dying before 20 years of age , few females living beyond 30 , and only 12 living beyond the age of 40 . 226 The History of Our Tribe

Any discussion of early culture is seemingly , because the majority of the known ological record falls between 30 and 20 kya in Western Europe . We know that kya , a warming trend occurred that lasted several thousand years . As glacial ice retreated , prime grazing land opened and spread from Spain to Siberia . As large game expanded their geographical range , so did humans and other . Human population numbers increased as groups spread throughout the habitable landmass . However , as the last glacial maximum approached , ice reclaimed the land and humans were once again restricted in their range and movements . Mam by Inc Huron on In Pam Inn ma amen mug . Maximum mu um um ' I , uh a , loan , Io amine , nut and mu vocal II but and um . non . a . mu . Fons . I Figure Vegetation map for last glacial maximum ( zoom in for a better look ) Last glacial vegetation map by is in the public domain . The vegetation map in Figure shows what the world was like beginning about 20 kya , during the last glacial maximum . By that time , were living in Africa , island chains southeast of Asia , and and the surrounding islands . A short time later , they ventured into the New World . We certainly know that early humans had spoken language , and it would have facilitated their survival via group memory and tradition as well as . They were qualitatively different than the , and their modes of communication were likely more advanced . Modern languages can be traced , showing their spread and evolution over time and geographic space . Some of the symbols that have from Paleolithic times , such as dots , dashes , and , may have conveyed information . The same may be said for depictions of animals , humans , and hunting on cave walls . Early culture falls within the period termed the Upper Paleolithic ( kya ) Relative to prior Middle Paleolithic sites , cultural achievements are much more impressive . Over time , they made great advances , inventing a great variety of new and useful objects and modes of production . People left Africa armed with language , religion , and cultural identity , as they are cultural and there is some evidence in the archaeological record that suggests religious practices and initiation rituals ( see below ) Greater individual expression is apparent in the wonderful representational art that has survived in cave paintings and sculptures , and body adornment in the form of clothing , jewelry , and pigmentation . Complex aspects of culture , such as rules regarding kinship and marriage , also may have preceded the African ( They too are cultural , and while they likely changed over time in response to need and ecology , they certainly did not evolve independently in all places . 36 . Home 227

Figure Ice of northern Spain by Mauricio Anton . lee fauna of northern Spain Mauricio Anton by is licensed under BY . According to Stringer and Andrews ( 2005 ) cultural achievements in the various regions of the Old World were as follows Europe kya All aspects of Upper Paleolithic culture . Only early representational art . South Africa kya Cave . Carved and decorated ocher crayons ( see Figure ) Australia kya Rafts . Cremation . Art . Body adornment . Bone artifacts . Figure Cave , South Africa engraved ocher . Cave engrave ochre by Chris is licensed under . 228 The History of Our Tribe

Figure Reconstruction of tent from times at , France . tent by is in the public domain . settlements were larger and more permanent than those of and were often located on the tops of hills . Researchers have speculated that the view of the surrounding areas may have been beneficial for monitoring herd movements . They built better shelters , some of which had sunken and stone . Materials that were utilized consisted of wooden posts and branches , stone , and hides , and where no wood was available , bones , tusks , and antlers . They also made tents ( see Figure ) The remains of a house in Russia show that it was approximately 50 by 120 with multiple hearths along its length . That is four times the size of my house and architecturally impressive , considering their tool kit relative to ours . Cooking was done in hearths and ovens . They dug storage pits to preserve and protect food stores from animals . Stone lamps consisted of a flat stone with a depression into which was placed animal fat that would have provided light for a couple of hours . At the site near Moscow , clothes from 22 kya survived in permafrost . We thus know that Paleolithic peoples made tailored clothing like our own . Earlier are thought to have worn ponchos and lashed skins onto their bodies . tools of the trade that survive in the archaeological record are bone needles , pins , and for punching holes in the skins . In addition to animal hides , they used bark cloth and woven grass for insulation . Upper Paleolithic tool industries were advanced relative to past traditions , with greater diversification and refinement . Tools consisted of knives , chisels , needles , and a greater number of blade and compound tools . Stone , bone , ivory , and antler were used . Some of the more famous Upper industries are the ( possibly 40 kya ) kya ) kya ) and ( kya ) 36 . Homo sapiens 229

Au ' Culture Maximum extent of land ' years Extent of land in ti Area of presence Mountains Principal sites Maximum extent . 10 25 I Principal sites . 13 . Venice 20 , Eastern 26 . Provence 14 . 21 . Eastern Spain . 15 . 22 . Central Italy 16 . Lower Austria 23 . Don Valley . Pyrenees 10 . 17 . 24 . 11 . 18 . Silesia 25 . Greece . Burgundy 12 . 19 . mountains 26 . I Figure 3611 Map showing culture , culture by is licensed under . The industry ( see Figure 3611 ) may have originated in Asia , but it can be found throughout Europe ( Stringer and Andrews 2005 ) The people that produced the tools , art , and other achievements from that time are thus known as the or culture . and subsequent tool industries were predominantly . Like the technique and the industry , could produce a variety of tools from a single core , but they used a new mode of production known as the punch technique . It involved using a hammerstone , a hammer and chisel , or a long wooden spear ( using upper body weight and strength ) to punch blades from the core . For illustrations on this technique see Dennis Early Modern Human Culture at . The industry had a more limited distribution in Eastern Europe and Western Asia ( Stringer and Andrews 2005 ) Stereotypical tools of the industry were blades and ( see Figure ) that were used to work wood . 230 The History of Our Tribe

Figure from the culture . Burin ( by is licensed under BY . The industry ( see Figure ) is most famous for its beautiful and refined laurel leaf blades ( see Figure ) A method known as pressure was used to finely and shape the blade . sure flaking involves the use of a pointed tool , such as antler or bone , to force tiny flakes from the surface and edges of the tool ( see Figure ) a culture en Europe 20000 15 000 Zone de Sites sites . Vale da . La . El . La , Roc de . Le Placard . du Les ' Figure Sapiens in Europe distribution by is licensed under . sapiens 231

Figure leaf blade . by is in the public domain . Flu . Slum by outward . Figure stone . From The origins of invention study of industry among primitive peoples by Otis Mason ( 1895 ) century knowledge stone tools Liking stone outward pressure by is in the public domain . Finally , the industry ( see Figures , and ) is characterized by great advances in weaponry , such as the bow and arrow and the atlatl or spear thrower ( see Figures and ) both of which allowed hunters to put distance between themselves and their prey . 232 The History of Our Tribe

Figure 3616 blades and . and blades by is licensed under . Figure Atlatl being used to throw a spear . From Manuel a , et by Joseph ( by 120 is in the public domain . Figure 3620 Atlatl . Atlatl by Maxim is in the public domain . Other weapons from the Upper Paleolithic are stone missiles or ( see Figure ) spears , javelins , and clubs . had refined fishing techniques , rafts , and canoes . Harpoons appear very early in the archaeological record , the site in the Democratic Republic of Congo is dated to kya . They also constructed traps , rope , and baskets . sapiens 233

! or Figure Examples of antler weapons . From The Outline of History by Wells ( 1920 ) Wells Reindeer Age articles by is in the public domain . 234 The History of Our Tribe Zone 62 ' Zone de presence ( 17 Sites sites 24 . La ad I ( a . ra 34 ?

27 . Vale Boi 28 . 32 33 35 38 29 . 39 ha Pierre aux . as a as ' rou . 29 . 34 . Go et . Castillo 21 22 ( 10 19 , 35 37 . 11 . Les . 131 , 39 . 39 . our an 14 . du 1516 43 15 . 44 16 . 40 . Ta 17 . 42 45 41 . 18 . Gazel 42 . La Porta 19 . 45 43 . 20 . La 47 , 44 . delle Mura 21 . La a 45 . 46 . 23 . Le Rand du Barry 47 . Figure Geographic range of culture ( in pink ) Homo in Europe distribution by is licensed under . Figure Bold from the site of Sidi , Morocco . by 120 is licensed under . Beginning kya , a cultural and symbolic explosion is evident in the archaeological record of Western Europe , possibly in response to the increasingly cold temperatures , such as if they spent more time inside caves or were performing rituals aimed at increasing their survival . The people are known for their cave art and sculptures ( see Figures and ) Figure illustrates the number of sites where early art has been found . There are 150 sites in southwest France alone . 36 . Homo sapiens 235

Figure Paleolithic art sites . Aqua lines indicate limits of the main er Paleolithic in Euro by is in the public domain . Common cave art themes are fauna hunting hands dots and lines some humans and the occasional human costumed as an animal and sometimes dancing , such as The Sorcerer ( see Figures and ) Men appear alone or in groups , but women are never pictured alone . Drawings of male and female genitalia are reported from multiple sites . Figure 3623 etching . Cave site in , by Jose is in the public domain . 236 The History of Our Tribe

Figure Drawing by of the Sorcerer Cave painting . France ( 15 kya ) Trois by is in the public domain . Artists used charcoal and mineral pigments , such as ocher ( see Figure for a photo of an ocher crayon from Cave ) and may have applied some of the shading by chewing the pigments and spitting them onto the walls , resulting in an effect . There is a great demonstration of that practice in the third segment of the public television series In Search of Human Origins ( NOVA 1994 ) The art may have served a variety of purposes . First , it is difficult not to imagine their aesthetic and value , eg . accompanying stories and myths . They may have been used for more utilitarian purposes , such as hunting strategies or keeping records . Some might have served a social function , such as cation within and between groups or education . Finally , of course , there is their proposed use in magic and ritual . Some art is found deep within caves in association with primitive stone lamps and children prints . Some of the caves were discovered by divers , and thus the archaeological record was not disturbed , ie they were not modern footprints . It is easy to see why this has been interpreted as possible evidence of initiation rituals . While they drew and painted on outer walls as well as inside caves , the cave paintings survived better . The French site of Cave ( 18 kya ) see Figures 3625 and ) is renowned for the color and beauty of its animal depictions , especially those seen in the Great Hall of At the cave site of , France ( kya ) see Figure ) more than 300 animals are depicted , many of which are not seen where , such as panthers and lions . Figures 3629 and show maps of the Spanish cave of La ( 20 kya ) giving you some idea of the labyrinthine nature of some of the cave systems and richness of the galleries . Figures and forms in the cave number over 700 and consist of the following 97 deer ( 69 females and 28 males ) 80 horses , 32 , 31 cattle ( 17 bison and 14 aurochs ) two , a carnivorous animal , a chamois , a , a bird and a fish also there may be a and about 40 not clearly identified also the , such as and other surprisingly varied symbols ( more than 130 ) and very often including various and hundreds of marks and partly erased traces . Wikipedia contributors 20153 ) 36 . Homo sapiens 237

Another famous Spanish cave site is ( 15 kya ) see Figure ) The cave is about one kilometer long ( Chivers , 2004 ) and contains polychromatic renderings of large mammals , especially bison , and human hand prints . Figure Great Hall of Bulls , Cave , France . painting by Prof is licensed under BY SA . Figure Great Hall of Bulls , Cave , France . Entrance to Cave France by is licensed under . I . Figure 3627 cave , France . Lions Cave museum re by is in the public . 238 The History of Our Tribe

Figure 3629 Map of Gallery Zones within La Cave , Spain . licensed under A . La by Burg is 36 . Homo sapiens 239 Figure Map of of Gallery A , La Cave , Spain ( also see map above ) La . by Borg is licensed under . It is of interest that some of the most magnificent animal art is located in the most acoustically resonant areas within caves . It conjures images of our ancestors having special ceremonies or gatherings . Some musical instruments have survived in the form of bone flutes , percussion instruments , and a possible ( a stone Xylophone ) Their music would have been amplified , and with the addition of flickering flames , the wall images would have seemingly come alive ! invented pottery , with the earliest evidence being animals from the Czech Republic . The most famous sculptures are the Venus figurines ( fertility goddesses ) that have been found from Western Europe to Siberia . They are usually clay or stone depictions ( also wood , bone , and ivory ) of obese women with pronounced breasts and buttocks . They were originally thought to have been produced by men for purposes . A more recent interpretation is that they were by women . That may explain why they were usually faceless and why body parts closest to the eyes were large and disproportionate 240 The History of Our Tribe

compared with their tiny feet . Another idea suggests their use as obstetrical aids . Other sculptures were created via on walls and rocks , which involves carving some dimensionality into the facade ( see the Venus of , Figure ) and there were also engraved tools , jewelry , and so forth . The idea of fecund women as fertility goddesses is an example of sympathetic magic , depicting what one would like to happen . Obese women would have been better able to carry and nurse their babies so that they had better chances of survival . The same could be said for hunting scenes and game animals . Men may have been hoping for safe and successful hunting or an increase in the local game . Other interesting sculptures came from the following sites or areas Le , France Footprints ( see Figure ) Two in clay found propped up in the middle of a small chamber inside the cave . de , France Children footprints . Clay figures of a bear , a lion , and other animals propped up against the caves walls . Czech Republic Fired animal figurines ( 27 kya ) Oldest human portrait ( 26 kya ) carved from mammoth ivory and possibly attached to a staff or baton , showing great detail in the eyes , hair , mouth , and expression . El , Spain ( 14 kya ) Stone figure on which one side of the face is a smiling man and the other is a feline predator , covered in a possible ceremonial sanctuary . Figure Venus sculptures from Venus of . by 120 is licensed under BY . Top right Venus of . A Paleolithic it urine Venus by Wellcome Images is licensed under BY . Bottom right Venus of . Venus of by is in the public domain . 241

Figure Footprints in the Cave of , France . Paleolithic period view of with heel prints Wellcome by Wellcome Images is licensed under BY . In addition to murals and sculptures , early humans also decorated their tools and bodies . Ocher is found in burials and was likely used to color the body , just as seen in many modern indigenous groups . Depending on the mineral composition , ocher is found in a variety of colors yellow , orange , rust , brown , etc . They also made and wore jewelry and decorated their clothes with beads . At the site near Moscow ( see more in section on burial practices ) two children and an old man were buried in garments that were covered with thousands of ivory beads , thought to have taken an hour each to produce . 242 The History of Our Tribe

artifact . Oldest known figurine ( 40 kya ) from cave , Germany . by is in the public domain . The earliest intentional burials that have been discovered for are from the Middle East and dated to kya . As mentioned , they not only buried their dead but also included grave goods and decorated the bodies in ritual fashion . Some Paleolithic cultures cremated remains . Mass burials have been found at some sites . Burial practices included placing the body in a flexed position , as the did , or supine and , in a few instances , covered with a slab of rock . Two interesting burials were found at Italian and Russian sites . At the site of des Enfants , Italy , two youngsters were decorated with hundreds of shells and pierced animal teeth . At the famous site of ( see Figures and ) near Moscow , three interesting burials were found . In one grave , a and a or were buried together . They were flanked by two mammoth bone spears . The tusks would have had to have been boiled in a pit of water , using hot rocks , in order to straighten them . Ten thousand beads were sewn to their clothes , and the bodies were decorated with hundreds of perforated fox canines ( remember that each fox has only four large ) carved ivory animals , pins , and pendants . They were placed on a bed of ocher . A man was also honored in death . His clothes were also decorated with thousands of beads , and he wore ivory bracelets . He too was placed on a bed of ocher . 36 . Homo sapiens 243

, Figure Paleolithic burial at site , Russia . by Manuel Alvarez is in the public domain . I . ox , Figure Map of site , Russia . by is licensed under . In conclusion , I found this great timeline of the Upper Paleolithic ( Wikipedia contributors ) 244 The History of Our Tribe

Timeline of the Upper Paleolithic Earliest evidence of modern humans found in Europe , in Southern Italy . At in Lebanon , ornaments and skeletal remains of modern humans are dated to this period . live in the Mountains , Russia . Early cultural center in the Alps . Earliest figurative art ( Venus of , Germany ) Beginning of the . The first appear in Germany . created from . Most of the giant vertebrates and in Australia became extinct , around the time of the arrival of humans . Examples of cave art in Spain are dated to around , making them the oldest of art yet discovered in Europe . Wall painting with horses , and aurochs , Cave , Arc , gorge , France , is made . and caves in First evidence of people inhabiting Japan . Europeans understand how to harden clay figures by firing them in an oven at high . First stone tools appear in Japan . Invention of the bow and arrow . 36 . Homo sapiens 245

Venus of , Czech Republic . It is the oldest known ceramic in the world . The Red Lady of lived around years ago . Recent evidence has come to light that he was a tribal chief . Note it was a male skeleton dyed with red ocher . Venus of ( in Czech ) from in , Czech , was made . Last Glacial Maximum . Venus of , du Pape , France , was made . Venus of , Austria , was made . Last Glacial Maximum . Mean sea levels are believed to be 110 to 120 meters ( 361 to 394 ) lower than present , with the direct implication that many coastal and lower riverine valley archaeological sites of interest are today under water . Spotted Horses , Pech Merle cave , France are painted . spear thrower , from Le Mas , France . village in , is inhabited . Spotted human hands , Pech Merle cave , France are painted . Hall of Bulls , caves , France is painted . man with bison and Rhinoceros , caves , is painted . Lamp with ibex design , from La cave , France , is made . Paintings in cave , where the cave mouth is now under water at Cap , France were made . 246 The History of Our Tribe

Bison , Le , France . move across North America , then southward through Central America . Pregnant woman from , France was made . searched for big game near what is now the National Monument in Colorado and Utah . Bison , on the ceiling of a cave at , Spain , is painted . Domestication of reindeer . Beginning of the extinction . Earliest evidence of warfare ( found in the Americas ) Wooden buildings in South America ( Chile ) first pottery vessels ( Japan ) First evidence of human settlement in Argentina . The Springs Man dies on the island of Santa Rosa , off the coast of California . Human remains deposited in caves which are now located off the coast of . Stone Age culture settlement on Head , England , dates from around this year , And the rest , as they say , is history ! 36 . Homo sapiens 247