Psychology Textbook Chapter 4 Exercise Behavior Change Revisited Affective-Reflective Theory

Chapter Exercise Behavior Change Revisited Theory Brand and Sport and Exercise Psychology , University of , Germany of Kinesiology , Iowa State University , USA Please cite as Brand , 2021 ) Exercise behavior change revisited theory . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview show that interventions to increase physical activity behavior yield small effect sizes . One possible reason for this is that theories of behavior change that have been favored in exercise psychology over the past decades have the role of forethought and controlled rational reflection . In contrast , the importance of situated affective reactions that can not always be thought away by the individual has been underestimated . The theory ( ART ) of physical inactivity and exercise is a new theory that addresses this imbalance . The ART assumes that stimuli ( the thought of additional physical effort or a friend reminder to go running ) are quickly and involuntarily before any reflective thought . This automatic affective valuation manifests as a pleasant or unpleasant feeling , which comes inherently imbued with an approach or avoidance impulse . Depending on the a person is willing and able to apply in a situation , more reflective consideration about a possible change in behavior may follow . Reflective consideration can counteract or strengthen the initial impulse and lead to an intention to change . In this chapter , we explain why the ART is a fundamentally novel and different theory of physical activity behavior change . In the process , readers will also gain insights into the mechanisms of scientific ( For correspondence

Chapter Theory Facts First To understand the need for a new theory of exercise and physical inactivity , it is first useful to critically appraise the theories of behavior change that have been used to study these behaviors in exercise psychology over the past three decades . First , we assess the results of intervention studies . Then we turn to the theories themselves ( for more discussion on theories used to explain and change physical activity and exercise behavior , see Chapter , Rebar et , 2021 and Chapter , 2021 ) Intervention Studies A few years ago , a summarized and statistically the results of 82 randomized controlled ( that tested the efficacy of interventions for increasing physical activity ( PA ) in adults ( et , 2016 ) The authors of the identified five psychological theories on which interventions were based , either exclusively or in combination . Four of the five theories are summarized in Table ( for brevity , we have omitted protection motivation theory ( which was used in only one ) Table Theories of Behavior Change Used in PA Intervention Studies Theories Synopsis of the theory Social cognitive theory By observing others , how they behave within a social context ( 1986 ) and which experiences they create , the individual learns about the consequences of new behaviors . Outcome expectations , facilitators and impediments ) and the belief that one is capable of executing the behavioral steps necessary to achieve a goal ( can lead to behavioral goals that are then pursued by the individual . Theory of planned behavior Behavioral beliefs form an attitude towards a behavior , 1991 ) normative beliefs result in subjective norms , and control beliefs determine one perceived behavioral control over perceived barriers . These three interdependent elements determine whether an intention to change behavior is formed , which , if strong enough , is theorized to influence behavior . A is a quantitative synthesis of past studies , integrating the results from ( ideally , all ) empirical studies on a given subject . One of the criticisms against is that they may aggregate results from both well conducted and poorly conducted studies ( et al . 2009 ) In , study participants are randomly assigned to at least one treatment group and a comparison or control group . An outcome variable under investigation ( PA ) is assessed before and after a treatment period ( an program in the intervention group a comparison treatment in the control group ) to determine whether it changed to the same or a different extent across the different groups . If the study was conducted well and values of the outcome variable in the two groups are found to differ significantly , it is reasonable to conclude that any differential change was due to the treatment . Researchers consider to be the most powerful research design for investigating intervention effects ( Reich , 2015 ) 63

Brand Table ( continued ) theory theory consists of several . Ryan , 1985 ) Motivation is theorized to be most effective when it is intrinsic ( when a behavior is performed for its own sake cognitive evaluation theory ) When behavior is externally regulated , it can still be increasingly aligned with oneself ( organismic integration theory ) If behavior is perceived as supporting the basic psychological needs for autonomy , competence , and relatedness , then and general functioning are optimized ( basic psychological needs theory ) In addition , interindividual differences are assumed in people tendencies to appreciate autonomy , to focus on outcomes ( such as rewards , gains , and approval ) and to worry about their competence ( causality theory ) The posits that pursuing extrinsic goals leads to less wellness than pursuing intrinsic goals ( goal contents theory ) and that close personal relationships are essential for adjustment and ( relationships motivation theory ) model The integrates the functional elements of diverse previous ( theories . According to it , most characteristically , behavior 1982 ) change can be regarded as proceeding across discrete stages of change , namely precontemplation , contemplation , preparation , action , and maintenance ( relapse is sometimes included as an additional stage ) The model defines processes that are useful for facilitating stage progression ( consciousness raising from precontemplation to contemplation stimulus control from action to maintenance ) Stage progression is presumed to be accompanied by changes in subjective beliefs , the pros and cons of behavior change ( decisional balance ) and . Note . According to et al . 2016 ) 31 of the analyzed interventions referred to the , 16 to , to , to , only to protection motivation theory ( Rogers , 1983 not listed in the table ) and 21 to combinations of these five theories . The results of the ( et , 2016 ) indicated a statistically significant difference in PA behavior ( PA , PA , or a combination of both ) in those who participated in a intervention ( individuals ) compared to those who did not ( individuals ) The effect size of this difference was quantified as falling in the range between and ( 95 confidence interval ) This is typically characterized as a small to medium effect ( according to convention ( Cohen , 1988 ) Let illustrate how small such an effect is . 64

Chapter Theory Figure Graphical Display of a Statistically Small ( Part A ) and a Large Effect Size ( Part ) A Cohen Control group Intervention Cohen Control group Intervention Note . Standardized mean differences ( are referred to as small ( medium ( and large ( effect sizes ( Cohen , 1988 ) The in Part A is taken from the results of the on the efficacy of PA interventions ( et , 2016 ) For a more detailed explanation , see the body of the text . Source ( 2020 ) Figure , part A shows two overlapping with mean values differing by a small to medium effect size of ( the mean effect size for PA interventions , as identified by et , 2016 ) The two have overlap , which gives a chance that a study participant picked at random from the intervention group ( the distribution presented in light blue ) will have a higher score ( PA level ) than a person picked at random from the control group ( probability of superiority ) In other words , there is much more than a chance ( similar to a coin toss ) that Statisticians like to think of measured values ( exercise minutes per week ) in samples of study participants as being distributed in such a way that extreme values are rare and values are much more frequent ( as in a Gaussian normal distribution ) 65

Brand the intervention will change behavior at the level of a single By comparison , Figure , part illustrates two that differ by a conventionally defined large effect size ( standardized mean difference of ) With a large effect , the probability of superiority increases to . In simpler terms , according to the results of the on the efficacy of PA interventions ( et , 2016 ) if we randomly selected one of the study participants who received a intervention , there is a less than 60 probability that this person would be more physically active than someone randomly selected from the study participants who did not receive an intervention . Arguably , most exercise practitioners would consider this success rate to be discouragingly small for practical purposes . Other interesting findings on the efficacy of PA interventions include the following . The success rates of interventions differed little , regardless of the theory that was used as their basis ( et , 2016 ) Effect sizes are usually small across different ( et , 2019 et , 2019 et , 2020 Romain et al . 2018 ) Moreover , there is evidence of publication in this research field ( et , 2016 ) Studies of lower methodological quality tend to produce larger effect sizes than the ( rarer ) studies ( Bernard et , 2017 ) A that included not only but also correlational studies reported slightly higher , but still small , effect sizes ( et , 2019 ) importantly , it also showed that interventions ( 148 studies , and interventions not explicitly based on a theory ( 77 studies , did not differ substantially in terms of their efficacy , as long as at least three techniques were involved ( social support , goals and planning , rewards and threats et , 2013 ) Other have arrived at similar conclusions ( et , 2019 Rhodes et , 2020 ) In a Nutshell Although authors of have concluded that PA interventions are effective ( their efficacy , compared to control groups , is significantly different from zero ) the practical of these results is questionable . A small effect is of limited practical relevance , especially when considering that effect sizes may be overestimated due to various methodological biases . Recent research has shown that basing an intervention on one of the theories discussed above does not meaningfully improve intervention effectiveness . Explanation of Behavior ( Theory Testing ) Numerous reviews on the theories of PA and exercise behavior change have been written , with almost identical conclusions ( et , 2012 , 2018 ) One of the most recent review articles provided an historical and critical summary of individual theories and broad theoretical that have been used most frequently in exercise psychology over the past decades ( Rhodes et , 2019 ) According to this review , and are important examples ofthe social cognitive framework ( the ' and can also be classified within this broad theoretical framework ) The reviewers We refer here to the so called common language effect size ( Wong , 1992 ) and its two basic assumptions ( a ) that the of the intervention and control groups will be normal , and ( that the two will have equal variances . Publication bias occurs when studies with statistically significant results are more likely to appear in the published literature , whereas studies with undesirable or nonsignificant findings tend to remain unpublished . This tendency leads to an overestimation of the apparent efficacy of interventions , including an overestimation ofthe efficacy of PA interventions in this case ( Schwarz , 2019 ) 66

Chapter Theory characterized it as the dominant framework for understanding physical activity ( Rhodes et , 2019 , 100 ) Theories within this framework are characterized by two common assumptions , namely ( a ) that influences from the social environment shape our views and how we may behave , and ( that people use their expectations about the future outcomes of their actions and as a basis for directing their behavior . The was highlighted by the reviewers as a theory from the framework that has seen a surge in research in the last decade ( 100 ) This theory emphasizes a view of human beings that is about realizing potential , personal growth , and development . Rhodes et al . 2019 ) further referred to theories as the most recent and understudied framework ( 100 ) According to theories classified under this framework , behavior is influenced by deliberate thinking on the one hand , and more automatic mental phenomena on the other ( Evans , 2013 ) Theories from this framework have not been used as the basis of interventions in exercise psychology so far . That there are , in fact , only a handful of frequently used theories in exercise psychology can also be gleaned from a quick search in the Web of Science database ?

Figure illustrates how often the and theories have been cited in research publications over the past three decades ( from 1990 to 2020 ) The large recent increase of interest in the is obvious , and so is the even more recent interest in theories . Figure Growth in the Popularity of Theories of Behavior Change in Research Related to PA and Exercise 350 theory ( 300 of planned behavior ( theory ( 250 model ( theory 200 150 100 , Number of research articles published per year of 65 ' In addition , there is the framework ( Rhodes et , 2019 ) Due to emphasizing mostly environmental and policy factors , this framework falls largely outside the psychological perspective discussed here . The Web of Science is a database whose scope is limited only to approximately scientific journals , according to of a selection committee . 67

Brand Let us now examine the empirical support for these theories within exercise psychology by focusing on of ( and prospective ) correlational studies ( rather than interventions ) With regard to the , it can be stated that attitude and perceived behavioral control account for roughly 30 of the variance in behavioral intention ( with a modest and typically nonsignificant contribution of subjective social norms ) intention is a significant predictor of behavior and has been estimated to account for approximately 20 of the variance in PA ( Downs , 2005 ) With the variables defined in the ( especially and goals ) the portion of accounted variance in behavior reaches 31 ( Young et , 2014 ) From on , it can be concluded that effect sizes are slightly higher . Results suggest that the correlation between determined motivation and PA behavior can range between and ( Hagger , et , 2020 , for a more recent study on adaptive and outcomes in physical education ) Comparable correlations have been reported from the synthesis of study results based on predictions of the . For example , later stages seem to be associated with higher levels of PA , changes in are moderately consistent with the predictions , stage progression from contemplation on is associated with small increases in perceived pros and large decreases in perceived cons , and behavioral processes peak from precontemplation to contemplation and from preparation to action ( Marshall , on theories do not yet Notice that , while in the earlier section that referred to the effect size associated with interventions compared to control , the effect size was Cohen , which represents the standardized mean difference in the outcome variable ( PA ) between the intervention and control groups . In contrast , in that examine relations between variables , the effect sizes used are the percentage of accounted variance ( and the correlation coefficient ( While keeping in mind that randomized controlled trials of interventions can be used to draw inferences about causation whereas correlational studies can not , the different indices of effect size ( percentage of accounted variance , and the correlation coefficient ) can be converted to each other for comparison purposes . A conventionally large effect size of can be considered analogous to 26 of accounted variance correlation coefficients of are characterized as medium , while those of are described as large ( Cohen , 1988 ) Thus , it seems that correlational empirical evidence obtained so far is consistent with the postulates of the various theories . That said , there are again good reasons to look beyond statistics when trying to understand why these few theories have been preferred over others . First , it should be noted that a common thread among all of the is the generally poor of most of the included original studies again , higher methodological quality is typically associated with lower effect sizes ( Hagger , 2009 ) Secondly , specifically regarding the summarizing the results of correlational studies , it is important to place these results in the context of a crucial methodological pitfall . When two variables are measured from the same source ( only the respondents themselves ) via the same response channel , such as questionnaires ( attitude and intention , or autonomous motivation and behavior ) at the same physical location , and at the same time ( as part of the same battery of measures ) their tend to be inflated by common method bias ( Armitage Conner , 2001 et , 2003 ) This means that part of the apparent intercorrelation between variables reflects not overlap between the constructs per se but rather the commonality of the measurement methods . Remarkably , despite this known source of bias , most exercise psychology studies measure not only psychological variables , but also PA and However , the association between automatic evaluations towards PA and PA behavior ( ie , the contribution of one of the two classes of processes postulated within theories ) has been analyzed . Researchers have found a small effect size ( Chevance et , 2019 ) 68

Chapter Theory exercise behavior using questionnaires . Thirdly , recent analysis shows that the medium and large effect sizes reported in many psychological studies must be evaluated with utmost caution when the studies in question were not ( ifthe researchers did not detail their intended research aims , hypotheses , and methods prior to conducting their study , by entering this information in a published protocol paper , a public registry , or both ) A recent analysis revealed that in psychological studies , effect sizes often appear greatly reduced or even halved ( Schwarz , 2019 ) In exercise psychology , preregistration has been extremely rare until recently . In a Nutshell and are the most commonly used theories in studies that have attempted to predict or change PA and exercise behavior . The number of publications from studies conducted on the basis of these theories is still growing steadily . Results from these studies have been generally congruent for decades the psychological variables postulated in these theories are correlated with PA and exercise with medium effect sizes ( albeit with the caveat that these effect sizes may be inflated ) So , Where is the Problem ?

The problem is that researchers in exercise psychology continue to focus on only a handful of theories , producing consistently similar results , although it is known from that these theories are of very limited practical value as the basis of interventions . We believe that , after the advent of the field of exercise psychology , it is counterproductive to gloss over this fact or to reframe PA interventions as being effective solely because they are significantly different from zero , and insist that they have the potential for meaningful changes in PA and health on a global scale ( sentences to this effect can be found in all of the analyses summarized here ) This approach is counterproductive because , while accepting the current situation as the unavoidable status quo , the number of people who live with reduced quality of life , disability , and shortened lifespans due to physical inactivity continues to increase ( et , 2018 ) The alternative approach we advocate is to fundamentally question the established theoretical foundations of exercise psychology . While providing part of the answer , the few popular theories clearly do not suffice to adequately explain the reasons for physical inactivity and behavior change . They offer only a partial answer regarding what needs to be done in practice to produce meaningful and sustained behavior change . Ok , New Theories . Or Is that Difficult ?

According to the philosopher of science Thomas , the development of science can be described as a recurring sequence that unfolds from a phase of normal science into a phase of extraordinary science ( a novel conceptual or methodological approach , leading to new insights into the phenomena being investigated ) into a phase of new normal science ( Times of normal science produce research firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements , achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice ( 10 ) A crisis occurs when existing theories and scientific practices fail to solve the problems that have been defined by these theories and these scientific practices . When a growing number of scientists acknowledge that existing theories provide a poor fit to empirical observations , this marks the beginning of the transition from normal to extraordinary science . While scientific progress during normal phases is entirely possible and can result in evolutionary advances , crises and extraordinary phases can lead to leaps in knowledge that have been characterized as scientific revolutions . It is difficult to achieve this kind of progress , however , because one characteristic of normal science is that it tends to be highly resistant to change . 69

Brand We claim that exercise psychology today is in a phase of normal science , with clear emerging signs of a crisis , both with regard to theories ( 2017 ) and with regard to research practices ( Caldwell et , 2020 ) While change is afoot and the crisis is brewing , a scientific revolution in a sense is still at an early stage and gaining momentum . We have already explained in various texts that the continuing insistence on the social cognitive and the ( see Figure ) entails a limiting , narrow perspective on PA and exercise behavior change ( Brand Cheval , 2019 et , 2019 Brand , 2021 ) In particular , we have argued that the contribution of affective processes has been or marginalized ( et , 2018 Brand , 2019 ) These two points will be reiterated as part of our description of the theory ( ART ) later in this chapter . Before we do this , however , we will focus on two other points . First , we will highlight the common misconception that results from studies testing theories are directly useful for informing interventions . Second , we will point to a very unfavorable development in the practice of research as a reason why it is so difficult for theories outside of the current conceptual mainstream to appear on the research community radar . Research Programs and Types of Knowledge Generated According to the epistemology of science , there are different ways of doing research ( 1983 , 1978 ) Psychology was described as a discipline in research programs that can be characterized by how the psychologists involved would usually direct their research ( Figure Herrmann , 1994 ) Those interested in psychological basic research programs aim to explain , understand , and conceptualize reality as accurately as possible ( decipher the mechanisms governing human thinking or motivation ) Psychologists who involve themselves in applied research programs instead aim to provide practitioners with background knowledge about why things are the way they are , and how they may intervene to bring about positive change ( treat a disorder or motivate people to be more physically active ) Figure Research Programs and How They Relate to Each Other Basic research programs in psychology Theory programs Applied research programs in psychology Background knowledge for intervention programs Intervention techniques Practical experiences from endeavors Note . Black arrows represent greater impact . 70

Chapter Theory Within basic research programs , theory programs can be distinguished from more programs . Theory programs are aimed to test the validity of a theory . Researchers immersed in this kind of research tend to look for domains in which a defined explanation ( theory ) can be applied and tested . Researchers immersed in programs , on the other hand , tend to follow research questions such as What should a theory postulate in order to explain the problem of interest as thoroughly as possible ?

Research of this kind focuses on phenomena for which there is presently no adequate theoretical explanation . In applied research programs , studies are designed to yield a foundation for action . Where one type of applied program primarily aims to provide background interventions ( What should you know to better understand what needs to be done in practice ?

another type , which can be described as action programs , tests the intervention techniques themselves ( In order to achieve the result , do ' because that is more effective than doing ' Both forms of applied research can relate to theory , of course . But , unlike basic research , in both types of applied research , the explanation for why something works is less important than the feasibility and efficacy of the solution . Now , why is it important to know about these distinctions ?

The reason is that knowledge generated from basic research programs that study the relationships between variables in theories is not sufficient for the scientific substantiation of interventions . This is the kind of knowledge that the vast majority of exercise psychology studies have accumulated thus far , however . What is now required is direct evidence from applied research programs consisting of studies that test the effectiveness of intervention techniques derived from variables defined in the Knowing that two variables are correlated or make a difference in reality does not automatically imply evidence about the means of changing these variables . In a Nutshell Although exercise psychology aims to be an applied research discipline , most of its empirical studies have been designed ( perhaps unwittingly ) as basic research aimed to test relations between variables , as defined in theories . The assertion ( which can be found in all cited earlier ) that empirical evidence on the relations between theoretically defined concepts ensures that actions derived from them will be effective is , in fact , baseless . This is exactly what recent research from applied intervention programs shows . According to findings , whether one of the described mainstream theories is used as a basis makes no difference in the effectiveness of interventions ( et , 2019 ) Reasons that may , at least in part , explain why the handful of theories that have been found to be generally insufficient to achieve meaningful and sustained PA behavior change still dominate the research literature are described in the next section . The logical proof behind this claim may be more than what you need to know . Nevertheless , it is still cool to know it , and it can certainly impress your professor Basic research programs and applied background knowledge programs aim to develop and test nomological statements of the form if , then . For example , with regard to an claim of , if there is autonomous motivation ( then there will be exercising ( Nomological statements only hint at eventual actions and consequences . Actions have to meet additional conditions for the anticipated consequence to occur actions must represent ( of , and actions must cause the effect . Furthermore , must be ( statements of the form if is done , then occurs are closer to application than nomological statements . However , a statement never excludes the possibility that there are other actions with which can be achieved , in the same way or even better ( if is done , then occurs ) This means , that from if is done , then occurs , it can only be concluded that is one possible way of reaching . Empirical studies that examine nomological statements in no way provide the scientific evidence that interventions derived from them will be effective . 71

Brand Publish or Perish An increasing number of research articles are being published worldwide each year . Researchers have never before been under so much pressure to demonstrate and continuously prove their talent and performance through publications , with career preservation and advancement dependent upon it ( Grimes et , 2018 ) According to another quick search of the Web of Science database , the number of published articles per year worldwide first exceeded million in 1991 . In the year 2008 , the million mark was passed , and in 2016 , there were million published research articles per year . Exercise psychology has not escaped this trend . As depicted in Figure , the number of published articles on exercise and PA motivation has increased exponentially since about 2000 . This may be related to the fact that the topic has become increasingly important over the past several years ( precisely because of growing societal pressure to develop interventions to effectively promote PA and exercise et , 2018 ) Another possible reason is that the number of exercise psychologists in academia , who have to publish in order to promote their careers , has increased in a similar way . The problems emanating from this culture are well described ( Everett Earp , 2017 Zou et , 2018 ) The remarkable increase in the volume of the research output in exercise psychology should not be interpreted as an indication that most studies are of low quality . Instead , we believe that there are now enough studies demonstrating that the correlations between variables defined in , etc . are significantly different from zero , and that study participants with higher values do tend to exhibit more From our point of view , one reason why researchers have continued to conduct correlational studies in large numbers for too long is that doing intervention studies instead is expensive and consuming intervention content must be defined ( and ) then delivered by practitioners ( researchers are generally trained for different things ) and then the possible effects must be monitored over months and years ( at least when it comes to providing evidence for sustained behavior change ) How much easier ( and more rational in terms of promoting one career ) is it to only ask study participants to complete some questionnaires or tests for a few minutes ! Researchers are incentivized to do what works , especially in times of normal science ( see above ) In a Nutshell The increasing number of studies supporting a handful of theories is probably due to the fact that researchers are required to publish a lot in order to meet the constantly increasing ( and often outrageous ) performance expectations of academia . It seems quite rational that , under these circumstances , researchers tend to focus on studies that are quick and easy to implement and produce articles that can be published just as quickly and easily thanks to the predictably positive results . Interim Conclusion Yes , It Is Difficult Indeed . It is not easy to understand why the few theories of behavior change that are currently preferred in exercise psychology , despite having shown that they are of limited value as the basis of interventions , continue to be the focus of most studies . We interpret this as a sign of exercise psychology being in a state of crisis , perhaps approaching the farewell of a phase of normal science ( Only in this can we rationalize why the same handful of theories continue to be emphasized in review articles and textbooks , leading to assertions that these few theories should be used as the foundation of intervention programs . As we In addition , fundamental cognitive effects also contribute to the situation ( confirmation bias , or the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one existing theories or beliefs ) 72

Chapter Theory emphasized , such assertions disregard fundamental epistemological principles ( recall that knowledge from theory testing in basic research programs can not be assumed to entail that interventions would be effective ) In such times , with exercise psychology in crisis , it is not easy to convince researchers that it might be necessary to look beyond the successful theories ( in the paradoxical sense described above ) and to seek new ones that offer a broader perspective . Nevertheless , here we present our alternative view . The theory ( ART ) published only a few years ago ( Brand , 2018 ) is already receiving some attention according to citation Theory of Physical Inactivity and Exercise Although we strongly believe in an science , we also know that empirical research can only arise from solid theoretical groundwork ( Fini , 2010 ) Therefore , in this section of our chapter , we will focus on theory . We will present the reflective theory ( ART ) without detailing all the empirical studies that led to its development . We will also summarize the nomological network and paradigmatic roots of the key components of the theory , again focusing only on their most essential features . More detailed descriptions are presented in other texts ( Brand , 2018 Brand , 2020 et , 2020 Brand , 2021 Brand , 2019 ) Fundamental Features We will summarize three fundamental conceptual underpinnings of the ART ( a ) core affect and automaticity , theory , and ( considerations about the phenomenological uniqueness of the exercise experience . For more discussion on core affect , see Chapter 12 , 2021 ) Core Affect and Automaticity Many ideas in the ART center around the concept of core affect , namely a neurophysiological state that is consciously accessible at any time as a simple feeling ( 2013 ) It can be subjectively described , and measured in terms of two orthogonal and bipolar dimensions pleasure displeasure ( affective valence ) and high arousal low arousal ( Russel Barrett , 1999 ) Core affect is a constant component of consciousness and can oscillate ( becoming more pleasant or more unpleasant ) in response to changes in the internal and external environment . Some of these pleasant and unpleasant oscillations may occur automatically , in the sense that they do not require an antecedent cognitive appraisal ( the immediate displeasure associated with pain ) and , in some cases , can not be intentionally changed or controlled at the moment when they occur ( Bargh , 1994 ) While some degree of stimulus processing ( no matter how fast or rudimentary ) is always required , by definition , core affect is a conscious , lived experience . While core affect is always accessible to conscious awareness ( if we deliberately turn our attention to how we feel at any moment ) changes in core affect , provided that they are large enough , may also force a shift of attentional focus ( the sudden shift of attention in response to a loud noise nearby ) If researchers cite their colleagues publications , this may imply that they considered material in these texts to be useful or valuable . Citations may significant of scientific impact and relevance . But there is no evidence that citations reflect other important dimensions of research quality ( plausibility and soundness , scientific and societal value , originality et , 2019 ) 12 Reviewers concluded that many psychological processes must not be as being either automatic or controlled ( Bargh , 1994 ) Instead , the extent to which the process is unintentional , occurs outside awareness , is uncontrollable and is efficient in its use of attentional resources , defines the degree to which it should be considered to be more or less automatic . 73

Brand All the psychological theories highlighted in the first part of this chapter emphasize the importance of reflection and rationality in achieving behavior change . Possible effects of core affective states that occur automatically remained unconsidered ( at best , their role was considered as being indirect , as in affective states reflective cognition see Table ) In a sense , the few theories that have been considered in exercise psychology prescribe how the physically inactive individual should think about the behavior , in order for behavior change to be achieved . For example , these theories imply that practitioners should facilitate the development of positive outcome expectations ( and ) Individuals are supposed to gain confidence in their ability to succeed , even in the face of difficulties ( and ) learn that there are good reasons for a positive attitude toward the new behavior ( or recognize and accept that the behavior can align with one personal values and goals ( So , from the perspective of these theories , behavior change should follow naturally from rationally reflecting on the positive outcomes that may occur in the future . The ART of physical inactivity and exercise is different . Here , the personal experiences with exercise the individual has had in the past are especially important . More precisely , the theory is about the core affective feelings ( such as pleasure and displeasure ) that the individual had experienced during previous episodes of exercise , which are automatically ( summarily , as a core affective state ) in the moment individuals are presented with an opportunity to be physically active . This automatic core affective feeling is immediate and influences all further processes . It can color subsequent mental reflection , you can try to suppress it or let it carry you , and it can translate directly into a behavioral impulse . The ART is about affect that occurs automatically . Theory and Core Affect The framework is historically a brainchild of cognitive psychology . It is rooted in early experimental findings , which showed , for example , that the justifications declared by participants as reasons for their behavior in an experiment did not match their actual behavioral responses ( Evans , 1975 ) This led to the psychological theory that there might be a duality of social information processing one type that is independent of active deliberation , which would influence behavior primarily when the individual acts quickly and spontaneously , and a second type that directs behavior through active deliberation ( Evans , 1989 ) According to more recent terminology , some authors assume fast and automatic processes that deliver a default response ( processes ) and controlled reasoning processes ( so called processes Evans , 2013 ) On the other hand , there is also a ( 2011 ) according to which the nature of the task ( behaving under imposed time pressure ) and working memory capacity ( if one is tired and unable to concentrate ) determines the rules by which information is processed within one and the same cognitive system . Depending on these two factors ( nature ofthe task and working memory capacity ) information may be processed in more detail or mental shortcuts may be followed that ignore parts of the information . One of several proposed shortcuts is the affect heuristic . According to this idea , representations of objects and events in people minds are tagged to varying degrees with affect ( et , 2002 , 400 ) Instead of making the mental effort to deliberate ( or when the information is too complicated or voluminous ) it is often easier and faster to simply rely on the affective tags recalled by the situation pleasant tags attract , appeal , or entice ( approach tendency ) whereas negative tags deter , repel , or repulse ( avoidance tendency ) Although the ART focuses on affect and aspects of it might be sufficiently addressed in the view , it is a genuine theory . We will explain this with regard to the notion of a conflict between and processes inherent in the ART ( see below for more on this point ) In this context , it is critical to recognize that the ART , unlike other theories , fundamentally refers to the mental and somatic phenomena related to PA and exercise , and not only to the processes 74

Chapter Theory and decision making in general . The ART follows a line of theorizing introduced by early social psychologist Kurt , who contributed an idea that lost its prominence after the rise of . His theory explained behavioral changes as a consequence of a disturbed equilibrium of and in the psychological field ofthe individual ( 1943 , 1951 ) When possibilities for a behavioral shift emerge , forces can arise that drive you toward this shift . At the same time , other forces may hold you back , keeping you idle at your current state . This creates tension ( conflict ) that may continue until one of the two opposing forces prevails . From the perspective , the notion forces is obsolete . It appears in rudimentary form in the construct of outcome expectations ( 1986 ) that implies a consideration of possible pros and cons of alternative behavioral options . However , it is most apparent in theories of social cognition , where the and the processes are seen as being in competition for control over behavior ( Strack , 2004 ) In the ART , it is assumed that conflict may arise between a fundamentally affective process and all rational considerations that may occur in processes ( Figure ) Figure Illustrating of Negative Core Affective Feelings as a Restraining Force Exercising feels I know unpleasant is healthy Note . According to the ART , negative core affective feelings ( Exercise feels unpleasant ) may present a restraining force to rational reflection about , for example , the benefits of exercise ( I know exercise is healthy ) Image of boxing gloves courtesy of from . The ART fundamentally differs from other models ( Strack , 2004 Conroy Berry , 2017 ) in regard to how affect is . In the field of social cognition , various authors have pointed out that fundamentally cognitive processes may be affectively tinged or colored in certain ways ( Strack , 2004 ) The concept of a gut feeling as a process output is also invoked extensively in the view ( 2007 ) However , and this is the crux , gut feeling in all these earlier psychological works is used as a label for an otherwise mental state . This is different in the ART . Here , the possible restraining force is explicitly specified as a distinct core affective state . Let us explain . 75

Brand Core affect is the experiential substrate of an organism neurophysiological and state . In this regard , core affective feelings give us summaries about the condition of the body ( the perturbation or satisfaction of homeostatic needs ) Although it is difficult from a point of view to anatomically and functionally separate the cognitive from the affective in the brain , people experience core affective feelings as phenomenologically distinct from thoughts ( Duncan Barrett , 2007 ) In some of the discussed above , the affective gut feeling is often reduced to its cognitive reflection ( as if asking oneself how do I feel ?

thus turning feeling into another piece of information subject to reflection ) This is consistent with the mainstream in general cognitive psychology , which aims to explain all behavioral domains in terms of cognitive Nevertheless , it is problematic with regard to the explanation of physical inactivity ( avoidance of PA and exercise ) and the resulting recommendations for intervention . As appropriate and useful as previous theories ( Trope , 1999 ) and theories of social cognition ( 2011 ) may have been to explain , for example , racist behavior or expert judgment and decision making , behaviors like these a somatic different compared to physical exercise . The feature of the ART that distinguishes it from other theories ( Strack , 2004 , 2006 as well as Conroy Berry , 2017 ) is that it incorporates an explicitly hedonic perspective ( 2016 ) within the framework , by emphasizing the significance of core affect as the core feature of its process . The Exercise Experience In contrast to other theories in the beginning of the chapter , the ART explicitly and exclusively refers to one specific behavioral domain , namely physical inactivity and exercise . But wait , is that two or just one ?

Let us explain . From a public health perspective , it is important to distinguish behaviors like taking the stairs and walking for transportation ( PA ) from going to the gym and jogging ( exercise ) After all , the former may be easier to integrate into one daily routine and can be achieved incidentally , whereas the latter usually needs to be planned , often requires extra time , and may , therefore , be more difficult to adopt as an element of one lifestyle . However , both will trigger similar physiological adaptations in the body , and both can accrue important health benefits . For people who have been physically inactive for years and are perhaps overweight , climbing stairs may cause as much sweating and heavy breathing as running would for a trained exerciser . We all understand this , as part of our everyday experiences the more intense a PA is , the stronger the cardiovascular response will be . Let us then relate this to the question of how PA , namely the physiological state aroused by it , feels . Exercise psychology studies provide answers to this question ( see Brand , 2019 ) During PA or exercise performed at moderate intensity , most people report that they feel increased pleasure ( pleasant core affect ) Heavy intensity , which is challenging though not yet overwhelming , triggers feelings of reduced pleasure especially in the untrained , whereas more experienced may still report rising pleasure . Feelings of reduced pleasure or even rising displeasure prevail under severe intensity . After a bout of strenuous exercise has ended , most people report a positive affective rebound ( think of the rush of pleasure one feels within minutes after a strenuous bout has ended and the has begun ) Some people may be ( rightly ) proud of having made it through the bout , even though the activity was exhausting , whereas others will be just relieved that the hard effort is over . Although only a few studies have examined whether feelings during and 13 In the psychology and decision making , too , signs are emerging for a paradigmatic shift towards what has been termed embodied cognition . A conceptual framework related to the domain of sporting activities has recently been published by ( 2020 ) 76

Chapter Theory after PA or exercise influence future PA behavior , it appears that , while the correlation between ( reports of correlate with subsequent PA , the correlation between affect and future behavior is ( Rhodes , 2015 ) A possible explanation for this correlation may be that ratings of pleasure after bouts of exercise or PA generally tend to be positive ( with limited interindividual variation ) concealing whether this positivity reflects a continuation of positive feelings throughout the experience or a rebound from negativity to positivity . Furthermore , it is known from anecdotal reports and survey studies that many people who do not like exercise and tend to avoid it report negative past affective experiences , such as those associated with physical education ( et , 2018 et , 2021 ) or recall negative affect from previous attempts ( et , 2016 ) What is becoming increasingly clear from these sources is that it is not only the somatic perceptions during exercise ( pain , discomfort , breathlessness , exhaustion ) that may be influential for future behavior . Negative memories associated with the social and cultural environment within which exercise experiences are embedded are also important ( embarrassment , humiliation , or feelings of guilt ) Both unpleasant somatic experiences and social emotions can make negative feelings reappear at the very thought of doing something similar . Together , these insights have formed the third fundamental postulate of the ART of physical inactivity and exercise the ART assumes that individuals often remain in their current state of physical inactivity because of their unpleasant experiences with situations in the past . situations include even those that make you feel as if you are exercising ( breathing hard while hurrying up a flight of stairs , or feeling bad because you think you are clumsy ) In response to an stimulus , these experiences are automatically recalled , and associated sensations may be . If this process evokes a negative feeling , this can provide a restraining force that opposes any subsequent rational reflection and evaluation ( process ) that might tend to propel the individual to be active . Photo by RUN from 77

Brand The ART Process Model The first step in understanding the ART ( Figure ) is to think of a situated process , in which an individual notices an stimulus . It is presumed that this typically leads to an immediate psychological response , though only sometimes to an observable change in behavior . stimuli can be external ( someone telling you to get off the couch to go exercise ) or internal ( a cyclist thinks about continuing a little while longer ) Once noticed , a stimulus will trigger a process first . The Process This process involves the activation of automatic associations . These can be understood as the individual spontaneous recollection of situations akin to the behavioral option that was brought to mind by the stimulus . Automatic associations give rise to what has been termed the affective valuation of the behavioral option in the ART . The affective valuation is a feeling of pleasure or displeasure , depending on the associations that past stimuli have established . This response is as a minimal core affective response , inherently imbued with an approach impulse if positive affective valence is felt and an avoidance impulse if the valuation is negative . Figure Process Model of the Theory ( ART ) of Physical Inactivity and Exercise PROCESS ?

Action cognition evaluation plans . Behavior . Automatic . A ' impulse PROCESS Note . Reproduced from Brand , 2018 ) theory of physical inactivity and exercise . German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research , 48 , 2018 ) under a Creative Commons Attribution License ( BY ) The Process According to the ART , the process is followed by more rational consideration only if the person is willing and able to apply cognitive ( 2017 ) for the reflective evaluation of the stimulus ( for more on , see Chapter 22 et , 2021 ) This requires the individual to deliberately process and confront the associations , feelings , and the behavioral impulse that accompanied the encounter with the stimulus as the result of the preceding process . The process , therefore , provides an affective default value for the subsequent processing . The process may include addressing the more complex emotions 78

Chapter Theory arising from memories of past experiences , as well as rational thought processes , such as thoughts about the pros and cons ofa possible change in behavior , beliefs , or one personal values as they relate to the situation . The process can result in an action plan ( an intention to be active ) that may either ( a ) build upon the approach or avoidance impulse generated by the process , or ( lead in the opposite direction . In the latter case ( when the two forces are in conflict ) it is again a question of whether a person is willing and able to apply to enforce the decision to change behavior in the rationally preferred way and whether , in the end , the action plan will be carried out or not . This is why the process can be seen as the interventionist that may or may not devaluate the automatic affective response to the stimulus ( which also explains why the ART is a model ) Process Interaction The linear sequence of processes and elements described above is a useful simplification , intended to facilitate the understanding of the basic assumptions and postulates ofthe ART and how they can be tested . However , like most models , this likely represents an oversimplification of the psychological processes involved . Perhaps a more realistic approach would be to consider that the two processes are in constant interaction ( Figure ) There may be stimuli for which the automatic affective valuation is so strong that it enters consciousness even without the need to deliberately focus our attention on this response . Often , however , the affective valuation may be more subtle and may only be noticed if one deliberately reflects on a possible behavioral change . Reflecting on the exercise stimulus and actively dealing with the initial feeling will , in turn , influence how one feels . For example , an unpleasant feeling evoked at the idea of having to go for a run might turn into affective aversion only after the more reflective examination ofthis behavioral option this feeling will again be automatically sensed , and will color further reflection accordingly . That is why the linear sequence of elements outlined in Figure must be understood as a regulatory process loop ( as indicated by the arrows in Figure ) which , once the process is involved , will come to an end when individuals stop reflecting on whether they want to change their behavior now . Figure Constant Interaction of the and the Processes in the Theory Encoded affect Behavior and cognition Affective valuation Automatic associations 79

Brand Learning Imagine a person who has never ( ever ! been physically active ( theoretically this is just a thought experiment ) Let assume that this person encounters , for the first time , an stimulus . For example , some friends may ask our novice exerciser , let call her Claudia , if she would join them for a run . This question would ordinarily trigger automatic associations stemming from past experiences with running or exercise , in general . In our example , however , associations directly related to running can not arise , because Claudia has not yet had any experience with Let us assume that Claudia automatic affective valuation of that unknown , novel behavior will be positive , perhaps because she knows and likes the individuals asking or has heard in the news that exercise is supposed to make people feel better . So , an immediate approach impulse would follow . Claudia takes the time to reflect on whether she has the time to follow her friends invitation anyway . Thoughts and feelings are weighed and finally lead to the intention in the run . While exercising , Claudia learns a lot . Her friends explain that exercising is healthy . However , running is exhausting and having to breathe so heavily does feel good . To make matters worse , her friends grin about Claudia puffing red face . In the evening , Claudia thinks that it might not have been worth the effort . A few days later , Claudia is sitting on the couch and remembers that exercise is said to be healthy . Automatic associations , which are based on encoded affect and thoughts about her first experience with exercising , are triggered The mere thought of exercise sparks an uneasy feeling ( automatic affective valuation ) and Claudia literally sinks a little deeper into the couch ( the action impulse ) She ponders that exercise , although supposed to be healthy , was quite strenuous , and she remembers that the people who saw her last time must have had a great laugh about her silly red face ( reflective evaluation ) Thinking about it like this , Claudia memory of it gets worse and worse ( encoded affect and cognition ) But although something inside her resists ( the automatic negative affect , a restraining force ) Claudia actively ( decides to get up and go out for one more try . What do you think ?

How does this story continue ?

This example is designed to illustrate a general psychological principle as the central learning mechanism incorporated in the ART . The law of effect , whose origin dates to the era of behaviorism ( 1911 ) but remains widely adopted in modern associationist models of thinking and behavior ( 2020 ) states that , if a behavior is paired with pleasure , it becomes more likely to be repeated , whereas , if it is paired with displeasure , it becomes more likely to be avoided . This must not be misunderstood as an assertion that people only do what they find pleasant , and always avoid what they find unpleasant ( Murphy Eaves , 2016 ) Rather , with regard to the ART , our main point is to emphasize that the acceptance or avoidance of exercise routines is primarily the psychological result of repeated physical experiences with exercise and behaviors ( experiential learning ) and not primarily the result of gaining knowledge , for example , about the benefits of exercise and information about how to change one own behavior . In other words , affect matters . The regulatory loop explained above ( Figure ) together with the reinforcement mechanism postulated in the law of effect , provide the basis for the ( necessary ) learning to like exercise , which is an essential feature of the ART . Empirical Evidence The ART was published in 2018 , building upon initial empirical findings that made the central postulates of the theory seem not only plausible but Since then , more data have been The activation of these associations makes it more likely that they will reappear as soon as Claudia thinks about exercise on another occasion ( indicated by the small arrow pointing upwards from automatic associations to encoded affect and cognition in Figure ) 15 These are presented in the original publication of the ART by Brand and ( 2018 ) 80

Chapter Theory produced . For example , initial studies have assessed the somatic core ofthe automatic affective valuation of stimuli . Heart rate variability may be a useful indicator for this . Studies have shown , for example , that and heart rate differ significantly during the presentation of pictures ( et , 2019 Brand , 2019 ) The results of a study using methodology are also interesting ( Cheval et , 2020 ) Cheval and colleagues ( 2020 ) showed that stimuli induced an approach impulse ( an attentional bias directed at the stimulus ) only in study participants who reported being regularly physically active . Moreover , the importance of , namely the theorized condition in the ART under which reflective processes are expected to influence behavior more strongly , has been underlined recently in systematic reviews ( Andre , 2019 ) It has been shown , for example , that improvements to executive function predict PA maintenance after exercise interventions especially when environmental support for PA is low ( Best et , 2014 ) Executive functions help to convert intentions into physically active behavior , thereby supporting a central claim of the ART ( 2017 ) and arguing in favor of models specifying this role for processes ( et , 2020 ) Other authors have illustrated that people are less likely to exercise on days when they feel stressed ( 2016 ) Furthermore , the authors of a new ( Chevance et , 2019 ) concluded that the correlation between automatic associations and PA is significant , albeit small . However , the observed small effect size is most likely due to the fact that the authors could only include empirical studies that focused exclusively on the direct relationship between automatic associations and behavior . This approach does not take into account the theorized ( in the ART ) moderation of this relation by control . When is applied effectively , human behavior would be mainly controlled by reflective processes and this would , therefore , attenuate the magnitude of the correlation between automatic processes and behavior . This more complex relationship between automatic processes , control , and behavior warrants further research . Notwithstanding such progress in empirical studies , it is important to note that the ART is still a relatively recent theory . Therefore , further studies are certainly needed . We would like to especially encourage the initiation research programs , to investigate the usefulness intervention elements . In this early phase of research , pilot studies are valuable ( et , 2019 ) as will be more elaborately planned ( et , 2021 ) Conclusion We have illustrated that the psychologically informed interventions developed and tested over the past several years , which aim to motivate people to be more physically active , and perhaps even exercise , have resulted in generally small and effects . For exercise psychology , a field of research that has existed for approximately 50 years , this is a disappointing track record all the more so as the number of published studies in exercise psychology seems to continually increase year by year ! One reason for this incongruity could be that the majority of studies published so far were based on a few repeatedly used theories . What these theories have in common is that they all rely on the assumption ofan omnipotent human rationality and people ( presumably , unlimited ) ability to process information as the key to behavior change . We believe , as we have outlined here , that an attempt should be made to reconsider this difficult problem from the ground up . Alternative theories must be developed , so that innovative approaches to intervention can emerge and be tested . We have explained our concern that such a transition to new fundamentals ( theories ) in exercise psychology might not be easy because researchers may be reluctant to accept the reorientation 81

Brand ( run fewer basic research studies based on established mainstream theories ) and change the way in which research is done at universities ( conduct more research projects , abolish the excesses of the mentality in academia ) We have proposed the theory ( ART ) of physical inactivity and exercise as a new alternative approach . The ART refers fundamentally to people previous affective experiences during PA and exercise . According to the ART , memories and feelings appear automatically at the mere thought of exercise ( affective valuation ) and can function as a restraining force that makes it difficult for individuals to follow their rational thoughts and action plans . Therefore , when it comes to behavior change , it is important to assure that the prospect of PA or exercise is consistently coupled with pleasant feelings ( positive affective experiences ) We hope that researchers pursuing a breakthrough in exercise psychology will actively engage in the critical testing of this theory in the near future . Learning Exercises Review what the terms statistical significance and effect size mean . Why is it important to look at more than just the statistical significance of results when assessing scientific evidence ?

Describe how the two goals of truth and usefulness relate to each other in psychological basic research and applied research programs . For advanced students Why is it that nomological statements from basic research programs can not be used to derive statements about the effectiveness of interventions ?

Why are of knowledge rather unlikely during times of normal science ( Can you relate this notion to the current situation in exercise psychology ?

Recall the early research findings of and Evans ( 1975 ) that marked the historical origin of current theorizing in psychology . What are the implications of those early findings , for example , for the use of methodology ( questionnaires and interviews ) in today exercise psychology ?

How is the exercise experience fundamentally different from the experience of , for example , having voted in a presidential election for the first time ?

According to the theory ( ART ) the affective valuation of an related stimulus is part of a process , which provides the impulse to either avoid or approach exercise or physical activity . What is a process ?

What is meant by affective valuation ?

Describe how , according to theory ( ART ) affective valuations are learned . How should interventions be designed so that a positive affective valuation of exercise can be learned ?

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