Psychology Textbook Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport James and Faye University , UK Beckett University , UK Please cite as , Didymus , 2021 ) Organizational stress in competitive sport . In Jones ( Essentials and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview Organizational stress continues to generate interest and research attention in sport psychology . This is largely because anecdotal and research evidence continues to highlight that the organizational environment in which sport performers , coaches , sport scientists , and other personnel operate is a breeding ground for experiencing stress . Although some individuals may interpret , respond , and cope well with the varying demands that they encounter in their sport teams and organizations , for others , this may have negative outcomes for their sport relationships , performance , and desire to continue participating in sport . For these reasons , research continues to be conducted to understand the concept of organizational stress in sport , and how it may be best managed to support the and performance of individuals . This chapter will outline key concepts and theory relating to the concept of organizational stress . In addition , a summary of the origins of organizational stress in sport along with discussions of contemporary research in this area will be provided . Finally , a series of practical implications and future research recommendations will be outlined . For correspondence

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport The Concept of Organizational Stress The topic of organizational stress in sport has continued to receive interest and increased attention since its induction to sport psychology research almost 20 years ago ( Woodman Hardy , 2001 ) Organizational stress was first introduced as social psychological stress ( 1982 , 21 ) However , most sport psychology research in this area now employs the following definition , which follows Richard Lazarus ( 1966 ) conceptualization of stress An ongoing transaction between an individual and the environmental demands associated primarily and directly with the organization within which he or she is operating ( Fletcher et , 2006 , 329 ) This definition is often employed to accommodate the ambiguity surrounding the landscape of professional and amateur sport , whereby sport performers and personnel may or may not be paid whilst operating within sport organizations . This ambiguity leaves ( 1982 ) aforementioned definition of stress less appropriate for competitive sport . However , the main reason for the adoption of Fletcher and colleagues ( 2006 ) definition is the theoretical approach that has commonly underpinned organizational stress in sport research to date . The following section outlines the relational theory of stress ( Lazarus , which has been mainly adopted in understanding organizational stress in competitive sport . The Theory of Stress The theory ( of stress emphasizes understanding the dynamism of the psychological processes of cognitive appraisal and coping that underpin a stressful encounter ( Lazarus , 1966 , 1999 Lazarus , 1984 ) Inherent to this transactional based theory of stress is the view that stress is an ongoing transaction between environmental demands and a person resources , with strain resulting from an imbalance between the two ( Lazarus , 1984 ) The contends several antecedents , processes , and outcomes that encapsulate stress in the organizational environment ( Cooper et , 2001 Lazarus , Firstly , antecedents refer to the environmental conditions of a transactional encounter and a person characteristics that interact to influence cognitive appraisals of the relationship ( see Chapter 29 Didymus et , 2021 ) According to Lazarus ( 1999 ) environmental conditions may include demands ( stressors ) constraints , opportunities , or the culture in which an individual functions . In addition , imminence , uncertainty , and duration are some of the properties of stressors that provide information about what is being encountered . The main personal characteristics that interact with environmental conditions to influence appraisals are a person goals and goal hierarchies , beliefs about the self and the world , and personal resources ( those that are used to cope ) Lazarus asserts that stress is the result of three interacting processes appraising of stressors , affective responses , and coping ( Lazarus , 1999 ) Cognitive appraisals are the evaluations a person makes in terms of the significance for one affective and goals ( primary appraisal ) and the evaluation of coping options ( secondary appraisal ) According to Lazarus and ( 1984 ) and Lazarus ( 1999 ) if events are perceived to be significant for and goals , they will be appraised as a threat , challenge , or benefit . Threat appraisals refer to the potential for damage , appraisals represent damage that has already occurred , challenge appraisals refer to the potential for progressing towards one goals , and benefit appraisals refer to gain that has already occurred ( Lazarus , In secondary appraisals , a person evaluates coping resources and options by questioning what they can do to cope . In so far that primary and secondary appraisals are believed to work in combination , the appraisals are hypothesized to amalgamate in the concept of core relational themes ( an explanatory statement of what a person is thinking ) for experiencing different emotions ( see Chapter 29 Didymus et , 2021 ) In this way , immediate emotional responses can be seen as outcomes to primary and secondary appraisals , through action tendencies that can motivate 711

Didymus coping efforts . These coping efforts may serve the function of regulating distressing emotions ( focused coping ) or doing something proactive to change the situation causing distress ( coping ) The degree to which an individual is able to appraise and cope with their relationship with their ( organizational ) environment may influence the type of ( physiological changes , affect ) or outcomes of stress ( physical and mental health , burnout , performance Lazarus , In comparing the to other approaches used to understand organizational stress ( approaches , 1956 ) the main distinction lies in the former emphasis on understanding the adaptive and ongoing flow of events and processes over time , the varied meaning construed by individuals , their adjustment to different antecedents , and their ability to cope with their personal transaction with the environment ( Cooper et , 2001 Lazarus , To date , the and associated transactional approaches to stress ( transactional stress theory , Lazarus , 1984 ) are the most widely employed approaches for underpinning organizational stress in sport psychology , and therefore inform the majority of studies that are reviewed in this chapter . Transactional Based Definitions of Terminology Before reviewing the origins and development of organizational stress research in competitive sport , it is important to define various organizational concepts ( see Table ) Table Definitions of Related Concepts Definition Citation Organizational stress An ongoing transaction between an Fletcher et al . 2006 , individual and the environmental demands 329 ) associated primarily and directly with the organization within which he or she is operating . Organizational stressors Environmental demands associated primarily and directly with the organization within which an individual is operating . Organizational strain An individual negative physiological , physical , and behavioral responses to organizational stressors . Cognitive appraisals An evaluation of the significance of what is Lazarus ( 1991 , 122 ) happening in the environment in relation to one . Coping Constantly changing cognitive and Lazarus and behavioral efforts to manage specific ( 1984 , 141 ) external internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person . 712

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport A Review of Organizational Stress in Sport Performers Research exploring sport performers experiences of organizational stress first came about due to a series of observations that were made from studies ( Gould et , 1993 et , 1991 ) that attempted to identify sources of stress ( stressors ) in competition environments ( Woodman Hardy , 2001 ) These qualitative studies unearthed a range of stressors that appeared to originate from the sport organizations in which sport performers trained and operated . These stressors included team selection , financial costs , training demands , travel , leadership and communication issues , refereeing decisions , tournament organization , negative behaviors of coaches , relationships and experiences outside of sport , and negative interpersonal relationships . The discovery of these stressors lent support for the suggestion that the social and organizational environment in which sport performers function imposes numerous demands , for which there was limited empirical evidence relating to how they may be best managed ( Fletcher et , 2006 ) These observations stimulated a program of qualitative research that aimed to explore sport performers experiences of organizational stress and to identify dimensions of organizational stressors . Organizational Stressors The Qualitative Movement Woodman and Hardy ( 2001 ) were the first researchers to directly explore elite sport performers experience of organizational stressors in sport . Since previous research studies had identified sources of stress relating to team environments and relationships ( Gould et , 1993 et , 1991 ) Woodman and Hardy ( 2001 ) developed a framework of organizational stressors that was based on Albert ( 1982 ) model of group cohesion . Based on interviews with 15 elite athletes from the United Kingdom ( the framework highlighted organizational stressors related to four main areas environmental issues , personal issues , leadership issues , and team issues . The main environmental issues that were identified included selection , the training environment , and finances . The main personal issues related to nutrition , injury , and goals and expectations whilst leadership issues most often included coaches and coaching styles . Finally , the main team issues that were identified included team atmosphere , support network , and roles and communication . Although this organizational stressor framework was later evaluated as focusing predominantly on group and stressors to the potential neglect of other organizational factors , research using this framework with athletes from a range of sports provided support for the majority of stressor themes that had been identified ( Fletcher , 2003 et , 2005 ) These studies did , however , identify some additional organizational stressors not previously reported , including those relating to accommodation , travel , and safety . These additional themes suggested that a new stressor framework may be warranted that focuses less exclusively on interpersonal relationships . In doing so , it was suggested that this may reveal greater insight in to a wider range of organizational issues that sport performers encounter ( Fletcher , 2003 ) Based on this critique of Woodman and Hardy ( 2001 ) framework , a new conceptual framework was developed by Fletcher and colleagues ( Fletcher , 2003 Fletcher et , 2006 , that closely aligned to research advancements in the field of organizational psychology ( Cooper et , 2001 ) In a series of qualitative studies that were conducted with elite sport performers ( Fletcher , et , 2005 Fletcher et , support was provided for identifying organizational stressors as related to one of the following five general dimensions factors intrinsic to the sport , roles in the sport organization , sport relationships and interpersonal demands , athletic career and performance development issues , and the organizational structure and climate of the sport . Table illustrates these general dimensions along with some examples of specific organizational stressors that have been reported in empirical research . 713

Didymus Table Summary of the Conceptual Framework of Organizational Stressors Among Sport Performers ( Fletcher , 2003 Fletcher et , 2006 , General Dimension stressors Factors intrinsic to the sport Training and competition environment , training and competition load , training and competition hours , travel and accommodation arrangements , nutritional issues , technological change , exposure to hazards and risk of injury . Roles in the sport organization Role ambiguity , role conflict , role overload , responsibility . Sport relationships and Personality type , leadership style , lack of social support . interpersonal demands Athletic career and performance Position insecurity , income and funding , career and performance development issues advancement . Organizational structure and Cultural and political environment , coaching management climate of the sport style , lack of participation in the process , inadequate communication channels , no sense of belonging . What is clear from this conceptual framework is that there are a diverse range of organizational demands that sport performers can encounter . Indeed , this has been evidenced in several sports that have been sampled since the publication of this framework . Similar critique to that of Woodman and Hardy ( framework was , however , evident . The general dimensions developed by Fletcher and colleagues were directly applied from Cooper et ( organizational psychology framework with working populations . A further critique was that the framework developed by Fletcher and colleagues ( Fletcher , Fletcher et , 2006 , was originally meant for illustrating organizational stressors encountered by elite sport performers only , despite some studies providing support for the framework in athlete populations ( et , 2008 Fletcher et , Subsequently , it was argued that a framework needed to be developed to provide a comprehensive classification of organizational stressors encountered by a wider range of athlete populations . In addressing these limitations , Arnold and Fletcher ( 2012 ) conducted a of 34 qualitative studies that had each been conducted to identify organizational stressors among sport performers . From this synthesis of literature , the organizational stressors were inductively grouped into the following four general dimensions leadership and personnel issues , cultural and team issues , logistical and environmental issues , and performance and personal issues ( see Table ) 714

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport Table Summary of Arnold and Fletcher ( 2012 ) Taxonomic Classification of Organizational Stressors General Dimension Stressors Leadership and The coach behaviors and interactions , the coach personality and personnel issues attitudes , external expectations , support staff , sports officials , spectators , media , performance feedback , governing body . Cultural and team issues Teammates behaviors and interactions , communication , team atmosphere and support , teammates personality and attitudes , roles , cultural norms , goals . Logistical and Facilities and equipment , selection , competition format , structure of environmental issues training , weather conditions , travel , accommodation , rules and regulations , distractions , physical safety , technology . Performance and Injuries , finances , diet and hydration , career transitions . personal issues There were a number of noteworthy strengths of this . First , by incorporating all of the known published and unpublished studies that had been conducted up until 2011 , it was possible to identify a greater commonality of organizational stressors encountered across sports , competitive standards , ages , sex , and nationalities . Second , the synthesis provides the most comprehensive classification of organizational stressors identified to date . Third , contemporary qualitative studies continue to provide support for this framework , despite often identifying new and unique stressors in specific team and organizational that are beyond typical comparison ( Arnold et , Didymus Fletcher , 2012 , et , 2018 Smith et , 2017 et , 2020 ) The findings ofthis were seminal in initiating the development and validation of the Organizational Stressor Sport Performers ( Arnold et , 2013 ) In doing so , this questionnaire facilitated quantitative research that examined organizational stressors in sport performers . Learning Exercise One Tables and illustrate two by which organizational stressors can be classified in competitive sport performers . As a comparison , what are some of the common stressors that both share ?

Can you spot any themes from one stressor framework that appear to be highlighted in the other framework ?

Why do you think this might be ?

The Quantitative Movement A key argument that led to the development of a questionnaire designed to measure organizational stressors was the notion that it is unlikely that all organizational stressors will lead to negative outcomes for an and performance . It was therefore argued that researchers need to demonstrate which organizational stressors are related to which outcomes and in what ways . One way to address this challenge was through the examination of the situational aspects of stressors namely the degree to which each organizational stressor encountered by athletes varies 715

Didymus according to their frequency ( how often the organizational stressors occur ) their intensity ( how demanding the stressors are for the individual ) and their duration ( how long the stressors occur for ) The ( Arnold et , 2013 ) was developed and evaluated to assess these three dimensions of organizational stressors in five different ( see Table ) The questionnaire measures the organizational stressors that sport performers have encountered as part of their participation in competitive sport over the past month ( In the past month , I have experienced pressure associated with ) For each of the 23 items , athletes are required to complete three rating scales with options ranging from to . The scales include frequency ( how often did this pressure place a demand on you ?

never , always ) intensity ( how demanding was this pressure ?

no demand , very high ) and duration ( how long did this pressure place a demand on you ?

no time , a very long time ) Table of the Organizational Stressor Indicator for Sport Performers ( Arnold et , 2013 ) Description Example Questionnaire Item Goals and development An individual feedback , the development ofmy sporting ( items ) progression , and transitions career within their sport . Logistics and operations The arrangement and travelling to training or ( items ) implementation of procedures competitions for training and or competition . Team and culture The attitudes and behavior the atmosphere surrounding my ( items ) within the team . team Coaching The coach personality and my coach personality ( items ) interpersonal skills . Selection How sport performers are how my team is selected ( items ) chosen for teams and or competitions . Demographic differences in athletes experiences of organizational stressors have been identified using the . For example , in one ofthe first studies using the ( Arnold et , 2015 ) demographic differences were identified in a large sample ( 1277 ) of sport performers of varying ages , sports , sex , and competitive standards . These findings demonstrated sex differences in the frequency , intensity , and duration of different organizational stressor . Specifically , males rated themselves higher than females in experiencing logistical and operational stressors for all ratings of frequency , intensity , and duration . In comparison , females rated themselves higher on selection issues than males for all ratings . Differences in stressors were also observed for individual versus team sport performers . Team sport performers rated themselves higher than individual sport performers for three of the five stressor ( logistics and operations , team and culture , selection for all ratings ) A series of other findings has demonstrated that national and international sport performers rated 716

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport themselves higher in all five in comparison to athletes of different competitive standards ( Arnold et , 2013 ) These findings were important from an applied perspective as they highlighted that a one size fits all approach to developing stress management interventions would not make sense since the experience of organizational stressors may vary based on personal and sporting demographics . These demographic differences in experiencing stressors could lend support to the suggestion that not all stressors will lead to negative outcomes . To further explore this idea , studies are , in recent years , very much focused on identifying statistical relationships between organizational stressor ( and ratings of frequency , intensity , and duration ) in relation to various stress components ( Arnold et , 2017 , 2018 et , 2017 ) physical and mental ( et , 2017 et , 2020 ) and performance outcomes ( Roberts et , 2019 et , 2018 ) These quantitative studies suggest that the situational dimensions of frequency , intensity , and duration are not consistently applied across studies . For example , some studies report statistical relationships between specific stressor ( team and culture frequency ) and outcomes ( Arnold et , whilst other studies focus purely on reporting the findings of specific situational dimensions , such as frequency for each ( et , 2018 ) or even totaling the frequency for all organizational stressor items regardless of ( et , 2017 ) This makes it difficult to tackle the original purpose of developing the , which was to examine which organizational stressors are related to which outcomes and in what ways . Whilst most of the aforementioned research has been conducted using research designs , contemporary studies in the area are beginning to examine organizational stressors temporally ( Roberts et , 2019 et , 2018 ) and longitudinally ( et , 2019 et , 2016 et , 2020 ) The qualitative studies on organizational stressors have identified a wealth of common demands that are encountered by athletes who participate in a diverse range of sports . In addition , the quantitative studies in this area are continuing to show the ways in which organizational stressors may be related to different and performance outcomes . However , a fundamental limitation in exclusively focusing on the main effect of organizational stressors for alone is the degree to which individuals might appraise , respond to , and cope with their organizational environment differently . These mediating processes , as outlined by theorist Lazarus ( 1991 , 1999 ) require greater attention . Sport psychology researchers are now beginning to acknowledge the importance of cognitive appraisals , and emotional and coping processes in mediating the potential influence of organizational stressors on various and performance outcomes for sport performers . The following section outlines some of the research conducted to date that has explored sport performers cognitive appraisals of , and emotional and coping responses to , organizational stressors as a means of more fully applying Lazarus ( 1991 ) transactional conceptualization of organizational stress . Appraisals and Emotional and Coping Responses to Organizational Stressors Appraisals In the past decade , a series of qualitative studies have sought to explore how competitive sport performers cognitively appraise the organizational stressors that they encounter . For example , Neil et al . 2011 ) indicated that athletes respond negatively to demands , but some athletes are able to interpret their emotional responses to stressors in a positive way for their performance . Although this study was able to distinguish between positive and negative appraisals of organizational stressors , cognitive evaluations were not examined in great depth so as to understand the different primary appraisals originally proposed by Lazarus and ( 1984 ) transactional stress theory . To address this limitation , et al . 2012 ) used a stress log with four international sport performers who were competing in different sports . Their findings suggested that most athletes appraised organizational stressors as threatening or harmful , with little perceived control . 717

Didymus In one of the most detailed examinations of sport performers appraisals of organizational stressors , Didymus and Fletcher ( 2012 ) conducted a diary study with 13 national standard swimmers . Whilst the qualitative analysis provided support for previous studies in highlighting that many swimmers appraised organizational stressors as a threat or with a sense of , the authors were also able to highlight that the situational property of imminence ( how much time there is before an event occurs ) was linked to the greatest number of threat appraisals , and that swimmers did also experience challenge appraisals . Other qualitative studies have provided examples of how threat , harm , challenge , and benefit appraisals may be linked to specific organizational stressors . For example , et al . 2018 ) conducted a series of interviews and focus groups with a professional rugby union academy team ( 40 ) Players in this study predominantly viewed a range of organizational stressors as threatening and harmful , including making the transition from amateur to professional rugby , negative feedback , asking for advice , job uncertainty , team hierarchies , unfriendly teammates , and competition for playing positions . However , the findings also illustrated how some players appraised the professional academy team set up that they were operating in as beneficial . Moreover , some players appraised getting injured as a challenge to work on aspects of their conditioning whilst unable to play . Whilst currently relatively limited , there is some quantitative evidence to demonstrate how organizational stressors may be linked to specific appraisals . In a study of 315 British athletes who completed the ( Arnold et , 2013 ) et al . 2017 ) found that the frequency of goals and development ( positively ) logistics and operations ( positively ) and team and culture ( negatively ) were all significantly related to challenge appraisals . In addition , the frequency of team and culture and coaching stressors were positive of athletes threat appraisals . Significant relationships with threat and challenge appraisals were also observed in regard to the intensity and duration of some of the organizational stressor . However , this study could be critiqued because it only measured general primary and secondary appraisals and , therefore , the athletes participating may only have been rating how they generally appraise demands as a threat , challenge , or , rather than how they appraise each specific organizational stressor in these ways . Emotional Responses To date , emotional responses to organizational stressors have been explored in the sport psychology literature but to a lesser extent to that which has focused on athletes appraisals . The collective findings of a series of qualitative studies sampling a range of team sports suggest that athletes can respond in a variety of ways to specific organizational stressors . These emotional responses include anger , anxiety , boredom , disappointment , duress , excitement , fatigue , guilt , happiness , hope , jealousy , relief , reproach , resentment , sadness , and shock ( Fletcher et , et , 2018 ) Using a design with 414 sport performers across varying sports , Arnold et al . found that no organizational stressors as measured by the were related to positive affect . However , the intensity and duration of goals and development stressors , and the intensity and frequency of team and culture stressors were found to be significantly associated with sport performers negative affective ( emotional ) states . Perhaps surprisingly , no significant relationships were identified for three of the five dimensions ( logistics and operations , coaching , and selection ) and negative affect . One of the reasons for this could be that cognitive appraisals are likely to be a stronger predictor of affective responses than organizational stressors themselves . In a longitudinally focused quantitative daily diary study , et al . 2020 ) provided support for the argument that cognitive appraisals may be strong of affective responses to organizational issues , irrespective of the organizational issues , this detailed study highlighted that daily threat and harm appraisals of organizational stressors over a period of training and competition were significantly related to daily negative affective responses to 718

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport organizational events . Similarly , daily challenge ( positively ) and harm appraisals ( negatively ) were strongly related to daily positive affective responses to organizational events . This study also provided evidence to suggest that stable threat , challenge , and harm appraisals over the period were strong of daily fluctuations in positive and negative affective responses to organizational events within a professional rugby union academy team . These findings offer the first quantitative insight into how daily changes in cognitive appraisals of organizational events in professional sport environments may be linked to daily changes in affective responses , and , how these relationships are still significant when controlling for a range of personal ( personality ) and situational factors ( playing position , key decision makers in the team ) that could potentially reduce the influence of appraisals on affective responses . Coping Researchers have investigated coping functions and strategies in relation to organizational stressors ( Didymus Fletcher , et , 2012 Roberts , 2010 et , 2018 ) and appraisals ( Didymus Fletcher , 2014 , et , 2020 ) in sport performers from club level to international elite and professional competitive standards . In a study by and Roberts ( 2010 ) it was reported that elite Norwegian youth athletes tended to use different types of social support resources ( tangible , information , emotional ) to manage organizational stressors encountered at a major European youth competition . Similarly , in a study with based swimmers , Didymus and Fletcher ( 2014 ) reported that swimmers employed a range of coping strategies following each type of appraisal of organizational stressors . In a more recent study , Didymus and Fletcher ( investigated transactional pathways between organizational stressors and their underpinning situational properties , appraisals , coping , and perceived coping effectiveness among field hockey players . Interview data that were analyzed using content analysis highlighted a variety of organizational stressors relating to leadership and personnel issues , cultural and team issues , logistical and environmental issues , and performance and personal issues . These stressors were underpinned by the situational properties of ambiguity , duration , event uncertainty , novelty , and timing in relation to life cycle . The hockey players appraised the stressors either as a challenge , a threat , or with a sense of , and most commonly used coping to manage the negative outcomes of them . Support for some of the aforementioned findings can be seen in the daily diary study of et al . 2020 ) in which professional academy rugby union players threat and challenge appraisals were significantly associated with the daily use of seeking social support to solve problems and regulate emotions . From a practical perspective , what these findings highlight is that athletes need to learn or be taught a variety of social support based and coping strategies to manage the various organizational stressors that can be appraised as significant for their goals and . Photo by from 719

Didymus Outcomes of Organizational Stress in Sport Performers A series of studies have acknowledged the importance of investigating potential outcomes that may result from training and operating within structured sport teams and organizations . Studies have indicated that competitive performers may experience various and outcomes , such as changes to their physical and mental health ( Roberts et , 2019 ) sleep disturbances ( et , 2018 ) and dropout ( et , 2020 ) Two common ways in which researchers continue to demonstrate outcomes of organizational stress include the experience of burnout and assessments of sport performance . Burnout In one of the first studies to explore the relationship between organizational stressors and burnout , et al . 2012 ) found that English and Japanese soccer performers experienced burnout symptoms ( physical and emotional exhaustion , devaluation , a reduced sense of accomplishment ) in relation to their training and competition loads , insufficient rest from training , and stressors . In addition , Japanese performers experienced some burnout symptoms in relation to authoritarian leadership styles and relationship issues with teammates . In comparison , English players appeared to experience more burnout symptoms than Japanese players in relation to selection issues and the formation of cliques in their soccer teams . A recent quantitative study by et al . 2020 ) provided support for some of these qualitative findings by highlighting that athletes perceptions of their teammates leadership is linked to their own health and burnout symptoms . In a quantitative study of sport performers and staff working in sport organizations ( 487 ) et al . 2017 ) found that the frequency of organizational stressors encountered was statistically related to experiences of burnout symptoms . In addition , the relationship between stressors and burnout was moderated by individuals tendencies to express emotions merely for the benefit of aligning with organizational goals ( emotional labor ) Performance A variety of studies have taken different approaches to measuring sport performers subjective ratings of their sport performance in relation to organizational stress . In the first study to explore performance in the context of organizational stress , Didymus and Fletcher ( reported that subjective performance satisfaction was an intricate phenomenon that was linked to athletes appraisals , rather than perceived coping effectiveness , for example . Using a quantitative study design , Arnold et al . found that the intensity of selection stressors was positively related to performance satisfaction . A surprising observation from this study was that no other organizational stressors were statistically associated with athletes performance evaluations . Of the 14 relationships between different stressor and performance , nine of these showed negative relationships between stressors and performance , and five showed positive relationships . The findings of both of these studies suggest that the relationship between organizational stressors and performance is complex . The findings of Arnold et al . may have been due to aspects ofthe research design whereby sport performers were asked to reflect on their performances that had taken place over the past month . This meant that the findings will have been subject to memory decay and the potential ramifications of retrospective recall . Another study that employed the same research design with a smaller sample of sport performers ( Arnold et , 2018 ) suggested that the frequency of some organizational stressors was negatively associated with subjective performance evaluations . This means that the more frequent an organizational stressor , the more negative the evaluation of performance . Using a temporal rather than a design , et al . 2018 ) conducted a study in Canada with 84 varsity athletes from a selection of team sports field hockey , volleyball , basketball , 720

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport and ice hockey . Athletes completed the , measures of perceived esteem support , and competition appraisals five days before a weekend competition . A week following competition , the athletes then rated their evaluation of their performance at the competition . The findings from this study indicated that whilst athletes perceived support and secondary appraisals were linked to subjective performance a week after competing , the relationship between perceived support and secondary appraisals was moderated by the frequency of coaching stressors ( negatively ) and the frequency of team and culture stressors ( positively ) Other temporal approaches have been used to explore the relationships between organizational stressors in the lead up to and on the day of competitive performance . In a study of military veterans , for example , Roberts et al . 2019 ) found that the frequency and intensity of organizational stressors was generally linked to negative subjective performance on the day of the Games . A key observation relating to all of these studies is the reliance on athletes subjective evaluations of their own performance , which is likely due to the challenges associated with the objective measurement of performance in sport psychology . However , in judging selection to be an important longitudinal measure of performance for high level youth performers , et al . 2020 ) found that professional rugby academy players use of some coping techniques to deal with organizational events ( seeking support to regulate emotions ) during a training period was statistically associated with the number of professional senior club appearances attained five years after the initial data collection period . This goes some way toward illustrating that the ways in which youth performers cope with organizational issues during the stages of development in their sports may be linked to how well they achieve success in their sport in the future as an adult . Learning Exercise Two Think back to your experiences of participating and competing in sport . What examples can you think of where you may have personally encountered organizational stressors ?

Can you remember how you responded , coped , or behaved at the time ?

The above section on Outcomes of Organizational Stress in Sport Performers suggests that there might be difficulties in measuring performance in sport . Consider some ways in which you think performance could be measured differently to understand how organizational stress may lead to better or worse sport performance . Organizational Stress in Other Performers So far , this chapter has focused exclusively on the organizational stress experiences of competitive sport performers . However , it is clear that an , development , and success in sport is often the outcome of positive relationships , instructions , support , and care that they have received from various individuals who also operate ( directly or indirectly ) within the same sport organizational environments . For these reasons , sport psychology researchers have begun to explore the organizational stress experience as it pertains to other performers in sport . To date , these have included coaches , parents , sport science and management staff . Below , we briefly outline some of the main findings on coaches and parents experiences of organizational stress . Due to space limitations , we provide suggestions for further reading on the stress experiences of ( 2007 Neil et , 2013 ) and sport science and management staff ( Arnold et , 2019 Fletcher et , 2011 ) at the end of this chapter . 721

Didymus Coaches Since the work of ( 2007 ) sport psychology researchers have examined the stress experiences of coaches , partly because coaches stress may impact on their relationships with athletes ( et , 2017 ) and , also because stress that is unmanageable could lead to burnout and coach turnover ( Kilo , 2016 ) In a systematic review conducted by Norris et al . 2017 ) 24 studies that had examined stress in coaches were synthesized . It was concluded from this review that coaches encounter numerous demands relating to their performance and that they also encounter a series of stressors relating to the teams and organizations in which they coach . The organizational stressors reported in this systematic review included workload ( extended working hours , completing multiple coach roles ) relationships ( poor communication from managers , relationships with the performers and teams they coach ) and career development concerns ( job insecurity ) to name a few ( see Chapter 29 Didymus et , 2021 ) The issues of workload and imbalance are some of the most cited stressors that coaches report as being stressful , and studies continue to highlight that these factors are closely linked to burnout and intentions to leave the coaching profession ( et , 2016 Kilo , 2016 Knight et , 2015 Potts et , 2019 ) On the basis that coaches encounter a vast range of stressors , researchers have developed and validated a measure to assess how stressors are linked to various and performance outcomes for coaches . Despite currently only being validated for use among coaches in South Africa , et al . 2018 ) have made promising progress toward the quantitative measurement of stressors when developing the Stressors in Sports Coaching Questionnaire ( This questionnaire assesses coaches perceptions of the environmental , performance , and athlete stressors that they encounter in their roles . Within this questionnaire , a variety of items relate to organizational related demands such as the coach role , their relationships with athletes and staff , the interface , and requirements to travel . How coaches cognitively appraise and cope with organizational stressors has also received some attention ( Didymus , 2017 ) Moreover , researchers have given consideration to how coaches and their athletes may communicate with and protect one another when using dyadic coping efforts to manage shared stressors ( Staff et , 2017 ) Taken together , these studies on coach stress that incorporate information about organizational stress transactions demonstrate the need to examine the environmental , personal , and relational factors that may influence how coaches cope with stressors in their vocational and occupational roles . In addition , with continued reports of stress among coaches both and in research evidence , advances need to be made in developing interventions to support coaches . Parents It is starting to be more commonly recognized that parents of sport performers experience organizational stressors that can impact their own experiences , those of their children , and the coaches with whom their children train . In a concurrent mixed method study with 135 British tennis parents , et al . 2019 ) reported that parents experienced organizational stressors relating to finances , time , coaching and training , organizing bodies , tournaments , and injury . These stressors were predominantly appraised as harm or challenge , and parents typically experienced anxiety and anger in relation to the stressors experienced . Interestingly , the parents experienced greater anger following competition stressors than they did following organizational ( and developmental ) stressors . The parents reported using various coping strategies relating to mastery , internal regulation , and goal withdrawal , which varied statistically in degrees of reported effectiveness . et al . 2020 ) conducted one of the most comprehensive studies examining parents experiences of stressors and coping in elite sport . First , 1299 parents of adolescent sport performers completed an survey to identify stressors associated with their sport involvement . Next , 16 parents participated in interviews . Organizational stressors 722

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport included demands related to health ( doping and injuries ) sport systems ( scheduling , quality of training and coach , and communication ) logistics ( domestic tasks and organization ) and personal investments ( time and finance ) For each stressor cited , parents were asked to rate whether the organizational stressor was easy to manage or difficult to manage . Out of responses to this question , parents cited that organizational stressors were difficult to manage of the time . et al . 2020 ) identified six different coping dimensions that were used by the parents themselves , their child , or the sport organization to manage stressors . These included detaching from sport , information seeking , managing emotional reactions , avoidance , taking control , and parents providing support . The authors of the study provided examples of how specific coping strategies were adopted to deal with specific organizational stressors . For example , under the coping dimension of detaching from sport , some parents spoke of trusting their sport organization to prevent doping , to help manage parents stress from a lack of information and concerns about athlete doping . In addition , under the coping dimension of information seeking , parents spoke of getting information from other parents to help manage a lack of clear communication from their child sport organization . This study highlights the complex nature of sport parents stress experience and suggests that educational interventions are needed to improve effective coping strategies . Such interventions would assist in enhancing the sport participation experience for parents , their children and sport staff working in elite sport organizations . Applied Implications The organizational stress research that we have highlighted in this chapter demonstrates that there are a range of complex individual and group differences that influence the prevalence of organizational stressors , and the extent to which the frequency , intensity , and duration of organizational stressors may be linked to various outcomes ( burnout and performance ) Some studies do appear to suggest that the outcomes of organizational stressors are not always negative when cognitive appraisals and coping attempts are also considered . From an applied perspective , this suggests that a one size fits all approach to developing organizational stress management interventions will simply not work , and that tailored interventions are clearly necessary . To this end , we briefly outline how organizational psychologists have recommended that interventions could be best developed and tested to optimize performers experiences in sport . Organizational Stress Management Organizational stress management has been defined as any activity initiated by an organization , which focuses on reducing the presence of stressors or minimizing the negative outcomes associated with exposure to stressors ( et , 1990 , Despite approximately 20 years of research to date on organizational stress in sport , interventions designed to tackle organizational stress are still lacking and so require development and evaluation to improve our understanding of what psychological programs might work and in what ways ( Didymus Fletcher , Fletcher et , 2006 et , 2012 , 2018 ) This is needed to help sport psychology consultants draw on a stronger evidence base to support how they tailor psychological programs when working at multiple levels ( individuals , teams , coaches , CEOs ) of a sport organization . Due to the limited number of organizational stress interventions that have been developed in sport , researchers have tended to draw parallels between the organizational psychology literature and the types of stress experienced within sport . According to many organizational and work psychologists , the tailoring of specific organizational stress management interventions can typically be developed based on the purpose and target ofthe intervention ( Cooper et , 2001 , 2008 ) For example , interventions could be developed where the purpose 723

Didymus is to directly prevent or modify the organizational stressors that individuals encounter . This would involve targeting aspects of the environment or organizational structures that impact sport performers . Where stressors are unavoidable and impractical to reduce or modify , interventions could be developed where the purpose is to modify how individuals appraise , respond to , and cope with organizational stressors . This involves targeting specific individuals and groups that operate together in sport organizations . When considering the use of the questionnaire ( Arnold et , 2013 ) as a method to identify which stressors are most problematic and in need of intervention , Table presents an example of how organizational stress management interventions could be developed based on stressors encountered by sport performers , and the subsequent purpose and target of a stress management intervention ( Cooper et , 2001 ) Where organizational stressors can realistically be reduced in a proactive way ( improving communication channels ) then interventions should be targeted towards modifying the organizational environment in which sport performers operate . However , where stressors can not be removed easily ( changing a sport rules and regulations ) interventions targeted at modifying individuals appraisals , emotional responses and coping abilities are more appropriate ( 2008 et , 2018 ) In reality , a combination of both approaches may be required to successfully combat stress in sport organizations that is judged to be detrimental to and performance . Table An Example Framework for Developing Organizational Stress Management Interventions in Sport Interventions Interventions Purpose Stressor prevention Restructure reduce modification stress responses . Target of Environments and Individuals and groups Intervention structures associated with operating in sport the sport organization organizations stressors Logistics and operations ( structure of training ) Team and culture ( poor communication ) Selection ( unfairness in the selection process ) Logistics and operations ( rules and regulations ) Team and culture ( cultural norms ) Selection ( competition for selection ) Example stress management interventions Modify training structures , integrate team building , integrate regular team performance appraisals treatments , individual and group goal setting , integrate social support systems 724

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport A key area in which organizational stress research needs to advance is the evaluation of organizational stress management interventions in sport . These interventions will need to be tailored with a view to either modifying the organizational environment in which individuals function , or helping sport performers and other stakeholders to respond and adapt more positively to the organizational environment ( et , 2018 ) In the only intervention study in the context of organizational stress to date , Didymus and Fletcher ( developed and evaluated the effects ofa intervention that was designed to modify sport performers appraisals of stressors and emotional responses . This intervention was conducted over 26 weeks with field hockey players and included weeks of sessions to educate players and facilitate acquisition of a cognitive restructuring technique . Using a concurrent , research design they found that threat and loss appraisals reduced during the intervention whilst challenge appraisals , pleasant emotions , and performance satisfaction increased throughout . Qualitative social validation data that were collected immediately suggested that the changes in players appraisals of organizational stressors were meaningful to the participants , and data collected during a suggested that the intervention effects had been retained . Future Research There are a number of research studies that are currently being conducted worldwide which are highly relevant to the experience of organizational and occupational stress for those who operate in sport organizations . These include the experience of workload demands , burnout , and job turnover among sport coaches stress and recovery in athletes and coaches organizational culture and change for various stakeholders in sport the interface dual careers in sport dyadic coping between athletes and coaches and emotional contagion in sport teams and personnel . Linking these areas to a research agenda on organizational stress , we anticipate that future studies will focus a great deal more on measuring the relationships between organizational stress processes , physical and mental health , and performance , both and longitudinally , as means to justify the development of organizational stress management programs in varied sport populations . It is clear that further measurement developments are needed to stimulate new lines of enquiry on organizational stress in sport . For example , measures of stressors among coaches and parents that are developed with and validated for use with individuals worldwide are warranted , as are efforts to more effectively capture the dynamic and highly complex phenomena of appraising and coping . This chapter has outlined key concepts and theory that relate to organizational stress as researched in sport settings ( please also see Chapter 29 Didymus et , 2021 ) Although the majority of research in this area has focused on examining organizational stressors in sport performers , it is clear that the experience of organizational stress is far from straightforward for various individuals ( athletes , coaches , parents ) The complexity of organizational stress can be seen in the numerous ways that organizational stressors have been found to link positively , negatively , or not at all with both being and various measures of sport performance . The findings related to individuals cognitive appraisals of , and emotional and coping responses to , organizational stressors also indicate that organizational stress is not simply a case of understanding the direct effects of the organizational environment on various health and related outcomes . Rather , it is a case of considering how the processes of appraisal , emotions , and coping mediate whether organizational issues lead to positive or negative outcomes for and performance . 725

Didymus Learning Exercise Three Perhaps you have watched a series of recent sport documentaries without realizing that they illuminate various aspects of organizational stress in elite and professional sport environments . We have selected some sport documentaries that you may like to watch and , whilst doing so , consider how these documentaries illustrate organizational stress and subsequent outcomes that various individuals in sport may experience . 30 for 30 Lance Armstrong documentary ( 2020 ) All or nothing A season with the Philadelphia Eagles ( 2020 ) All or nothing Manchester City ( 2018 ) Athlete A ( Cohen , 2020 ) Late life The Wang story ( Chen , 2018 ) Rising phoenix ( 2020 ) The last dance The Chicago Bulls documentary ( 2020 ) The playbook A coach rules for life ( James Carter , 2020 ) Further Reading Arnold , Williams , 2019 ) The team behind the team Exploring the organizational stressor experiences of sport science and management staff in elite sport . Journal Sport Psychology , 31 ( A . 2020 ) disclosures of psychological distress Exploring the experiences of university coaches and athletes . Journal Sport Psychology . Advance online publication . De , Van den , 2008 ) The strain compensation model Renewed theoretical considerations and empirical evidence . In , The individual in the changing working life ( 87 ) Taylor Francis . Driscoll , Cooper , 2010 ) Coping with work stress A review and critique . Didymus , Staff , 2019 ) Promoting and protecting coach psychological being and performance . In Dicks ( Professional advances in sports coaching Research and practice ( Chapter 16 ) 2007 ) Stressful experiences among six certified levels of ice hockey officials . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , Fletcher , Tester , 2011 ) Sport psychologists experiences of organizational stressors . The Sport Psychologist , 25 ( Neil , Wilson , 2013 ) The influence of stress and emotions on association football referees . Sport Exercise Psychology Review , 2017 ) An organizational psychology of sport Key issues and practical applications . 726

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport We would like to thank the editors for kindly inviting us to contribute , and for providing helpful feedback on earlier drafts of this chapter . References , Edwards , 2018 ) Organizational stressors , social support , and implications for subjective performance in sport . Psychology and Exercise , 39 , Fletcher , 2012 ) A research synthesis and taxonomic classification of the organizational stressors encountered by sport performers . Journal and Exercise Psychology , 34 ( doi , or , Fletcher , Daniels , 2013 ) Development and validation of the Organizational Stressor Indicator for Sport Performers ( Journal and Exercise Psychology , 35 ( se , Fletcher , Daniels , 2015 ) Demographic differences in sport performers experiences of stressors . Scandinavian Journal in Science and Sports , 26 ( Fletcher , Daniels , Organisational stressors , coping , and outcomes in competitive sport . Journal Sciences , 35 ( Zhang , validity and measurement invariance of the Organizational Stressor Indicator for Sport Performers ( across three countries . Scandinavian Journal of Medicine in Science and Sports , 27 ( Steadman , Pratt , The organizational stressors encountered by athletes with a disability . Journal Sciences , 35 ( 12 ) Arnold , Fletcher , 2017 ) Organizational stressors and basic psychological needs The mediating roles of athletes appraisal mechanisms . Scandinavian Journal of Medicine in Science and Sports , 27 ( 12 ) 2016 ) Development of exhaustion for high performance coaches in association with workload and motivation A approach . Psychology and Exercise , 22 , Cannon , 1939 ) The wisdom ofthe body . Norton . 1982 ) Cohesiveness in sport groups Interpretations and considerations . Psychology , Chen , Director ) 2018 ) Late life The Wang story Documentary . Motions . Cohen , Directors ) 2020 ) Documentary . Netflix . Cooper , 2001 ) A review and critique of theory , research , and applications . Sage . Didymus , 2017 ) Olympic and international level sports coaches experiences of stressors , appraisals , and coping . Qualitative Research in Sport , Exercise and Health , 727

Didymus Didymus , Fletcher , Organizational stress in field hockey Examining transactional pathways between stressors , appraisals , coping and performance satisfaction . International Journal of Sports Science Coaching , 12 ( Didymus , Fletcher , Effects of a intervention on field hockey players appraisals of organizational stressors . Psychology and Exercise , 30 , Didymus , Fletcher , 2012 ) Getting to the heart of the matter A diary study of swimmers appraisals of organisational stressors . Journal Sciences , 30 ( 13 ) Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff , 2021 ) Psychological stress and performance . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . I . Directors ) 2020 ) Rising phoenix Documentary film . Netflix . Fletcher , 2003 ) Sources stress in elite sports performers . The Sport Psychologist , 17 ( Fletcher , 2006 ) An organizational stress review Conceptual and theoretical issues in competitive sport . In ( Literature reviews in sport psychology ( Nova Science . Fletcher , Neil , A conceptual framework of organizational stressors in sport performers . Scandinavian Journal and Science in Sports , 22 ( Fletcher , Performers responses to stressors encountered in sport organizations . Journal Sciences , 30 ( Peters , 2020 ) Making us better athlete leadership relates to health and burnout in professional Australian football teams . European Journal Science , 20 ( 2007 ) College coaches experiences with stress problem solvers have problems too . The Sport Psychologist , 21 ( Gould , Jackson , Finch , 1993 ) Sources of stress in national champion figure skaters . and Exercise Psychology , 15 ( Fletcher , 2005 ) Stress in elite sport performers A comparative study of competitive and organizational stressors . Journal Sciences , 23 ( 10 ) Fletcher , 2012 ) Cognitive appraisals of stressors encountered in sport organizations . International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 10 ( Thrower , Slater , Didymus , 2019 ) Advancing our understanding of psychological stress and coping among parents in organized youth sport . Frontiers in Psychology , 10 , Director ) 2020 ) The last dance Documentary miniseries . ESPN and Netflix . Director ) 2018 ) All or nothing Manchester city Documentary series . Amazon Studios . Freedman , Phillips , 1990 ) Worksite stress management interventions . American Psychologist , 45 ( 728

Chapter 30 Organizational Stress in Competitive Sport James , Carter , Producers ) 2020 ) The playbook A coach life Television series . Los , CA Netflix . Kilo , 2016 ) Burnout and turnover intentions in Australian coaches as related to organisational support and perceived control . Science Coaching , 11 ( Knight , Rodgers , Hall , 2015 ) Coach transitions Influence of interpersonal and work environmental factors . Sport , Exercise , and Performance Psychology , 0000036 , Roberts , 2019 ) Motivational processes affecting the perception of organizational and media stressors among professional football players A longitudinal mixed methods research study . Psychology and Exercise , 43 , Murphy , Roberts , 2012 ) Organizational stress and coping in professional soccer . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 24 ( Roberts , 2010 ) Young elite athletes and social support Coping with competitive and organizational stress in Olympic competition . Scandinavian Medicine and Science in Sports , 20 ( Didymus , 2018 ) Development and initial validation of an instrument to assess stressors among South African sports coaches . Journal Sciences , 36 ( 12 ) 2017 ) A examination of organizational stressors , emotional labor , burnout , and turnover in sport organizations . Scandinavian Journal of Medicine in Science and Sports , 27 ( Lazarus , 1966 ) and the coping process . Lazarus , Emotion and adaptation . Oxford University Press . Lazarus , Psychological stress in the workplace . Journal Behavior and Personality , Lazarus , 1999 ) Stress and emotion A new synthesis . Springer . Lazarus , 1984 ) Stress , appraisal and coping . Springer . Director ) 2020 ) All or nothing A season with the Philadelphia Eagles Documentary series . Amazon Studios . Neil , Fletcher , 2011 ) Competition stress and emotions in sport performers . The role of further appraisals . Psychology and Exercise , 12 ( Norris , Didymus , 2017 ) Stressors , coping , and among sports coaches A systematic review . Psychology and Exercise , 33 , Potts , Didymus , 2019 ) Exploring stressors and coping among volunteer , time , and sports coaches . Qualitative Research in Sport , Exercise and Health , 11 , 2008 ) Effects of occupational stress management intervention programmes A . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 13 ( Roberts , Arnold , Turner , 2019 ) A longitudinal examination of military veterans games stress experiences . Frontiers in Psychology , 10 , 729

Didymus , Stone , A . 2020 ) Exploring British adolescent rugby league players experiences of professional academies and dropout . and Exercise Psychology , 18 ( Fletcher , Daniels , 2012 ) A systematic review of stress management interventions with sport performers . Sport , Exercise , and Performance Psychology , Fletcher , Daniels , 2018 ) Using a mixed method audit to inform organizational stress management interventions in sport . Psychology and Exercise , 35 , Fletcher , Daniels , 2020 ) An experience sampling study of organizational stress processes and future playing time in professional sport . Journal Sciences , 38 ( Fletcher , 2008 ) A qualitative study of organizational stressors in elite performers from individual and team sports . Journal Sciences , 26 ( Stein , 1991 ) An study of former elite figure skaters III Sources of Stress . Journal Exercise Psychology , 13 ( se , A . 1982 ) What is organizational stress ?

A facet analytic . Journal of Organizational Behavior , Arnold , Turner , Hays , 2020 ) A examination of organizational stressors , perceived psychological and physical health , and perceived performance in athletes . Journal Sciences , 39 ( Smith , Arnold , 2017 ) There no place to hide Exploring the stressors encountered by elite cricket captains . Journal Sport Psychology , 30 ( Staff , Didymus , Backhouse , 2017 ) Coping rarely takes place in a social vacuum Exploring antecedents and outcomes of dyadic coping in relationships . Psychology and Exercise , 30 , Fletcher , 2012 ) The relationship between organizational stressors and athlete burnout in soccer players . Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology , Crocker , 2018 ) Perceived esteem support predicts competition appraisals and performance satisfaction among varsity athletes A test of organizational stressors as . Journal Sport Psychology , 31 ( Chapman , 2017 ) Examining coaches perceptions of how their stress influences the relationship . Journal Sciences , 35 ( 19 ) Barker , Slater , Arnold , 2020 ) An exploration of the organisational stressors encountered by international disability footballers . Journal Sciences , 39 ( Woodman , Hardy , 2001 ) A case study of organizational stress in elite sport . Journal Sport Psychology , 13 ( Director ) 2020 ) LANCE Documentary . ESPN . 730