The History of Our Tribe Hominini Textbook Part IV Pleistocene Epoch Chapter 35 Homo neanderthalensis

35 . Homo Homo ( 300 kya ) human I Valley , Germany ) Figure Reconstruction of at Neanderthal Museum . by Stefan is licensed under SITES See sites map , Figure PEOPLE Too many to mention ( see text for some prominent researchers ) 208 INTRODUCTION One of the best known and most enigmatic of the archaic were the , Homo . Although Homo was originally included in our own genus and species but by subspecies status , Homo sapiens , increasing evidence from DNA analysis suggests that the two lineages split sometime prior to 300 kya and , if new DNA evidence is correct , possibly prior to 800 kya . However , DNA evidence shows that they , possibly as migrated out of Africa one or more times or with in the Middle East . and carry , on average , genes . Thus while the model for the origin of is still favored and are considered a separate species , at least some populations were capable of interbreeding and thus were not true biological species at that point in time and geographic space . The material that became the holotype for the species was discovered in the Valley near , Germany . The German word for valley is , and the is silent . The has been dropped for the common name in some sources . I can only imagine that someone got tired of people pronouncing the th and decided to head up a campaign to put a stop to it ! PHYLOGENY There are two possible scenarios for the origin of and . The first is based on fossil evidence and the second on DNA . The interpretation of the fossil record suggests that both species are derived from , which in turn likely evolved from a derived form of ( possibly ) in Africa . At some point prior to 500 kya , split into the and lineages . The latest genetic evidence supports a split between the and lineages prior to 800 kya in Africa . The branch leading to and is then considered . The and then split kya . However , localized groups continued to interbreed . It is refreshing to learn that populations of have been interbreeding and maintaining or forming genetic relationships since the beginning of our time . We modern humans are much more closely related to one another than were those ancient species and yet some of us do not see ourselves in others due to physical differences that mean no more than that we went different ways at different times and adapted to different environments . Regardless of the phylogeny , a group of moved into Europe , where a localized group then evolved into the lineage 300 kya . Transitional forms can be seen in several locales in Western Europe , especially Spain , France , and Germany . As Europe became colder , adapted to the harsher conditions . The from Western Europe , with their stunted and bodies , are known as the Classic , as distinct from those to the east and southeast that retained a more gracile morphology . Dates for the Classic range from 75 to 30 kya . Figure shows sites in . DISCOVERY AND GEOGRAPHIC RANGE The earliest recognized discoveries were in Belgium and . The next discovery was the Valley remains , which lent the name to the species . Fossil sites are ubiquitous in Western Europe , with the majority located in river valleys of France . More than 200 sites fall within a radius of Les , France . There are also sites in Germany , Belgium , Spain , Portugal , and Italy . Some of the more famous sites are La , La , and in France the aforementioned der Valley in Germany and Cave in Spain . The site has played a key role in the development of the myth of the as hulking , barbaric cavemen . The remains of an male ( see Figure ) were excavated in 1908 and analyzed by Boule , who 35 . Homo 209

, an A . a ' Figure sites . by 120 is licensed under characterized the individual as primitive , brutish , and hunched over . Researchers later realized that the adult was afflicted with arthritis , which accounted for his posture . While we can not know how behaved relative to ourselves , they achieved a theretofore unprecedented level of cultural and ical complexity . The derogatory characterization stuck for many years until researchers realized just how much those ancient peoples had accomplished , such as intentional burial of their dead . From their supposed Western European origin , they spread east into the Middle East and as far east as and northeast to Russia , in the area of the . Some researchers do not accept that the boy at the site of Tash , is , but rather they argue that he is . sites are found in , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Syria , the Republic of gia , Russia , the Ukraine , Iraq , and Israel . Famous sites include and in Yugoslavia the cave sites of , and in Israel in Iraq and the aforementioned Tash in . The Israeli sites have been of interest for decades because they are seemingly contemporary with nearby sites . There has been much speculation as to the nature of interactions between the two species . One theory is that when ice sheets blanketed much of Europe , the moved down into the Middle East along with other animals . The fact that reached the Middle East by 120 kya but never entered Europe until after 40 kya suggested to some that the held Europe , preventing the encroachment of . When moving down into the Middle East , may have pushed resident out of the area . During subsequent warmer periods , may have moved back into the area following the retreat of the to more northerly destinations . This idea of trading places has now been superseded by the idea of contemporaneity and interbreeding , at least by some groups at some point ( in time . Figure illustrates the broad geographic range of the . It is likely that during glacial advances , populations moved south so that those in Western Europe were closer to the Mediterranean Sea and may have pushed down into Israel and other warm areas , along with other animals . The 210 The History of Our Tribe

Figure 353 Old Man of La . Homo sapiens by is licensed under fossil record indicates that animal herds moved up and down in latitude in accordance with climatic pulses , so it is very likely that populations did as well . They were smart and may have inherited past knowledge if they had language and theory of mind and , if for no other reason , they needed to eat and would have followed the game . By the time that moved into Western Europe kya , the had begun to die out . They likely succumbed to the increasingly harsh climate . They also went through an evolutionary bottleneck at some point and lost some of their genetic diversity , possibly leaving them more vulnerable to disease . As in the Middle East , there has been much speculation about what went on when arrived in Western Europe . While they likely carried genes ( unless those western left no modern ) they themselves may not have mated with , and certainly western populations would have appeared somewhat different than Middle Eastern . However , most eastern were gone by the time passed through their former eastern geographic range , en route to Europe . It has been suggested that them either directly , which is known as test competition , or indirectly , which is known as scramble competition , or possibly even killed them as they encountered them . Contest competition involves one group preventing another group from accessing resources , whereas scramble competition involves one group being better at gaining access to resources than the other . I always think of a bully defending a buffet table from others versus kids scrambling at an Easter egg hunt where some are better than others at getting to and or finding eggs . It has also been widely accepted that the were marginalized as encroached on their territory . Except for a more recent date from the Croatian site of ( 28 kya ) the most recent dates are from the Iberian Peninsula , where it is thought they retreated and died out . Regardless of what transpired between the two species , since it appears that were on their way out , it is likely a moot point . It is rather fitting that after all of the years of thinking that humans played a role in the demise of the , it appears they made love not war ( at least as far as we know ) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS See Figure for a full skeletal view of a . As mentioned , western and eastern diverged morphologically over time . That clinal variation , a graded change in physical characteristics 211

Figure skeleton . by Claire is licensed under over geographic space , is thought to have been the result of time , varying adaptation and exposure to chronically cold Ice Age conditions , and possibly gene flow with in the Middle East . Populations in Western Europe lived at higher latitudes , and the Classic exhibited cold adaptations that form to and Allen Rules . Rule states that as you move away from the equator , mass increases relative to surface area in order to conserve heat , as heat loss is a function of surface area . Allen Rule pertains to limb or extremity length , so that organisms in colder environments exhibit shorter appendages . Thus in equatorial Africa , where people have adapted over the long term to hot and dry , body morphology is long and gracile versus the short , stocky morphology of Arctic peoples . In addition to their stocky bodies , short appendages , and barrel chests , had facial adaptations to the cold . Like , exhibited midfacial prognathism , large noses , and puffy faces due to enlarged sinuses . Due to their maxilla , the mandible also moved forward , The History of Our Tribe

ing a space behind the third molar , termed a space . The internal nasal projections were large , thus increasing the internal surface area even further for warming and inspired air . In addition , unique projections extended from their internal nasal region , up into their orbits . Additional skull seen in both and eastern were large , smoothly rolled brow ridges above large , round , widely spaced orbits swept back some unique inner ear characteristics and , in the occipital region , an occipital bun and ( two small depressions located above inion , or the external occipital protuberance see Figure for general area ) While their skulls were longer and lower than those of ( see Figure ) their absolute cranial capacity exceeded even that of modern humans . In accordance with Rule , a larger brain , while energetically costly in terms of , is more conservative from a heat generation and retention perspective . While the brain was larger , the frontal and parietal lobes ( involved with higher thought processes ) of were expanded tive to those of . This may have given an advantage in Ice Age Europe . Long . flat . low Receding Circular orbits forehead Occipital bun torus Large nasal cavity fossa Projecting Large gap behind third . molar Little or no chin ( mental eminence ) Figure cranial anatomy . Neanderthal by Jason Potter is licensed under . have been described as a cross between a marathon runner ( in terms of their endurance ) and a wrestler . They were built for chasing down and killing prey . Their upper body was heavily muscled . ENVIRONMENT AND WAY OF LIFE The have traditionally been portrayed as having endured harsh climatic conditions . However , there is debate as to how much of a tolerance they had for conditions in Ice Age Europe . 2009 ) presents an overview of research that suggests that during the coldest periods lived in more southerly regions and only moved into higher latitudes when temperatures were warmer . While their reflects chronic exposure to cold , like traditional arctic peoples , they did not have the modern technology of those modern humans , such as better shelter , tailored clothes , weapons , and millennia of advanced cultural traditions . They thus had to biologically adapt to the cold . However , when conditions deteriorated as the last glacial maximum approached , they went extinct along with other species in the northern latitudes . It has been known for many years that there were two different types of settlements , and were often biased as though some inhabited prime real estate and others eked out a living on the open plains . Cave sites in southern France were often described as river valleys with plentiful caves for shelter , game , water , stone resources for tools , and so forth , and they were thought to have been inhabited for millennia . sites were apparently inhabited by more nomadic groups that lived out 35 . Homo 213

Figure Homo sapiens and skulls compared . Sapiens Neanderthal comparison by is licensed under in the open in structures and followed herd animals . Cave sites and sites are now thought to represent the seasonal shift in subsistence strategies practiced by the same peoples . Thus while populations may have been able to live in more temperate regions , the rest were likely like their ancestors . During the cold of winter in Western Europe , they likely sheltered in southern caves and , in summer , ventured north in pursuit of migrating herds . In addition to caves , they used rock shelters , whereby they built outward from a rock wall or overhang . They did the same inside of caves , building a shelter within a shelter . Post molds form when a wooden post inserted in the ground decays , so that a darker circle of humus is apparent . The pattern of post molds can be used to reconstruct the shape and size of houses and walls in the archaeological record . Based on post molds , are known to have covered cave entrances , probably during colder periods . Remains of constructed structures show that they used bones , posts , and rocks and likely covered them with skins and insulated with grass . At the site in the Ukraine , a 26 16 ' oval ring of mammoth bones was excavated . The bones were likely covered with hides , forming a hut that contained numerous hearths During the , European winters are described as having been long and cold and summers were short and cool Because of the seasonality , plant foods would primarily have been available during warmer months . European ate a high proportion of meat , with reindeer and mammoth making up the majority of the diet , based upon faunal and isotopic analyses , respectively . However , dietary composition varied by region . Horses , and goats inhabited plains whereas at higher elevations , mountain sheep and ibex dominated . At the site of , Iraq , faunal remains included goat , sheep , bovid , pig , tortoise , bear , deer , fox , marten , and gerbil bones . At the same site , there is evidence of plant consumption and cooking . Henry ( 2011 ) found and starch grains in calcium deposits ( calculus ) on teeth . Some of the starch from grasses showed damage that is characteristic of cooking . While we know that used fire , as evidenced by hearths at their sites , and likely ate plants when they were available , it is valuable to finally have supporting evidence . Since is south of most of Europe and thus more temperate , it is likely that the had greater access to such resources . While debate has raged for some time over whether practiced cannibalism , fossil material , especially from the French site of , provides convincing evidence that at least some groups 214 The History of Our Tribe

Figure Homo by Taylor . Figure Restoration of Le Neanderthals by Charles Knight . Le by 1920 is in the public domain . did eat their own . bones at the site exhibit the same signs of processing as animal bones . Bones were and hammered open for marrow , and exhibit cut marks from muscle removal . It is interesting how abhorrent cannibalism is to us . We identify with the and may feel pointed that they practiced cannibalism . While it is difficult to say why they ate one another , there is 35 . Home 215

Figure Discoid hand note from Quarry ( near , Norfolk , UK ) 60 . by Jose Alvarez is licensed under of dietary stress in the form of enamel hypoplasia at some sites , such as , Thus some groups suffered periodic food shortages that resulted in faulty enamel deposition in developing children . If people are starving and there is a dead body available , historic accounts show that they will eat it . Thus it should not be surprising if consumed the dead , versus killing for consumption . There is no evidence that they practiced cannibalism in all times and places , and thus it could have been in response to extreme conditions . Prior to the evidence from , there was great reluctance anytime someone proposed to explain damage to remains at particular sites . I think that the stimulus for many of us to feel an affinity for the is that they intentionally buried their dead . They seem so human . Now that we know that some of our ancestors with them , we may feel an even greater connection to them and will have to accept the good along with possible acts of survival . culture falls within the period termed the Middle Paleolithic , the middle portion of the Old Stone Age . The tool tradition is termed the Industry ( see Figures 359 and for examples of tools ) after the Le site in France ( see Figure ) While there are no known remains from North Africa , it is of interest that their tools have been found there ( see Figure ) The method was an improvement on the technique that provided greater control over resulting flakes . Flakes were then modified into a variety of tools , such as and points , for various functions . Some of the tools were denticulate , meaning that they were . Like , they made compound tools by stone implements onto handles and shafts . A later tool tradition ( 35 kya ) from the site in France is categorized as an Upper Paleolithic try , as the tools exhibit characteristics of industries . Termed the tradition ( see ure ) it may be evidence of direct or indirect contact between and , meaning they obtained the technology via contact with or found one or more tools and used their own methods to replicate them . Some scholars claim the latter versus learning modes of production . Several items from the site of , France , have been interpreted as jewelry , another cultural achievement attributed solely to . 216 The History of Our Tribe

Figure artifacts . by is licensed under . SITES AND ACE sue showing min fossil ma , showing layers tion with lithic older than ( modern Human In Late sire ( ion with lithic ' La . Ven a Gran . cave . A ' Men Dew Tower . sum Am , a 22 ' El . uru I im Tam 91 ass , Bend , Distribution of lithic sites 500 by Figure Distribution uf lithic sites . Lies sites du by Marian is licensed under . 35 . Homo i 217

I , Figure tools . From Manuel , et by Joseph ( lie by 120 is in the public domain . While and deposited their dead in deep caves , the were the first species known to bury their dead in individual graves . Bodies are often found in a flexed position . There is very little evidence of ritual associated with burials . It appears that they dug a hole , folded the body into the hole , hence the position , and possibly threw some other things in with it . Items are often interpreted as having some significance , but they are usually limited to animal bones and ken tools . However , at the site of Tash , a boy was buried with five sets of wild goat horns that may have adorned his body . While some have suggested that he was an , if he was it appears to have been a ritualized burial . The site ( see Figure ) has always been the most romantic from my perspective . It is a cave site that experienced periodic and has yielded the remains of several interesting individuals , some of which were intentionally buried . was an adult male . While ultimately the victim of a , he survived one or more earlier traumatic events in his life . He is thought to have been partially blind due to a head injury that involved one of his eyes . He was missing the end of one of his forearms and thus the hand as well . He suffered a leg injury that resulted in a permanent limp , and some of his teeth were completely worn down . The interesting question is , how did he survive ?

The response is that his group mates helped him in life . He is thus heralded as another case of altruism or at least kin selection , if the care was provided by his relatives . may be the earliest evidence for murder . Another adult male , he was possibly stabbed , as by a cut wound to one of his ribs . While the bone showed signs of healing , it is not known whether he died from the wound and was intentionally buried or died in a . Another interesting burial is . He was also an adult male that was intentionally buried , and pollen from eight wildflower species was found in the grave . While highly controversial and possibly attributable to a rodent species , many would like to think that not only buried their dead but also placed flowers on their remains . As I was writing the previous section , it occurred to me that males may have been differentially buried to females . While I do not know the answer to that question , it is interesting and food for thought . The debate as to whether the could speak has raged for decades . For many years , experts thought that their larynx was situated too high in their throats to have allowed for speech . Our larynx drops during the course of development . Early on it is positioned high in the throat to allow simultaneous ing and breathing . Babies can not talk until the larynx drops and they then begin to babble . Thus while they 218 The History of Our Tribe

Figure 3513 Cave , see the two men in the cave for scale ) cave by at the English language Wikipedia is licensed under are not mechanically able to speak early on , they are cognitively capable of learning language . Of interest is that some parents now teach their infants sign language so that they can communicate earlier . While some researchers still doubt the ability to speak , many have accepted that they likely had spoken language but would have been unable to produce the full range of sounds that characterize our own speech . The discovery of a hyoid bone at the site in Israel led many to accept their ability to talk , since its morphology was similar to our own . The hyoid is an important attachment site for the ligaments and of the larynx and for some extrinsic muscles of the tongue ( geniohyoid , hyoglossus ) The most telling evidence in support of speech , in addition to all of my previous arguments , is the presence of the FOX gene in their genome . We also possess the gene , and it plays an important role in the acquisition of language . 35 . Home 219

Figure Muscles involved with speech . Plate 386 from Anatomy . by Henry Carter is in the public . 220 The History of Our Tribe