Psychology Textbook Chapter 8 Youth Physical Activity and Considerations for Interventions

Chapter Youth Physical Activity and Considerations for Interventions University of Tennessee at , USA Please cite as , 2021 ) Youth physical activity and considerations for interventions . In Jones ( Essentials and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview Child physical activities can include sports ( with or without organization and supervision from adults ) physical education classes and recess , active transportation , active free play ( without direction from adults ) chores , and other incidental bouts of physical activity . Children are more likely to obtain physical activity in short , unstructured bouts than are adults who often plan and structure daily workouts . While children may be more naturally inclined to be active than are adults , they may still need additional encouragement or opportunities to be active . This chapter will explore opportunities for physical activity across these as well as the role of parents and possible approaches for increasing physical activity for children and adolescents . For correspondence

Chapter Youth Physical Activity Introduction The development of physical activity habits should begin in childhood . The current World Health Organization physical activity guidelines call on children and youth ages years old to obtain at least 60 minutes of physical activity per day , although additional health benefits are seen with additional physical activity ( Bull et , 2020 ) This can and should include aerobic exercises such as running , hopping and skipping , activities such as climbing trees and playing on equipment that requires children to climb and lift their body weight , and activities such as jumping rope and hopscotch . Unfortunately , most children fail to reach these recommended physical activity levels . The Global Matrix Report Card provides grades across various physical activity goals for children and youth from 49 countries . Of these , only two scored above a grade of for overall physical activity ( Zimbabwe et , 2018 ) for Physical Activity in Youth There is no universally agreed upon definition for ages that make up youth , however the United Nations defines youth as those persons between 15 and 24 years of age , with children including those younger than 15 ( United Nations , Conversely , the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines children as persons up to the age of 18 ( Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights , 1989 ) For the purposes of this chapter , the term youth encompasses both children and youth and generally refers to those up to age 18 or until completion of high school . Youth can be active in many different and settings . This chapter will discuss Sport , Recess and Physical Education ( school ) Active Transportation , Free Play , and the Home Environment ( family and peers ) Sport Sport is perhaps the most thoroughly researched domain for youth physical activity , particularly in regard to psychological of participation . In adults , there are commonly documented gender disparities in sport participation , with men generally engaging in more sport than women , a trend that likely has its roots in childhood and adolescence ( Van et , 2010 ) According to the Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth , roughly 56 of to children report playing an organized sport . This report showed disparities in sport participation with girls and individuals from households participating at lower rates than boys and youth from income households . While the income disparities were also documented in Canada national report card ( 2018 ) the gap between boys and girls is not documented in Canada as it is in the United States . On a global level , participation in organized sport has been correlated with life expectancy , gross national income per capita , and global food security index ( et , 2018 ) There is evidence that participation in youth sport , and specifically prolonged participation in youth sport , is a significant predictor of adult physical activity levels . et al . 2006 ) examined the relationship between sport participation when participants were years old and continued participation , and 21 years later ( covering years ) They found that those who were active in sport in both 1980 and 1983 , as well as those who were active in both 1980 and 1986 , were significantly more likely to report high levels of physical activity in adulthood when compared to individuals who were not involved in sport at any time point . The type of competition at baseline ( club , regionally or nationally competitive ) was not a significant predictor for adult activity level and the specific sport the individual participated in during youth was not necessarily indicative of the chosen sport in adulthood . These results suggest that exposure and experience , more than specific activities , help to build activity habits for a lifetime . 177

Benefits of sport participation include skill acquisition , social interaction and development , mental and physical health benefits , and weight management ( Logan et , 2019 ) Sport participation contributes to development of motor skills and coordination for movements such as running , throwing , catching , and kicking , and increased strength and speed ( et , 2006 Hardy et , 2014 , 2015 ) Sport participation may also help youth develop skills that benefit them academically and in other life areas outside of sport , such as planning and ( et , 2010 ) time management ( 1999 , 2002 ) emotional regulation , teamwork and leadership ( Hansen et , 2003 Holt et , 2008 Larson et , 2006 ) Sport participants have shown higher levels of stress resistance ( 2001 ) lower levels of depression , and higher confidence levels ( Boone , 2006 et , 2013 ) Positive sport experiences help to build , which may be particularly important for body image and acceptance among girls who learn a broader definition of what it means to be female ( 2000 ) Motivations for participation in youth sport range from skill development , fitness , and status to challenge , release of energy and affiliation ( being part of a team et , 1993 ) Research has consistently shown that perceived competence is a key factor in a child enjoyment of sport and their likelihood of staying involved in organized sport ( McCarthy et , 2008 ) When youth feel that they have the necessary skills to be successful in a given sport , they are more likely to enjoy playing that sport . There appears to be a changing relationship between effort and ability level as it relates to perceived competence in sport as children grow . Younger children ( under 11 years old ) general do not differentiate between effort and skill and therefore perceive themselves as competent ( and therefore enjoy sport ) if they feel that they have tried hard . Older children may be more likely to engage in comparison with their teammates and competitors and therefore require not only effort but playing well in order to view themselves as competent and report continued enjoyment ( et , 2005 ) Burnout , including from early specialization , and excessive competition may lead to eventual dropout from youth sport participation . Specialization refers to the concept of intense focus on a single sport , typically , and often at the expense of participation in other sports and is associated with high levels of competition , burnout and increased risk for injury ( Brenner Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness , 2016 ) Youth who start this specialization earlier in life , those with a lower total number of extracurricular activities , and those with lower levels of unstructured play , may be at highest risk for burnout and subsequent drop out from sport ( et , 2008 ) While individuals who excel at sport at a young age may be seen by others as exceptional achievers , this intense focus and its associated time commitment can foster social isolation and limited social and skills ( Logan et , 2019 ) Implications for Interventions in Sport Children In early childhood ( to years ) children undergo dramatic changes to body composition and motor skills ( Gomez , 2000 ) These young children have limited fundamental sport and balance skills , the speed of moving objects , and short attention spans ( Purcell , 2005 ) During this period , focus should be placed on developing fundamental skills including running , throwing , catching , and riding a bicycle ( Purcell , 2005 ) According to the Athlete Development ( model , before age , the focus is on play and mastering basic movement skills ( et , 2013 ) The goals of participation should be to be active , have fun , and to have a positive sport experience through learning and practice of fundamental skills ( Gould , 1988 ) Children should be introduced to a variety of activities with the mindset of exploration and experimentation ( Purcell , 2005 ) Adults should reward effort and create a environment for trying new activities ( Gould , 2019 ) During early years , competition should be avoided ( Purcell , 2005 ) 178

Chapter Youth Physical Activity Children During ages to , children growth slows down as they continue to develop fundamental sport skills and begin developing transitional skills ( throwing or kicking for distance ) Children still have short attention spans during this age and have limited rapid skills ( Purcell , 2005 ) During this stage , the focus should be on acquiring a wide range of skills necessary for multiple sports and early specialization should be avoided as this promotes physical , technical , and tactical development and increases the likelihood of injury and burnout ( et , 2013 ) Increasing perceived competence should be encouraged as those with low perceptions of their abilities to learn and perform successfully are likely to drop out from sport ( et , 2014 ) Children will be more likely to continue with sport if they feel competent ( Gould , 2019 ) Competition can be introduced at this age , but rules should be flexible with the major emphasis on further developing fundamental skills and beginning development of transitional skills . activities include soccer , baseball , swimming , running , gymnastics , dancing , martial arts , and tennis . During ages 10 to 12 , transitional skills improve , and many children can master complex motor skills ( layup in basketball Purcell , 2005 ) Adults should reward correct technique and provide supportive , instructional feedback when teaching ( Gould , 2019 ) With increased attention spans , children are now ready to learn strategy and more complex playing tactics . Coaches should emphasize continued skill development with increasing emphasis on strategy and playing tactics ( Purcell , 2005 ) Encouraging children to focus on standards will help them avoid focusing solely on the outcome of competition ( Martens , 2012 ) sports include football , basketball , and ice hockey ( Purcell , 2005 ) Adolescents and Teenagers During ages 13 to 15 , growth increases exponentially with gains in muscle mass , muscle strength , and cardiopulmonary endurance , but this age is also marked by a temporary decrease in coordination , balance , and flexibility . Varying of puberty may affect sport performance during these ages . Teenagers have improved attention span and good memory skills allowing them to memorize and strategize with plays and game situations ( Purcell , 2005 ) Concentrating on the process over outcome leads to better development and increased involvement in the sport ( et , 2013 ) Athletes continue to grow and develop from 16 to 18 , seeing increases in attention span and memory skills . All sports are appropriate at this age , but most into sports that they are good at and enjoy ( Purcell , 2005 ) Around age 16 , teenagers have developed the physical , cognitive , social , emotional , and motor skills needed to specialize in a sport if desired ( Cote et , 2009 ) Recess and Physical Education The National Association for Sport and Physical Education ( US , recommends that all elementary school children receive at least one recess period per day of at least 20 minutes in length . While more than 90 of American elementary schools provide regular recess as part of the school day from Kindergarten ( approximately age years ) to grade ( age years ) only 35 of grade students have regularly scheduled recess ( Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , 2015 ) In the European Union , 14 of 28 countries report schemes to promote active breaks during the school day ( World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe , 2018 ) And when recess is available , children are not necessarily active the full time . Data suggest instead that students are active for only ( girls ) to ( boys ) of recess time ( Mota et , 2005 et , 2005 ) Due to insufficient levels of activity during recess , approaches for increasing activity must be considered . A review of the impact of interventions to improve youth physical activity levels found generally positive results , but few studies have examined long term impacts ( et , 179

2013 ) Common intervention approaches include adding new equipment or materials to the playground , enhancing playground markings , creating specific play zones , teacher involvement , and planned activities , with largest impacts seen for structured recess and new playground equipment ( Erwin et , 2014 ) This study also found increases in physical activity to be associated with the duration of the intervention per session . In other words , it is important to give children enough time during a given recess period to become and stay active . Photo by Lukas from Physical Education ( PE ) differs from recess time in that there is more supervision and direction from trained teachers . The Society of Health and Physical Educators ( SHAPE ) America recommends that schools provide 150 minutes of instructional physical education per week for elementary school children and 225 minutes of instructional physical education per week for middle and high school students . While 97 of US schools require PE in grade , this percentage drops below 45 for 11 grade students ( et , 2017 ) In the European Union , all Member States provide physical education in schools and most require at least two hours per week of instruction ( World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe , 2018 ) Of the 28 reporting countries , 22 mandate PE in primary schools and 20 mandate PE in secondary schools . Data evaluating the dose of physical activity provided by a PE class has shown that children are active for approximately 34 of the time they are in a PE class ( Contrary to much of the physical activity data in youth , no gender differences were found . CATCH ( McKenzie et , 1996 ) and SPARK ( et , 1997 ) are two physical education interventions that succeeded in increasing physical activity levels to around 50 of class time . Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health ( CATCH ) CATCH is designed to be delivered over grades , and ( ages ) and uses a approach to behavioral health . CATCH consists of school food service , physical education , and classroom curricula approaches at school and 180

Chapter Youth Physical Activity home curricula and family fun nights within the students families . Physical activity is a specific focus of the program in Grades and . Sports , Play , and Active Recreation for Kids ( SPARK ) SPARK focuses on promoting lifelong being through high quality physical education with required teacher training . Although SPARK has adapted since its original development and evaluation , the original program consisted of activities ( and jumping rope ) activities ( basketball and soccer ) and components including , goal setting , and problem solving . Implications for Interventions in Recess and Physical Education Children The World Health Organization suggests that children ages years of age should spend at least 180 minutes per day in a variety of physical activities ( World Health Organization , 2020 ) Considerations should be taken in the design and staffing of early childcare facilities to promote physical activity , including utilization of both fixed and portable equipment and training of staff to support and encourage physical activity ( Coe , 2020 ) Interventions and programs in young children should be focused on development of motor skill competence , which may support increased physical activity later in life ( Coe , 2020 ) Children A approach is recommended to increase opportunities during PE , recess , and before , during and after school hours ( National Physical Activity Plan Alliance , 2018 ) These programs often include physical activity breaks incorporated into the classroom and have been shown to effectively increase physical activity ( Donnelly et , 2009 ) In regard to physical education , interventions can include teacher training to increase the percentage of PE class time spent in moderate and vigorous physical activity ( McKenzie et , 1996 et , 1997 ) as well as a shift in focus to activities that build lifelong physical activity habits such as in Schools in Motion project ( World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe , 2018 ) Enjoyment of PE may influence future adult physical activity levels , with memories of embarrassment , bullying and anxiety related to lower future activity levels ( et , 2018 ) Because of this possible relationship , efforts should be made to increase enjoyment of PE for all students while avoiding embarrassment and bullying . In addition to providing additional recess and PE opportunities , manipulation of the play space may also increase physical activity levels . New equipment , markings , and play zones may increase interest in novel physical activities ( et , 2013 ) Renovations of play spaces from traditional equipment to more natural designs ( trees , rocks , water , logs and more ) has also been shown to increase physical activity levels ( Coe et , 2014 ) Finally , allowing for longer recess periods may give youth more opportunities to engage in physical activity ( Erwin et , 2014 ) Adolescents and Teenagers Requirements for physical education drop in high school compared to younger grades ( et , 2017 World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe , 2018 ) so the first priority must be to increase physical education opportunities in this age group . While adolescents may not be as likely to engage in spontaneous physical activity during recess as younger children , this is an important time period for encouraging adoption of physical activity as a lifelong habit , particularly for females who experience sharper decreases in physical activity during the early teen years ( et , 2002 ) PE in this age group may focus less on games and sports and instead provide opportunities for exposure to new activities such as hiking , skiing , or other outdoor pursuits if resources allow . Programs 181

that address other risk behaviors at this age ( cigarette smoking , teenage pregnancy ) may also provide opportunities to encourage physical activity as part of a healthy lifestyle ( et , 2002 ) Active Transportation Active transportation is defined as travel to and from school ( or work or other destinations ) which involves physical activity and often includes walking or cycling . Active transportation has been associated with overall higher physical activity levels in youth ( Stewart , 2011 ) commuting may also include some level of physical activity . commuting involves multiple methods of transportation such as walking to and from a bus stop , train stop , or carpool off point . This is in contrast to inactive commuting which relies solely on motorized travel . Levels of active transportation have declined in the United States since the ( et , 2015 et , 2011 ) Among children grades ( years old ) the percentage of youth using transportation to get to and from school ( walking or biking ) has declined from in 1969 to just in 2009 . Similar though less drastic declines have also been documented in Canada , Switzerland , and other countries ( et , 2009 et , 2010 ) Photo by May Taylor from Safety , functionality , aesthetics , and destinations influence active transportation behaviors ( Panter et , 2008 ) Due to elements pertaining to the home , the destination , the route , active transportation may simply not be an option . For example , many rural children live too far from their schools for active transportation to be a realistic choice . Routes for children who do live near schools could include hilly and winding roads that may be unappealing . Safety considerations include road safety as well as safety of the overall environment . Lower speed limits for motorized traffic , safe street crossings , complete sidewalks , bike lanes and good visibility can all make a route safer . Youth and adults alike are more likely to engage in active transportation if there are destinations within walking distance without unnecessary barriers . Areas with higher land use mix and therefore more diversity in shops , 182

Chapter Youth Physical Activity parks , schools , homes and other destinations are likely to encourage active transportation . Finally , an aesthetically pleasing environment will make active transportation more enjoyable . Safe Routes to School ( programs encourage active transportation through the Es Engineering , Enforcement , Education , and Encouragement . Engineering refers to design changes in the environment such as improved sidewalks , and bicycle lanes . Enforcement efforts include collaborations with local police departments to enforce speed limits in school zones or installing time speed monitoring signs . Education programs often focus on classroom instruction to teach pedestrian and bicycle safety . Encouragement efforts create incentives and excitement around active transportation . An assessment of Safe Routes to School programs in New York City , US showed a 44 decrease in the rate of pedestrian injury for youth age years for census tracts with these active transportation interventions compared to those without ( Li , 2013 ) A study comparing schools with and without programs found that rates of walking and bicycling to school increased with each year of participation in the program ( et , 2014 ) Similar positive impacts have been found by others ( et , 2005 Stewart et , 2014 ) Implications for Interventions in Active Transportation Children Depending on childcare arrangements , there may be few opportunities for young children to engage in active transportation . If children are not attending or daycare , they may not have regular opportunities to leave the house and travel to destinations close enough for active transportation , especially for young children . However , may still be encouraged to walk or bike along with a parent when taking older siblings to school or completing other trips and tasks . They may also in bike to begin exposure to active transportation . Children Proximity is important for active transportation and so this may simply not be an option for youth who live too far from their school or other destinations . For younger age groups , travel choices may also be strongly influenced by traffic safety concerns of parents ( Panter et , 2008 ) but there are opportunities available to address these concerns and increase utilization of active transportation . A popular approach to increasing active transportation is the walking school bus . Walking school busses consist of a group of children that walk a set route to and from school with adult supervision , picking up children throughout the neighborhood along the route . These programs help to allay parent fears about safety by increasing adult supervision and teaching safety behaviors ( Mendoza et , Schools can also encourage active transportation by addressing their vehicle traffic patterns and designating specific approaches to the school to reduce the chance for accidents . Adolescents and Teenagers Active transportation may appeal to adolescents because of the opportunity for independence . Walking or biking to school or other destinations may provide an additional opportunity for time away from parents with friends . Females are less likely than males to engage in active transportation ( National Physical Activity Plan Alliance , 2018 ) possibly suggesting continued need for safety improvements such as lighting along possible transit routes . Parents are encouraged to work with their teenagers to plan safe routes they can follow for active transportation as a way to find a compromise between the teen desire for independence and parents concerns about safety . 183

Free Play Free play is the first introduction to physical activity for most young children . From first crawling across a room to explore new areas , to running , jumping , and climbing in parks and playgrounds with friends and classmates . Free play presents opportunities to develop motor skills as well as social skills . Guidance from the American Academy of Pediatrics states that most children are ready for organized sports at around age , but should engage in free play until ( and after ) that time ( Logan et , 2019 ) Free play is valuable for the physical activity it provides , but it has additional benefits not seen with other types of physical activity including imagination , creativity , and social skills . Free play , often referred to as unstructured play , gives children and youth a chance to create and enforce their own rules , without direct oversight from a parent , teacher , coach , or other adult . Play is so important for children that it is recognized by the United Nations as a universal human right ( Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights , 1989 ) There are few studies available examining the access for children to free play , although many barriers are known , including weather , safety , and lack of infrastructure in the surrounding built environment ( et , 2011 et , 2006 ) The most commonly reported locations for physical activity include a complex yard , park or playground , school grounds after school hours , and a friend or relative home ( Corder et , 2011 ) Outdoor Play A special area of interest within free play is the exposure and opportunity it often presents for children to be outside . In fact , the amount oftime spent outdoors has been found to be a significant predictor of a child overall physical activity level ( et , 2000 ) Additionally , the higher variety of places to be active that a child visits is also associated with overall physical activity levels ( Corder et , 2011 ) Natural play spaces include unique terrain , plants , rocks , water and other natural elements that children can choose how to use , as opposed to traditional where it is very clear what should be done with a swing or a slide . Renovation of play spaces from traditional to natural playgrounds has been shown to increase physical activity and may also increase engagement in risky play ( Coe et , 2014 ) Risky play refers to activities such as climbing , jumping , and fast running and has been shown to be associated with healthy child development ( et , 2012 ) Implications for Interventions in Active Free Play Children Parental support for active free play is particularly important for young children who are not yet enrolled in school . Evidence suggests that children who attend are less active when at school than at other times in the day ( et , 2013 ) but that education and activity can increase physical activity and decrease sedentary time in this age group ( et , 2012 ) Some children may be more active activities while others may prefer free play and so a variety of opportunities should be presented ( Frank et , 2018 ) Children While development of motor skills is driven by physical activity in early childhood , this relationship may reverse in middle childhood as children with better motor skill development become and stay more active ( Coe , 2020 ) Access to recess and other opportunities for free play must be maintained and improved in this age group , showing interaction of efforts to increase free play with other such as school and family settings . More research is needed in this area to identify specific intervention characteristics that can successfully support free play , but safety and access are two likely factors . As suggested by the Protection Paradox , on the part of parents and teachers who are ( understandably ) trying to avoid injury , may result in reduced opportunity for children 184

Chapter Youth Physical Activity to engage in challenging and appealing play . health , supported by appropriate physical activity levels , should be valued as much as safety ( 2015 ) It is possible to increase the amount of time that families spend being active outside by providing education and information about local activity resources ( parks and ) and empowering parents to act as physical activity role models ( Flynn et , 2017 ) Photo by from Adolescents and Teenagers Parents can support active free play by providing transportation to recreational areas where adolescents can be active with friends . As teenagers build lifelong activity patterns , exploring a variety of outdoor hobbies can increase the likelihood of identifying physical activities that they enjoy , such as hiking , water activities , and other outdoor pursuits beyond organized sport . These activities may be particularly appealing for adolescents who have dropped out of organized sport due to disinterest in competition . Home Environment Parental Involvement and Modeling There are no valid and internationally recognized instruments available to document the role of parents in encouraging and supporting physical activity for their children , despite the known importance of parents as gatekeepers ( et , 2018 National Physical Activity Plan Alliance , 2018 ) Parents exert a large amount of influence on child behaviors , including physical activity , both in providing or restricting access and as a role model . Parents can provide support for physical activity through many avenues social and emotional support , financial support , transportation and investing time to play with or watch their child participate in organized sports . Much of the research on parent influence has focused on parenting type . Traditionally , parenting types have been categorized as Authoritarian , Permissive , or Authoritative ( 1966 ) although a fourth style ( is sometimes added . These styles are determined based 185

on and Responsiveness ( see Figure ) The authoritarian parent attempts to control their child behavior with high levels of restriction and authority and is often viewed as strict or stern . Children of parents who display this type of restriction may be less likely to engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity ( and active transportation ( Carver et , 2010 ) The permissive parent is acceptant and affirmative toward child desires and actions and consults child about decisions while exerting little overt power . In the context of physical activity , this parent is less likely to insist on direct supervision and is likely to have few rules about where a child can go and what they can do . Authoritative parents attempt to direct their child behavior while balancing reason and power to encourage both discipline and child autonomy . This parent is likely to have high expectations , but also clear rules and show high support for their child . Figure Aspects of Parenting Styles Permissive Authoritative High High Responsiveness Responsiveness Low High Low Low Responsiveness Responsiveness Low High Uninvolved There is some evidence that more active parents have more active children . One ofthese studies ( et , 2018 ) found a relationship with girls physical activity more closely associated with that oftheir mother and boys physical activity more closely associated with that of their father . However , a analysis as part of the Cardiovascular Risk in Young study ( et , 2017 ) did not find this response . Other researchers have found stronger ties between parent sedentary behavior and low child physical activity than between parent and child high physical activity levels ( et , 1999 ) suggesting that modeling of sedentary behaviors and modeling of active behaviors may influence child behaviors differently . Modeling is not the only way that parents can support physical activity for their children . Youth are more likely to achieve the physical activity guidelines if their parent ( take the child to places where they can be active , take part in physical activities with their child , and encourage their child to be active outdoors with friends or family members ( et , 2016 ) Parental influence is usually stronger for younger children ( under 12 years of age ) as parents play a stronger role in promoting or inhibiting 186

Chapter Youth Physical Activity opportunities for physical activity in younger children . There is also some evidence that youth from lower income families perceive less support in the form of being watched by family or friends , which has been associated with overall physical activity level ( Duncan et , 2005 ) Implications for Interventions in Parental Involvement Children Parents are integral at this age level as they provide opportunities and supervision for play , both structured and unstructured . Parents can provide support by exposing their children to a variety of activities . Young children can also be exposed to parent support by attending sporting events or other physical activity opportunities for older siblings with their families , creating a culture of physical activity support . Children Parents serve as a major role model for this age group , as children still have little volitional control over aspects such as enrollment in organized sport and transportation to places to be active ( et , 2016 ) There is some evidence that interventions for parents should directly target behaviors and planning , rather than increasing positive attitudes towards physical activity . Parents are likely already believers that activity is important for their children but need more tangible information such as resources and approaches to planning ( Flynn et , 2017 et , 2016 ) It is possible to increase the amount of time that families spend being active together by providing education and information about local places to be active and empowering parents to act as physical activity role models ( Flynn et , 2017 ) Adolescents and Teenagers Although adolescents exert more autonomy over their own activities than younger children , there is still a degree of influence from parents and other family members ( et , 2016 ) Parenting style may come into play in this age group as teenagers begin to explore their limits and strive to make more of their own decisions . Authoritative parenting demanding yet responsive will allow youth to explore physical activities to find what they enjoy while still being safe . Older children report lower levels of support from parents and siblings than do younger children an opportunity to provide intervention however , as children transition into adolescence , peers often become a stronger source of social support ( Duncan et , 2005 ) Youth with Disabilities Youth with disabilities often obtain lower levels of physical activity than those without disabilities . According to a report from the United States , 58 of boys between years old that have mobility limitations met the physical activity guidelines compared to 75 of boys in this age range without mobility limitations ( National Physical Activity Plan Alliance , 2018 ) Additionally , less than 20 of children with cerebral palsy , autism spectrum disorder , or Down syndrome between ages years met the guidelines . Similar discrepancies have been reported in Canada , where only 16 of children and youth with disabilities report at least 60 minutes of daily physical activity ( 2018 ) The National Survey of Children Health ( US , gathers data on youth ages in the United States . A review of data from demonstrated lower levels of physical activity among adolescents age with severe visual ( days of per week ) compared to those without ( days of per week et , However , as similar review of data from 2016 found that visual impairment was not associated with the likelihood of meeting the physical activity guidelines either for children or adolescents ( 187

et , These results suggest a need for additional research in this area along with consideration of the degree of severity of . Programs and opportunities that promote physical activity must consider different adjustments for youth with physical disabilities and intellectual and developmental disabilities . This may include considerations for equipment , space , group size , instruction , and safety . A systematic review of physical activity interventions for youth who use wheelchairs found that programs could achieve improvements in health , fitness , and but that results were often not maintained during and that studies were generally of low quality ( et , 2016 ) Parents of children with disabilities report many perceived benefits of physical activity participation for their child such as health and socialization . Unfortunately , they also report many barriers to physical activity participation including low motivation on the part of their children , and lack of programs and professionals that address the specific needs of their children ( et , 2020 ) Interventions for youth with disabilities are likely to vary greatly depending on the age group and the specific disability . For example , interventions for youth with visual need to consider different factors than physical activity programs for youth with intellectual disabilities or those who have experienced an amputation . While the validity of activity monitors among wheelchair users has been studied ( et , 2016 et , 2012 ) much more work is needed to develop and evaluate physical activity promotion programs for this population . Despite a call for more research on youth with disabilities being issued over 20 years ago ( Cooper et , 1999 ) additional data is still needed in this area . Considerations for Measurement of Physical Activity in Youth An important consideration when evaluating youth physical activity behaviors and subsequent interventions is in how physical activity is measured . tools that rely on recall or memory are limited by our ability to accurately recall our behaviors . tools that are completed in ( logs , diaries ) often create a high amount of burden on the participant to continually track their activities . For children , measures often rely on parents serving as a proxy and reporting activity levels for their child . These reports are limited to the time which the parent spent with their child and parent perceptions of the child activity level while they were apart ( at school , sport practices , programs ) Children tend to be more sporadic in their physical activity than adults are . lfyou have ever observed children , especially young children , playing on a playground or in a park , this quickly becomes apparent . A child may play for a few minutes on the swings before sprinting to the slide to play with a friend , take a break to play in the sandbox and then join a game of soccer . These short bursts of activity are harder to record or recall . In recent years , devices have been designed that can capture physical activity , including and . measure step count and are a cheap and easy way to capture the volume of physical activity performed by an individual . on the other hand , measure the amount of acceleration , and can therefore capture intensity . When accelerometer data is processed , it can identify not only the volume of physical activity performed by a participant , but also the intensity and the length of specific bouts of exercise . Accelerometer software from device manufacturers produce data referred to as counts with more counts per minute indicating higher of physical activity . There have been many studies done to determine appropriate cut points to separate sedentary , light , moderate , and vigorous activity based on counts per minute . However , rather than arriving at a consensus , this has resulted in a multitude of different sets of cut points that researchers must choose from . To do so , the setting , age of participants , and activities included in development and validation of those cut points should be considered . 188

Chapter Youth Physical Activity Conclusion There are many for children and adolescents to engage in physical activity , but in many of these areas , opportunities are lacking . Interventions should address safe and practical ways to increase physical activity levels while exposing youth to an array of different activities that allow them to identify their own interests . Policies are needed to support physical activity in schools as well as in the larger community environment through education , built environment , and utilization of proven curricula and programs . Parents serve as important role models and gatekeepers for physical activity and should be encouraged to identify easy and practical ways to provide more opportunities for physical activity for their child . Healthy physical activity patterns built in childhood may lead to healthy physical activity habits maintained throughout the lifespan . Learning Exercises Develop a question survey about youth sport participation and adult physical activity levels that could be distributed online . What details would you want to know about sport participation that you believe might predict adult physical activity levels ?

Distribute the survey to at least 15 classmates , family members or friends and review for trends . Imagine that you have been tasked with writing the requirements for recess time for a school system . What guidelines would you write for schools and for schools ?

Criteria may include rules for number of recesses per , length of recess , equipment provided , supervision , space requirements , bad weather contingencies and other considerations . Using Google Maps or another similar program , design at least three walking school bus routes through surrounding neighborhoods to your nearest elementary school . Use the Street View tool to make note of any segments of the route without sidewalks or with dangerous traffic crossings that could be improved with a Safe Routes to School project . Visit a local park and complete the Community Park Audit Tool ( After completing the tool , reflect on three positive aspects of the park highlighted by the tool and three areas for possible improvement . Create a community guide that provides information about at least five places in your community where parents could be active with their children . Create a table that could be provided as a handout to families about these resources . Be sure to include the address and name of the park , trail , or other resource as well as information about parking , accessibility , and what activities can be done at that location . 189

Further Reading , Barnes , Nader , Cardon , Chang , Draper , Edwards , 2018 ) Global Matrix Physical activity report card grades for children and youth Results and analysis from 49 countries . Journal of and Health , 15 ( Donnelly , Greene , Gibson , Smith , Sullivan , Mayo , Ryan , Williams , 2009 ) Physical Activity Across the Curriculum ( A randomized controlled trial to promote physical activity and diminish overweight and obesity in elementary school children . Preventive Medicine , 49 ( Logan , Cuff , Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness . 2019 ) Organized sports for children , and adolescents . Pediatrics , 143 ( McKenzie , Nader , Yang , Stone , Perry , 1996 ) School physical education effect of the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health . Preventive Medicine , 25 ( National Physical Activity Plan Alliance . 2018 ) The 2018 United States report card on physical activity for children and youth . pro UPDATE 1206201 ?

A . 2015 ) The biggest risk is keeping kids indoors . The 2015 report card on physical activity for children and youth . McKenzie , 1997 ) The effects of a physical education program ( SPARK ) on physical activity and fitness in elementary school students . Sports , Play and Active Recreation for Kids . American Journal Health , 87 ( Stewart , 2011 ) Findings from research on active transportation to school and implications for safe routes to school programs . Journal Literature , 26 ( Thank you to Elizabeth for her contributions to guidance for interventions in Sport . References , Barnes , Nader , Cardon , Chang , Draper , Edwards , 2018 ) Global Matrix Physical activity report card grades for children and youth Results and analysis from 49 countries . Journal of and Health , 15 ( 190

Chapter Youth Physical Activity , McLaren , 2014 ) Correlates of youth sport attrition A review and future directions . Psychology and Exercise , 15 ( Way , Higgs , 2013 ) athlete development . Human Kinetics . John , Conger , Coe , 2015 ) Trends in Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviors of United States Youth . Journal of and Health , 12 , 1966 ) Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior . Child Development , 37 ( 1126611 , Anderson , Day , 2005 ) Evaluation of the California Safe Routes to School legislation urban form changes and active transportation to school . American Journal of Preventive Medicine , 28 ( Boone , 2006 ) Game on diminishing risks for depressive symptoms in early adolescence through positive involvement in team sports . Journal Research , 16 ( McManus , Queen , Kann , 2017 ) School health profiles 2016 Characteristics of health programs among secondary schools . Brenner , Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness . 2016 ) Sports specialization and intensive training in young athletes . Pediatrics , 138 ( 1999 ) Risks and opportunities adolescents in sport growing up with the pressures of school and training . European Physical Education Review , 2001 ) Effects of sport club activities on adolescent development in Germany . European Journal Science , Fox , 2011 ) active play , barriers and facilitators . Public Health , Renders , 2018 ) Parental physical activity is associated with objectively measured physical activity in young children in a manner The GECKO cohort . Public Health , 18 , Olsen , Pike , Sleet , A . 2012 ) Risky play and children safety Balancing priorities for optimal child development . international Journal Research and Public Health , Mitra , 2009 ) Active school transportation in the Greater Area , Canada An exploration of trends in space and time ( Preventive Medicine , 48 ( Bull , Cardon , Carty , Chou , Dempsey , Firth , Garcia , 2020 ) World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour . British Journal of Sports Medicine , 54 , Carver , Crawford , 2010 ) Are children and adolescents less active if parents restrict their physical activity and active transport due to perceived risk ?

Social Science and Medicine , 70 ( 11 ) 191 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2015 ) Results from the school health policies and practices study 2014 . US Department of Health and Human Services , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , 2006 ) Effects of resistance training on the physical capacities of adolescent soccer players . Journal and Conditioning Research , 20 ( Coe , 2020 ) Means Physical Activity in the Preschool Environment . American Journal Medicine , 14 ( Coe , Flynn , Scott , 2014 ) Children physical activity levels and utilization of a traditional versus natural playground . Children , Youth and Environments , 24 ( A . 2020 ) The perspectives of parents of youth with disabilities toward physical activity A systematic review . Disability and Health Journal , 13 , Cooper , Harlan , Franklin , Bach , Chambers , Chao , Alexander , Painter , 1999 ) Research on physical activity and health among people with disabilities a consensus statement . Journal Research Development , 36 ( Corder , Elder , 2011 ) Active children use more locations for physical activity . Health and Place , 17 ( Cote , 2009 ) position stand To sample or to specialize ?

Seven postulates about youth sport activities that lead to continued participation and elite performance . International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , Li , 2013 ) Effectiveness of a safe routes to school program in preventing pedestrian injury . Pediatrics , 131 ( Donnelly , Greene , Gibson , Smith , Sullivan , Mayo , Ryan , Williams , 2009 ) Physical Activity Across the Curriculum ( a randomized controlled trial to promote physical activity and diminish overweight and obesity in elementary school children . Preventive Medicine , 49 ( Duncan , Duncan , A . 2005 ) Sources and types of social support in youth physical activity . Health Psychology , 24 ( 2002 ) The development and maintenance of expert athletic performance perceptions of world and olympic champions . Journal Sport Psychology , 14 ( Young , Harvey , Charity , 2013 ) A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport . international Journal Nutrition and , 10 , Erwin , Ahn , A . 2014 ) Impact of recess interventions on children physical . American Journal of Health Promotion , 28 ( 2006 ) A review of physical activity levels during elementary school physical education . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 25 ( 192

Chapter Youth Physical Activity Flynn , Thompson , Coe , 2017 ) Active Families in the Great Outdoors a program to promote family outdoor physical activity . Journal Education and Outdoor Learning , 17 ( 1999 ) relationship of physical activity patterns and obesity . of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity , 23 ( 12 ) Frank , Flynn , 2018 ) The differences in physical activity levels in preschool children during free play recess and structured play recess . Journal Science and Fitness , 16 ( 2008 ) Examining adolescent sport dropout and prolonged engagement from a developmental perspective . Journal Sport Psychology , 20 ( Gomez , 2000 ) Growth and maturation . In Sullivan Anderson ( Care of the Young Athlete ( American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons and American Academy of Pediatrics . Gould , 1988 ) Participation motivation and attrition in young athletes . Children in Sport , Martin , 2010 ) Trend in active transportation to school among Swiss school children and its associated factors Three surveys 1994 , 2000 and of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity , Physical activity , body mass index , and health status among youth with severe visual aged years in the United States . Disability and Health journal , 12 ( Prevalence of meeting physical activity , and sleep guidelines among children and adolescents with and without visual in the United States . Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly , 36 ( Hansen , Larson , 2003 ) What adolescents learn in organized youth activities a survey of reported developmental experiences . Journal Research , 13 ( Hardy , Hara , Rogers , St George , A . 2014 ) Contribution of organized and activity to children motor skills and fitness . Journal , 84 ( 11 ) Holt , Tink , Fox , 2008 ) Do youth learn life skills through their involvement in high school sport ?

A case study . Canadian Journal , 31 ( 102307 20466702 , Erwin , A . 2013 ) Systematic review of recess interventions to increase physical activity . Journal of and Health , 10 ( Lyons , 2010 ) Academic performance and skills in elite youth soccer players . Journal Science , 28 ( 14 ) Yang , 2017 ) Parental physical activity associates with offspring physical activity until middle age a study . Journal of and Health , 14 ( 193

, Beals , McKenzie , Wright , 2018 ) Results from the United States 2018 report card on physical activity for children and youth . Journal of Physical Activity and Health , 15 ( Barton , Daniels , Crawford , Liu , 2002 ) Decline in Physical Activity in Black Girls and White Girls During Adolescence . New , 347 ( 10 ) 2018 ) My Best Memory Is When I Was Done with It PE Memories Are Associated with Adult Sedentary Behavior . of the American College Medicine , 16 ) Larson , Hansen , 2006 ) Differing profiles of developmental experiences across types of organized youth activities . Developmental Psychology , 42 ( Rice , 2016 ) Accelerometer output and its association with energy expenditure during manual wheelchair propulsion . Spinal Cord , 54 ( Logan , Cuff , Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness . 2019 ) Organized sports for children , and adolescents . Pediatrics , 143 ( Martens , 2012 ) Successful coaching . Human Kinetics . McCarthy , Jones , 2008 ) Understanding enjoyment in youth sport A developmental perspective . Psychology and Exercise , Shaw , 1993 ) Motivation for participation in physical activity A comparison of perceived and participation motives . Pediatric Exercise Science , Brown , 2011 ) School travel , 2009 An assessment of trends . American Journal Medicine , 41 ( Lee , Smith , Zhu , Yang , 2014 ) Impact ofthe safe routes to school program on walking and bicycling . Journal ofthe American Planning Association , 80 ( McKenzie , Nader , Yang , Stone , Perry , Taylor , 1996 ) School physical education Effect of the Child and Adolescent Trail for Cardiovascular Health . Preventive Medicine , 25 ( 2015 ) The effects of sports participation in strength parameters in primary school students . Social and Behavioral Sciences , 186 , Mendoza , Watson , 2011 ) The walking school bus and children physical activity a pilot cluster randomized controlled trial . Pediatrics , 128 ( Mendoza , Watson , Chen , 2012 ) Impact of a pilot walking school bus intervention on children pedestrian safety behaviors a pilot study . Health Place , 18 ( 194

Chapter Youth Physical Activity Mota , Silva , Santos , A . 2005 ) Physical activity and school recess time Differences between the sexes and the relationship between playground physical activity and habitual physical activity . Journal Sciences , 23 ( National Physical Activity Plan Alliance . 2018 ) The 2018 United States report card on physical activity for children and youth . UPDATE 1206201 ?

Spencer , Hastings , 2016 ) Systematic review of physical activity and exercise interventions to improve health , fitness and of children and young people who use wheelchairs . Open Sport Exercise Medicine , Knowles , 2012 ) Effect ofa family focused active play intervention on sedentary time and physical activity in preschool children . international Journal Nutrition and , Knowles , 2013 ) Effect of a active play intervention on sedentary time and physical activity in preschool children . Health Education Research , 28 ( her Office of the United Nations High Human Rights . 1989 ) General Assembly Resolution . Convention on the Rights ofthe Child . Panter , Jones , van , 2008 ) Environmental of active travel in youth A review and framework for future research . International Journal Nutrition and , 2015 ) The Biggest Risk is Keeping Kids indoors . The 2015 Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth . 2018 ) The Brain Body Equation Canadian kids need active bodies to build their best brains . The 2018 report card on physical activity for children and youth . Purcell , 2005 ) Sport readiness in children and youth . Paediatrics and Child Health , 10 ( Manson , 2016 ) The impact of different types of parental support behaviours on child physical activity , healthy eating , and screen time A study . Public Health , 16 ( 2000 ) If you let me play sports how might sport participation influence the of adolescent females ?

Psychology of Women Quarterly , 24 ( 2005 ) Assessing physical activity during recess using . Preventive Medicine , 41 ( McKenzie , 1997 ) The effects of a physical education program ( SPARK ) on physical activity and fitness in elementary school students . American Journal of Public Health , 87 ( 195

, Taylor , 2000 ) A review of correlates of physical activity . Medicine Science in Sports Exercise , 32 ( 00014 , A . 2005 ) Participation in Sport A developmental glimpse at emotion . In , Larson Eccles ( Organized activities as of development Extracurricular activities , and community programs ( Lopez , 2012 ) Validation ofan method to measure the use of manual wheelchairs . Medical Engineering and Physics , 34 ( Stewart , 2011 ) Findings from research on active transportation to school and implications for safe routes to school programs . Journal Literature , 26 ( Stewart , 2014 ) evaluation of Safe Routes to School programs . American Journal of Health Promotion , 28 ( Yang , 2006 ) Participation in organized youth sport as a predictor of adult physical activity A longitudinal study . Pediatric Exercise Science , 17 ( United Nations . Youth . Van , 2010 ) Gender and age inequalities in regular sports participation A study of 25 European countries . Journal Sciences , 28 ( 10 ) Ball , Salmon , 2006 ) Where do children usually play ?

A qualitative study of parents perceptions of influences on children active . Health and Place , 12 ( Gould , 2019 ) Foundations and Exercise Psychology . Human Kinetics . World Health Organization . 2020 ) WHO Guidelines on physical activity , sedentary behaviour . World Health Organization , World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe . 2018 ) Promoting physical activity in the education sector . 196