Psychology Textbook Chapter 5 Predictors and Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior

Chapter and Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior Anthony Rutgers University , The State University of New Jersey , USA Please cite as , 2021 ) and correlates of physical activity and sedentary behavior . In Jones ( Essentials and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview Researchers and practitioners all want people to move more and sit less . Predicting human behavior is challenging because of the complex nature of how numerous interconnected factors influence human behavior . This chapter is organized by introducing readers to ( a ) why predicting physical activity and sedentary behavior is an important research enterprise and adds value to society , understanding what constitutes a psychological predictor from multiple levels of complexity , and ( issues to consider for the future . For correspondence

Chapter and Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior Why Predict Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior ?

Researchers want to predict physical activity and sedentary behavior to better explain what makes people behave in ways that would improve their quality of life . This health promotion goal is a dominant pursuit in physical activity research and for good reason . There is well established scientific evidence that physical activity is associated with a wide range of health benefits ( Department of Health and Human Services , 2018 ) Almost everyone can benefit their health from engaging in regular physical activity . physical activity can be used as a preventative strategy to reduce the risk of chronic disease or therapeutic strategy to help individuals mitigate or reverse the detrimental effects of disease and disorders ( Singh , 2002 ) When viewing physical activity as a preventative strategy , getting enough physical activity can help prevent to 10 of major diseases and save millions of lives per year ( Lee et , 2012 Department of Health and Human Services , 2018 ) Physical activity is useful as both a primary and secondary preventative strategy for reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease , diabetes , specific cancers , obesity , hypertension , bone diseases , and depression ( et , 2006 ) As a therapeutic strategy , regular physical activity is also beneficial to help improve sleep and mood as well as reduce anxiety , depression , and stress ( Sharma et , 2006 ) Physical activity is also beneficial for improving brain health and performance ( Hillman et , 2008 ) This has important implications for the academic performance of young people , the cognitive functioning of older adults , and helping special populations who experience challenges with cognitive functioning ( Pontifex et , 2014 ) The health promotion , disease prevention , therapeutic benefits , and positive psychological effects of physical activity provide substantive justifications for the reason why predicting physical activity is important . Predicting sedentary the same health promotion goal . Research shows that television viewing and screen time are associated with mortality , childhood obesity , increased blood pressure and total cholesterol , decrease , social behavior problems , poorer physical fitness , and lower academic achievement ( et , 2014 ) Therefore , once researchers explain the of physical activity and sedentary behavior , the next step is to design interventions targeting these factors in populations that would benefit from increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary behavior . Successful interventions can lead to public health recommendations and policy changes to help improve quality of life . Ultimately , the goal is to increase physical activity participation and reduce sedentary behavior . Approaches to Predicting Predicting physical activity and sedentary behavior relies on two approaches explaining what factors cause people to behave and what factors are associated with behavior . The first approach often identifies these factors as of physical activity and sedentary behavior . A useful place to start identifying what factors cause people to be physically active or sedentary is to start with a relevant theory and previous empirical evidence . A theory helps specify what factors lead to changes in behavior , how those factors are organized , and shows causal hypotheses between and outcomes . A theory is useful when researchers are interested in designing interventions or making public health recommendations to increase physical activity or reduce sedentary time . The overarching goal with the explanation approach is to effectively explain how and why people behave . The second approach tries to accurately as possible predict behavior and is not necessarily interested in cause and effect or theory to specify what factors lead to behavior . This approach often identifies these factors as correlates of physical activity and sedentary behavior . For example , a researcher may be interested in predicting sedentary behavior among teenagers . This researcher may collect data on numerous factors that may be associated with sedentary behavior to try 94

to accurately predict it . This approach may help identify what factors such as television viewing and individual characteristics are associated with sedentary behavior . From this perspective , television viewing is related to sedentary behavior , but one does not cause the other . This second approach is also useful for identifying more distally related or background factors beyond what is specified in a theory . The same researcher may also be interested in learning more about how watching television differs among different ethnicities and socioeconomic classes . For example , research shows that British Black students were more sedentary than their White peers ( et , 2007 ) What Counts as Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior ?

The concepts of physical activity and sedentary behavior are distinct . That is , sedentary behavior is different than not getting enough physical activity or being physically inactive . Physical activity is any bodily movement produced by the skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure ( et , 1985 ) Sedentary behavior is any waking behavior characterized by an energy expenditure metabolic equivalents ( METs ) while in a sitting , reclining or lying posture ( et , 2017 ) Over the past 30 years , researchers have mentioned physical activity more times than sedentary behavior ( see Figure ) One result ofthese publication trends is that researchers and health professionals know more about the health enhancing effects of physical activity than the detriments of sedentary behavior . This has led to more and specific public health recommendations for what counts as being physically active than for reducing sedentary behavior . Although the research on the of sedentary behavior is rapidly increasing , of physical activity dominate the extant literature base . Figure Number of Publications Containing Physical Activity 900 Physical Activity ) 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Year of Publication Total Count of Publications ( 103 ) Note The number of publications containing physical activity has outpaced the number of publications containing sedentary by an average of over the past 30 years . Data from . 95

Chapter and Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior Predicting Physical Activity Theories are useful to select factors that can explain physical activity behavior . Below are several of the major theories used by researchers to study physical activity and sedentary behavior . These theories were chosen due to their predictive utility , practical implications , and empirical support and are not an exhaustive list of the theories used in sport and exercise psychology . The following theories fit within three general categories ( see Rhodes et , 2019 for a more detailed review ) The category contains theories that view behavior as a function the beliefs and thoughts of people . This category views decisions to enact behavior as deliberate and intentional . The humanistic or organismic category views behavior as a function of the innate needs of people to grow , develop , and effectively interact with their environment . The third category adds that behavior is a function of both reflective ( similar to those of theory ) and automatic processes . Automatic processes are rapid and more difficult to be aware of than slower , reflective , more conscious processes . The following theories are presented below in a succinct fashion to offer readers an overview of the main factors of the theory , research support , implications for practice , and challenges . Theory of Planned Behavior Intention is the most proximal predictor of physical activity according to the Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1991 ) Intentions represent when people plan to act and perform a behavior . Intentions are most likely to cause behavior when those intentions are strong and only when they are out of volition of the performer . Intentions are influenced by three ( favorable or unfavorable ) evaluation about the behavior , subjective social influence from others to perform or not perform the behavior , and perceived behavioral perception of performing the behavior as easy or difficult ( 1980 ) In addition to predicting intentions , perceived behavioral control can also directly predict behavior when perceptions of control are realistic . When individuals view physical activity as important and believe they are in control of their behavior they will intend to be physically active ( Rhodes et , 2019 ) evidence supports intentions and perceived behavioral control as positive of physical activity ( Hagger et , 2002 et , 2011 ) Attitudes and perceived behavioral control appear as consistent of intentions . The typical effects of attitudes , social norms , and perceived behavioral control on intention to be physically active are of medium magnitude ( et , 2011 ) Subjective norms appear as a less consistent predictor of intentions compared to attitudes and perceived behavioral control . The inconsistency of subjective norms may due be to conceptualization and measurement issues ( Kim et , 2019 ) Subjective norms are more likely to predict intentions when they are measured as observing other important people behaviors . The inclusion of subjective norms to predict intention to be physically active is complex ( Kim et , 2019 ) Furthermore , mixed support for the role of subjective norms exists among populations with physical disabilities ( Kirk , 2019 ) In practice , numerous interventions used the theory of planned behavior to affect changes in intentions as well as physical activity behavior ( Webb , 2006 ) Interventions focus on changing the attitudes , subjective norms , or perceptions of control of people to produce stronger intentions to be physically active . Research findings show that even though interventions that can change the intentions of people , this does not always lead to changes in behavior ( Hagger , 2005 Webb , 2006 ) This has led to criticisms of how useful the theory of planned behavior is for changing the physical activity of people ( et , 2014 ) Although the components of the theory of planned behavior are empirically supported , the application of this theory to improving physical activity behavior is less clear . 96

Theory A key factor of theory ( 1997 , 2005 ) that predicts behavior is degree of confidence to exert control over one behavior ( 1997 ) is often referred to as a form of . This theory supports the idea that the more confident people are in their abilities , the more likely they will be physically active . The broader components of theory include knowledge , outcome expectations , perceived facilitators and impediments ( see , 2005 ) Individuals develop their physical activity efficacy beliefs from four primary sources , namely past performance accomplishments ( a runner achieving their personal best in a race ) social persuasion ( encouragement from a friend to run ) vicarious experiences ( observing other compete in races ) and interpretation and affective states ( awareness of positive feelings when running , 1997 ) can influence what behaviors people chose to pursue ( choice ) how much effort people put forth in pursuit of their goals ( effort ) and the how long people persist despite setbacks or challenges ( persistence ) Note that this chapter describes four sources of , but others have six sources of efficacy ( see Chapter 27 et , 2021 ) People will be more likely to be physically active if they perceive they can be successful at it ( Samson , 2011 ) has shown to be one of the strongest psychological of physical activity ( Hu et , 2007 ) Successful behavior is likely to increase and increased efficacy leads to an increased likelihood of effort and persistence . This represents a cyclical association between and behavior over time ( 2000 ) This cycle may be most helpful for people who are physically inactive . An initial successful physical activity experience can have strong effects on and be the impetus for this cyclical association . Research shows that past performance accomplishments are one of the strongest positive of ( Warner et , 2014 ) Interventions based on theory should emphasize these mastery experiences to develop . Additionally , interventions can focus on social persuasion through feedback and reinforcement , and vicarious experiences such as modeling proper form and technique , to positively influence beliefs towards physical activity . Social influence appears to be a significant predictor of physical activity behavior across the adult lifespan ( De , 2002 ) Considerations for Theories The definition and measurement of intentions vary across studies despite being an important predictor of behavior ( Rhodes Rebar , 2017 ) There exist two distinct concepts of intention decisional direction to enact the behavior or not and intention of commitment to enact behavior . Rhodes and Rebar ( conclude that intention strength appears to be a better predictor of behavior whereas decisional intentions allow for closer examination of factors leading up to decisions and factors that follow decisions . Future research should make these concepts clearer to readers due to their different empirical and practical implications ( see Rhodes Rebar , 2017 ) Despite the relevance of importance of factors in the theory of planned behavior , it has shown limited predictive validity ( et , 2014 ) When accounting for how much physical activity can be predicted by factors , there generally remains a large proportion of the variance unexplained . This means there are additional factors outside ofthose used in theories that could enhance the explanation of physical activity behavior . This chapter introduces the sources of , but readers should be aware that there are more sources of that may contribute to a person situation specific . For example , the tripartite view of beliefs demonstrates that social relationships can meaningfully impact a person through and other efficacy beliefs ( Lent Lopez , 2002 ) For instance , a track athlete perceiving her coach to hold favorable views of 97

Chapter and Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior her sport ability would positively impact the athletes . Practitioners could leverage inferred by incorporating strategies to enhance the quality of social relationships within physical activity settings . Theory The basis of theory is that people are organisms that behave in ways to grow and develop their skills ( Ryan , 2000 Ryan et , 2009 ) determination theory is also discussed in Chapter ( Rebar et , 2021 ) Chapter ( et , 2021 ) and Chapter 32 ( Kingston et , 2021 ) This theory integrates many that culminate into identifying the major personal and contextual factors that influence human behavior . The theory has been widely used to study physical activity motivation ( Hagger , 2008 et , 2012 ) and inform interventions to increase physical activity behavior ( et , 2020 ) determination theory focuses on three broad types of motivation that occur along a continuum of determined behavior . motivation is the most optimal and highest quality motivation . This type of motivation includes intrinsic and extrinsic reasons tied to enjoyment , interest , and personal values . Controlled motivation represents the second type of motivation that includes reasons tied to external pressure and rewards . The third type is that represents the absence of intentions and sense of control to behave . Research generally shows that motivation is the most adaptive type of motivation for the promotion of physical activity ( Hagger , 2008 et , 2012 ) For an individual to be motivated , they must perceive fulfillment of three basic needs in a given context ( Ryan , 2000 ) The autonomy represents individual authenticity in their behavioral decisions ( sense of personal choice ) The competence represents effective functioning ( sense of ability to bring desired behavioral outcomes ) The relatedness represents the social connectedness to others ( sense that others accept , care for , and value an individual ) The degree to which these needs are perceived to be fulfilled impacts motivation of individuals . Research findings generally support the tenets of theory . More determined types of motivation are positive of physical activity ( Duncan et , 2010 Standage et , 2008 ) Research shows autonomy , relatedness , and competence needs are positive of more types of motivation in physical activity ( et , 2012 ) Experimental evidence shows supporting the needs of autonomy , competence , and relatedness through need supportive text messaging may lead to greater need fulfillment and increases in moderate intensity physical activity ( et , 2016 ) Other research has taken a more approach to theory because people may hold multiple reasons simultaneously for engaging in physical activity . For example , children who reported primarily a combination of determined motives from young childhood to late childhood showed the highest levels of physical activity compared to those holding more controlling motives or towards physical activity ( et , 2020 ) theory has led to many practical implications for interventions based on a substantive body of supporting empirical evidence . Although these interventions may lead to small positive changes in health behaviors including physical activity ( et , 2020 ) those wishing to increase physical activity may be best served to implement strategies that fulfill the needs for autonomy , competence and relatedness . This may be most influential by training leaders of physical activity environments such as coaches , trainers , and physical educators for how to support the psychological needs of their participants . 98

Considerations for Theory There exist a few challenges with theory despite its widespread adoption in sport and exercise psychology . One challenge is whether the three basic needs of autonomy , competence , and relatedness are a complete conceptualization of the needs necessary to influence motivation . Preliminary evidence has identified the need for novelty as an additional basic psychological need ( et , 2020 ) The novelty is the need to experience something new or differs from experiences of everyday life . The need for novelty may be useful to sustain motivation in physical activity environments to avoid staleness or boredom with repetitive tasks . Understanding the relative contributions of the need for novelty is warranted in future research . Another consideration for theory is whether individual characteristics make people sensitive to need fulfillment . For instance , people who are deprived of supportive and positive social relationships in daily life may be more sensitive to the effects of the need for relatedness in physical activity . A related point first formalized by ( 2001 ) is that basic needs and motivations are classified at three levels of generality the global , contextual , and situational . According to this perspective , a need for relatedness should be most strongly related to motivation for a particular behavior within that context ( specificity hypothesis , 2001 ) For example , an individual who has weak social connections within her family may be more sensitive to the effects of the need for relatedness when she participates in a exercise class . Studying this multilevel influence within and across social complexity may inform researchers and practitioners which individuals may be most receptive to behaviors that fulfill basic needs . Future research would benefit from analyzing the factors of theory across these levels to obtain a better understanding of individual differences . Models of Behavior models provide a framework for how two systems influence behavior ( Strack , 2004 ) theories are also discussed in Chapter by Brand ( 2021 ) and Chapter by Rebar et al . 2021 ) The first system is reflective that uses explicit processes through deliberate thought and conscious awareness to influence behavior . theories fit within this system to study physical activity behavior . The second system is reflexive , concerned with sometimes nonconscious , automatic and implicit processes that influence behavior . Such reflexive processes are less studied in physical activity . They may also be best positioned to study sedentary behavior as decisions to be sedentary are less likely to require as much deliberate thought and planning ( reflective processes ) as physical activity . Studying reflexive processes is advancing understanding in physical activity and sedentary behavior research ( et , 2010 , Rebar et , 2016 ) Examples of such reflexive processes include habits ( Rebar et , 2014 ) implicit attitudes ( et , 2009 ) automatic evaluations ( Conroy Berry , 2017 ) and tendencies ( Sometimes terms such as automatic associations and implicit attitudes are used interchangeably ( for a discussion on choice in terminology , see , Research shows that reflexive processes uniquely and positively contribute to the prediction of physical activity ( Rebar et , 2016 ) This research area is still in its infancy but the incorporation of reflexive processes in the prediction of physical activity has provided a more accurate picture of the factors that can determine behavior . Practical implications of how to intervene on training the reflexive processes of individuals to increase physical activity behavior has received empirical support . conditioning tasks may change automatic evaluations of exercise that could result in changes to the choice and duration of physical activity behavior ( Brand , 2016 Cheval et , 2016 ) These trainings may be especially important for when individuals are restricted from exercise and recreational facilities ( pandemic ) Beyond trainings , interventions that are 99

Chapter and Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior effective at changing reflexive processes and in turn physical activity behavior are needed . Such interventions outside of laboratory environments may be more easily translated into practice for the public . Considerations for Models of Behavior Issues related to inconsistent terminology among reflexive processes and how to measure these processes represent current limitations of research . addressed the issue of measurement by assessing the reliability and validity of nine measures of implicit processes . Results showed that only three of the nine measures showed acceptable reliability and only the task demonstrated validity , showing significant correlations with exercise behavior and situated decisions toward exercise ( decisions about exercise when a behavioral alternative is available Brand Schweizer , 2015 ) As this line of research progresses , the terminology and refining measurement will help research progress and extend understanding of reflexive processes . Beyond terminology , the reflexive process may be particularly useful to study sedentary behavior . Of the growing body of research studying reflexive processes in sport and exercise psychology , sedentary behavior remains understudied . The nature of sedentary behavior appears to align well with the concept of reflexive sedentary behavior does not require deliberate thought or action . models may be especially important to intervene on sedentary habits . Such research may lead to a greater understanding of how sedentary time or how to break habits of extended sedentary time . Predicting Sedentary Behavior Ecological Model of Four Domains of Sedentary Behavior Ecological models help to provide a framework that shows multiple levels of influence on behavior . They are useful to highlight specific or situations in which factors may be most likely to influence human behavior . Ecological models typically organize the levels along , interpersonal , contextual , environmental , and policy levels . Each level has distinct factors that predict sedentary behavior . For example , attitudes , beliefs , and perceptions fit within the level . The interpersonal level includes factors that capture social influence such as a friend suggesting going for a walk or watching a movie . The contextual level includes factors within the immediate surroundings that are likely to influence behavior such as school , work , or home . The environmental level includes factors like the attributes of the , such as suburban compared to a metropolis , that may influence daily patterns of behavior . These levels are usually nested within each other and when considered together can interact and explain human behavior . The ecological model of four domains of sedentary behavior ( Owen et , 2011 ) focuses on factors associated with sedentary behavior among domestic ( household ) occupation ( transport ( biking , commuting Figure ) and leisure ( neighborhood and recreational environments ) Sedentary behavior may be unavoidable for some individuals as using a private automobile or seated public transport may be the only way to get to their occupation whereas others may be able to walk or bike to work . Moreover , sitting in school or at work is considered a social norm . Identifying the where sedentary behavior is likely to occur and accumulate in time can help guide intervention efforts to break up extended periods of sedentary behavior . and colleagues ( 2015 ) recommend several notable considerations for intervening on sedentary behavior . Sedentary behavior is likely a product of both conscious decision making and automatic responses to environmental cues ( models ) Recommendations include 100

prompts to stand or move ( smart watches ) active such as treadmill desks , allowing employees regular desk breaks , and standing meetings . The efficacy of such interventions to reduce sedentary behavior provides a positive outlook as interventions demonstrate and reductions in sedentary behavior ( Blackburn , 2020 ) Figure Neighborhoods with Sidewalks , Bicycle Lanes , Adequate Lighting , and Speed Bumps Can be More to Physical Activity Photo by Productions from Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior Researchers study the correlates of physical activity and sedentary behavior to improve understanding . Studying and exploring what factors are related to these behaviors typically follows a developmental perspective . That is , how do these factors associate with behavior over the lifespan ?

For example , parental support for physical activity is a positive correlate of physical activity for children and adolescents ( Van Der Horst et , 2007 ) but would not be as salient to the physical activity of older adults . Studying developmentally appropriate correlates is useful to identify factors beyond what might be specified in a theory , to reevaluate or expand upon existing theories , or to compare the relative strength of associations of many correlates simultaneously . Some of these correlates may be sensitive to intervention or change , such as perceptions of time or outcome expectations . Other correlates may help researchers identify demographic or individual characteristics that may be risk factors for low physical activity or high sedentary behavior . Researchers generally organize these factors into personal , social , or environmental categories . Personal correlates refer to factors within the individual such as behaviors , perceptions , beliefs , motivations , demographic characteristics , and biological or genetic factors . The association of 101

Chapter and Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior age with physical activity is inverse ( et , 2002 ) That is , as individuals become older their physical activity declines . This relationship appears to be different for children where age is positively associated with physical activity then begins to decline around age seven ( et al , 2018 ) Although this corresponds to the time children enter school , adolescence is widely considered as a period associated with lower physical activity and higher sedentary behavior ( et , 2007 ) In addition to differences , male sex appears to be consistently positively associated with physical activity across the lifespan ( et , 2012 ) Sex and gender differences exist during childhood however , these differences may obscure within each sex and gender based on trajectories of physical activity behavior . For instance , when looking at trajectories of physical activity from to 15 years , physical activity appears to decline in all children at a population level , regardless of gender . Despite this decline , there does appear to be a subgroup of boys that remains stable in their physical activity over this developmental period ( et , 2018 ) There also appears to be no sedentary behavior differences between boys and girls , but sedentary behavior is positively associated with men in adulthood ( et , 2016 ) Among psychological correlates , reviews over the past 20 years have analyzed dozens of systematic reviews with upwards of 50 different correlates . Most of this research shows that efficacy is a consistent positive correlate of physical activity for children , adolescents , and adults ( et , 2012 Van Der Horst et , 2007 ) Other and less consistent positive correlates of physical activity include intentions to be active for both children and adolescents , whereas perceived competence , outcome expectations , and mastery goal are correlates for adolescents but not children ( et , 2014 ) The evidence for other psychological correlates is mixed depending on the study . For instance , there is mixed support among youth research that viewing physical activity as an enjoyable activity is associated with physical activity behavior ( et , 2011 ) Sedentary behavior in adults appears to be positively associated with symptoms of depression , stress , and perceived tiredness , whereas perceived health and benefits of reducing sedentary behavior are negative correlates ( et , 2016 ) Behaviors during childhood and adolescence that are consistently positively associated with physical activity include past physical activity behavior and participation in organized physical activity such as sports ( et , 2014 ) In adults , a history of physical activity participation during adulthood appears to be a consistent behavior correlated with higher physical activity ( et , 2012 ) whereas having a sedentary job ( desk jobs ) appears to be most strongly associated with sedentary behavior ( et , 2016 ) There exist other behaviors either less consistently or more weakly associated with both physical activity and sedentary behavior that differ among children , adolescents , and adults . These include smoking , snacking on foods , and overall physical activity levels . Social Social correlates include actual and perceived aspects of relationships with other people such as parents , siblings , peers , partners , or group members . Parental encouragement and parental social support are positively associated with physical activity for young people ( et , 2011 ) Aspects of sibling relationships for youth appear to also positively correlate with physical activity behavior ( see Smith , 2017 ) Outside of the family context , aspects of peer relationships such as peer acceptance , friendship quality , support , and modeling are associated with physical activity ( Smith , 2019 ) Peers include classmates , friends , and teammates of similar age and developmental status . Friends are especially important social agents in adolescence . In a sample of 372 adolescents , friends social support and friends watching were most strongly correlated with physical activity whereas parental and sibling social support were correlates ( Duncan et , 2005 ) Peer relationships may be promising to promote physical activity , however , peers can also undermine physical activity ( Smith , 2019 ) Poor 102

relationships with peers signal that a person is not wanted , disliked , or devalued by others . This can appear as conflict , rejection , exclusion , teasing , or bullying . These experiences are typically unpleasant and can have serious lifelong consequences . For example , and colleagues ( 2018 ) found that negative memories and experiences ( being chosen last for teams ) during childhood physical education were negatively associated with attitudes and intentions about physical activity in adulthood . Other important social relationships correlated with physical activity include coaches , trainers , partners , and group members . For adults , receiving social support from partners , family members , friends , or a physician appears to be positively correlated with physical activity ( Kelly et , 2016 ) For older adults , social support remains an important correlate of physical activity and can counteract the effects of loneliness . Social support is positively correlated whereas loneliness is negatively correlated with physical activity among older adults ( Lindsay Smith et , 2017 ) Along with social support , being physically active in groups that emphasized group cohesion and was more effective at getting participants to adhere to exercise interventions than exercising alone ( Burke et , 2006 ) Engaging in physical activity with others offers opportunities for socialization that helps fulfill an individual need to belong . Although it should be noted that not all people may prefer engaging in physical activity . This is particularly relevant for older adults who report preferring based physical activity with others similar in age ( et , 2007 ) Environmental The environmental correlates of physical activity and sedentary behavior are characterized by aspects of the context and location . and colleagues ( 2012 ) reviewed correlates of physical activity from an ecological perspective . access or proximity to recreation facilities , and other characteristics of the are among the most consistent correlates related to physical activity for children , whereas mix and residential density are most consistent for adolescents . For adults , and location of recreational facilities were consistent correlates of physical activity with no clear environmental correlates found for older adults . This review demonstrated that characteristics of the environment such as and access to facilities are associated with physical activity behavior . This can have important implications for the development and location of new facilities to promote physical activity behavior . Another aspect of the environment that can influence physical activity and sedentary behavior is weather . Zheng and colleagues ( 2021 ) found that rain is negatively associated with physical activity and positively associated with sedentary behavior , whereas temperature shows the opposite relationship ( positive association with physical activity , negative association with sedentary behavior ) Additionally , physical activity appears to vary with changes in seasons such that colder seasons ( winter ) are associated with lower physical activity and warmer seasons ( spring and summer ) are associated with higher physical activity ( Tucker , 2007 ) These findings may apply to locations that experience weather variation in all four seasons , whereas extreme climates with high humidity and temperatures may show different associations with physical activity and sedentary behavior . Considerations for Studying Correlates Studying the factors associated with physical activity and sedentary behavior will benefit from moving beyond research designs ( one point in time ) to studying how the association changes overtime . This noted , longitudinal designs are more resource demanding than designs , presenting challenges to researchers . Such longitudinal designs can help demonstrate a richer understanding of how associations change or remain stable over time . A exercise program provides an illustrative example . In this program , may be the strongest predictor of physical activity in week . The strength of may lessen over time and be replaced by social support by week . A researcher may find that was most important for initiating the program and as 103

Chapter and Correlates of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior participants affiliated over the course of the program social support became most salient . Thus , such a longitudinal design may offer practical implications for how fitness instructors should structure exercise programs and what to emphasize among participants over time . Conclusion Physical inactivity and increased sedentary behavior are global problems that will require innovation along the science to practice continuum . Researchers should be aware that there are numerous factors that can influence human behavior . Those interested in better understanding physical activity and sedentary behavior are best positioned when carefully selecting supported by scientific evidence and demonstrated efficacy to change behavior . Learning Exercises What is the difference between the two approaches to studying prediction ?

Why is there more of an abundance of research on of physical activity than of sedentary behavior ?

In what ways can someone design an intervention to increase the strength of physical activity intentions ?

What are examples of social persuasion and vicarious experiences that could be used by a personal trainer to influence physical activity ?

What are examples of coaching behaviors that would satisfy the needs for autonomy , competence , and relatedness ?

What are some efficacious strategies to reduce sedentary behavior ?

What factors correlate with both physical activity and sedentary behavior ?

Further Reading , 2016 ) Ecological momentary assessment in physical activity research . Exercise and Sport Science Reviews , 45 ( John , A . 2020 ) Physical activity behavior from a perspective A Scoping Review . Sports Medicine , 49 ) Piggin , 2020 ) What Is physical activity ?

A holistic definition for teachers , researchers and policy makers . Frontiers in Sports and Active Living , Rhodes , Rebar , 2019 ) Theories of physical activity behaviour change A history and synthesis of approaches . Psychology Exercise , 42 , Smith , 2019 ) A case for efforts to understand and promote physical activity in young people . Kinesiology Review , 104

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