Psychology Textbook Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance Faye , Luke Norris , Alexandra , and Helen Leeds Beckett University , UK of Exeter , UK Please cite as Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff , 2021 ) Psychological stress and performance . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview Psychological stress is inherent in sport , particularly at the higher levels of competition , and has implications for individuals and performance . Athletes , coaches , officials , and parents alike are influential stakeholders in sport and each of these groups of individuals are likely to experience stress at some point during their own or others sport careers . Psychological stress is an umbrella term that refers to many concepts that are each interrelated and idiosyncratic . This makes stress a complex area to learn about . This chapter will focus on some ofthe most widely studied components and outcomes of stress ( stressors , appraising , coping , and ) and their relationships with performance to offer an introductory text that encourages further reading . Theoretical perspectives of stress are covered briefly to offer from which stress can be understood . Exercises are offered at regular intervals throughout the chapter to facilitate transference of readers knowledge . The chapter closes with implications for practitioners , national governing bodies , and researchers , and with concluding comments that consolidate important points from the chapter . For correspondence

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance Psychological Stress and Performance Theoretical Perspectives Psychology based theories help us to understand cognition and behavior . Theories also offer that facilitate understanding of how concepts are related and act as a basis for the development , exploration , and testing of research questions . Many theories of psychological stress exist . For example , research on stress in sport was historically framed by stimulus ( Hardy et , 1996 ) or response ( et , 2003 ) based theories that conceive stress as an independent or dependent variable respectively . Stimulus based approaches stem from physics and engineering ( 1974 ) and suggest that stressors are environmental stimuli that exert a demand on an individual ( Hardy et , 1996 ) Response based theories , however , focus on the ways that individuals react to stimuli and have origins in Cannon work on the fight or flight response ( Cannon , 1914 ) and first writings about his general adaptation syndrome ( 1936 ) Despite their popularity in early stress research , many difficulties associated with and confusion surrounding stimulus and theories of stress have been documented ( see , Hardy et , 1996 ) It is based on these difficulties that more recent research in sport ( Didymus Backhouse , et , 2019 Potts et , 2019 ) has endorsed transactional and relational of stress ( Lazarus , 1999 , 2000 Lazarus , 1984 ) Such suggest that stress resides neither in the environment ( as a stimulus ) nor in the person ( as a response ) but in the relationship between the two . Thus , transactional theories of stress consider both person factors ( beliefs , values , goals , personality ) and situation factors ( the duration and timing of stressors ) to be influential during stress transactions ( see , for a review , Didymus Jones , 2021 ) These theories suggest that stress transactions begin with the juncture of a person and a stressor , that individuals engage in processes ( appraising ) to ascribe meaning to stressors , and that attempts to cope are made using cognitive and or behavioral efforts ( Lazarus , 1999 , 2000 Lazarus , 1984 ) Transactional stress theories are contextual in that they seek to understand people in specific and focus on what is happening at that time cognitively , emotionally , and . Thus , such theories view stress and emotions as closely entwined and suggest that stress has implications for performance and . Two theories of psychological stress that are based on a transactional conceptualization and have been applied widely in sport are transactional stress theory ( Lazarus , 1984 ) and the theory ( Lazarus , 1999 ) From these perspectives , stress is defined as a relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her ( Lazarus , 1984 , 19 ) In sport , researchers have used transactional theories to explore the ways that individuals appraise stressors ( Didymus , 2017 Didymus Fletcher , 2012 , Ritchie et , 2017 ) the ways in which athletes , coaches , and teammates work together to manage demands ( 2017 Staff et , and various outcomes of stress transactions ( burnout , et , 2019 psychological , Norris et , 2017 ) Many other theories of psychological stress exist alongside those already mentioned . For example , Jones and colleagues ( Jones et , 2009 ) developed and later revised ( et , 2020 ) the theory of challenge and threat states in athletes ( to explain how athletes anticipate motivated performance situations ( sport competitions ) This theory focuses on physiological and emotional responses to stress and how sport performance might be affected . Other theories that focus more specifically on one or two components of stress also exist . For example , appraisal theories ( Smith , 2001 ) help to explain why and how emotions are elicited by evaluations of stressors and theories of dyadic coping ( Staff et , 2020 ) provide insight to the ways in which people work together to manage stressors . We 684

Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff adopt a transactional perspective throughout this chapter and hang the subsequent sections on elements of stress transactions that have been most widely researched stressors , appraising , coping , and . Stressors Stressors are the starting point of stress transactions and can be defined as environmental demands ( stimuli ) encountered by an individual ( Lazarus , 1999 , 329 ) Stressors can be acute or chronic . Acute stressors are experienced in the and are ( an official making a bad call et , 2013 ) In contrast , chronic stressors are longer term demands ( injury , finances ) that can lead to burnout and ( et , 2007 ) While stressors can sometimes be detrimental for and performance , they can also have an energizing effect for some individuals in certain circumstances . Indeed , division one American college coaches reported that stressors can enhance focus and motivation ( 2007 ) It seems , therefore , that stressors can have either a detrimental or a positive effect on individuals performance and depending on how they are appraised . The situational properties that underpin stressors ( novelty , ambiguity see Didymus , 2017 Didymus Fletcher , 2012 , Lazarus , 1984 ) are likely to influence how stressors are appraised as well as their implications for and performance . Stressors that have been identified in the sport psychology literature span a range of issues and are frequently reported in a system competitive , organizational , and personal . Stressors that relate to each of these categories are known to be relevant to coaches and athletes but significantly less is known about the stressors that parents and officials encounter . There is also documented confusion about the best way ( to categorize stressors ( Norris et , 2017 ) This confusion stems from the lack of conceptual clarity and exclusivity of the aforementioned three category system , which makes it difficult to clearly show whether a stressor is , for example , purely competitive , organizational , or personal . Nonetheless , this chapter focuses on the three categories of stressors that are most widely reported in the sport psychology literature while drawing attention to other categorization systems that exist ( see , Norris et , 2017 ) Competitive Stressors Competitive stressors are demands associated directly with sport performance ( pressure to perform see Table ) A noteworthy competitive stressor is an individual own performance ( et , 2009 ) For athletes , this may relate to reaching athletic potential during training and competition while officials , for example , may be more concerned with making appropriate decisions in a timely manner . The performance of others is a pertinent competitive stressor for coaches ( Didymus , 2017 ) This may be because coaches function well when they believe they have control over a situation and , whilst they can prepare athletes for performance , they have little control once athletes are out to compete . A noteworthy competitive stressor that is specific to officials is the lack of respect they often receive from players , coaches , and spectators ( et , 2013 ) This is partly due to the knowledge that winning teams rarely mention the quality of officiating while losing teams or players can attribute at least part of the loss to the referee . Officials also experience stressors related to the possible threats of physical or verbal harm ( et , 2013 Stewart et , 2004 ) Within the sport parent literature , research examining stressors remains relatively limited . In the research that does exist , parents have indicated that the competitive stressors they experience include watching their children compete when they are upset or losing , which can be difficult because they feel for their child and share their 685

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance disappointment ( Knight , 2009 ) Physical and nutritional preparation of their child , their child psychological state before a competition , behavior of children during competition , gamesmanship , cheating , and other parents making negative remarks about their child are other competitive stressors that have been reported by sport parents ( Knight , 2009 ) Organizational stressors Organizational stressors refer to demands that are related primarily directly to the sport organization ( the training environment , Fletcher et , 2006 ) Scheduling is an organizational stressor that is experienced by athletes , coaches , officials , and parents alike . For , schedule clashes between training and university have been reported as an important stressor ( Cosh Tully , 2014 ) These clashes may force athletes to prioritize either sport or education , and students may face academic failure for not attending courses or may be concerned that they have missed learning opportunities by being absent . Athletes also experience organizational stressors relating to relationships and interpersonal demands , athletic career , and coaching style , for example ( Hayward et , 2017 et , 2009 ) The coach being perceived as both a stressor and a support mechanism for athletes is consistently reported in the literature with findings showing that coaching style is important ( Cosh Tully , 2014 ) Changes in verbal and communication ( negative change in tone , changes in coach behavior ) can influence the training or match environment ( et , 2017 ) The sport environment is also a known stressor for coaches ( Potts et , 2019 ) because coaches strive to create settings that ensure players can perform at their best . Other commonly encountered organizational stressors for coaches include relationships with the board , finances , and team factors ( Didymus , 2017 , 2007 ) For officials , organizational stressors such as the presence of a supervisor or being evaluated by superiors are pertinent ( 1995 et , 2013 ) For parents , organizational stressors can relate to lack of communication and information from the organization and or national governing body ( et , 2019 ) Parents can feel frustrated when attending international tournaments because travel and accommodation can be difficult to organize due to a lack of timely information ( regarding competition timings , athlete schedules ) from the organization ( Knight , 2009 ) Personal stressors Personal stressors relate to demands associated with personal life outside of sport ( maintaining significant relationships ) A common and important stressor for all individuals in sport is balance ( see Table ) Particularly at the higher levels of performance , it can be difficult to balance the needs of sport with family life ( McKay et , 2008 ) Relationships with members of their social support network can be a stressor for both athletes and coaches ( McKay et , 2008 Norris et , 2020 ) For example , a lack of support from coaches , peers , significant others , family , and friends can leave the athlete or coach feeling isolated . For coaches and officials , the volume of traveling , preparation , and unsociable working hours involved with sport can result in conflict between sport and other demands ( et , 2017 ) Literature that has focused on parents stressors has illustrated that the time commitment required for sport can impede occupational , social , and family life ( Kirk et , 1997 ) This can be problematic if parents time and attention becomes centered on one at the expense of other siblings ( et , 2019 ) and can be exasperated by the financial commitment often required to support sport participation . 686

Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff Learning Exercise One List and categorize ( as a competitive , organizational , or personal ) all of the stressors that you can remember experiencing in sport . It might be helpful to think of a particular event ( an important fixture ) or situation that you remember well . and Mediators of Stressors Researchers have often focused on factors that influence ( or explain ( mediators ) the relationship between individuals and the stressors they experience . For example , competition and skill level can influence the types of stressors that athletes experience . Elite athletes tend to experience and recall more stressors associated with the sport organization than with competitive performance ( et , 2009 ) and higher skilled participants are thought to encounter more organizational stressors than lower skilled participants ( et , 2005 ) Athletes mental toughness is thought to be associated with stress intensity , perceived control , coping , and coping effectiveness ( et , 2009 ) whilst the Big Five dimensions of personality ( neuroticism , extraversion , agreeableness , conscientiousness , and openness to experience ) have been shown to influence coping selection , coping effectiveness , stress intensity , and perceived control of stressors among athletes ( et , With reference to coaches , both men and women collegiate tennis coaches who reported more coaching stressors and were lower in the personality trait of hardiness experienced higher levels of perceived stress ( et , 1999 ) Further , women coaches were found to have a higher tendency than men to experience coaching stressors . In a different study with university coaches , the level of burnout ( intensity , frequency , and duration of situations ) among men and women coaches did not significantly differ but male coaches did tend to burnout more frequently than women ( et , 2010 ) Thus , whilst women coaches may encounter more stressors , men may be more likely to experience burnout ( for more discussion on burnout , see Chapter 28 , 2021 ) Demographic and contractual factors and characteristics can influence coaches perceptions of stress ( Knight et , 2013 ) 687

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance Photo by football wife from 688 Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff Table Examples of Competitive , Organizational , and Personal Stressors Competitive Organizational Personal Athlete coachability ( Attitude of players ( Behavior of opponents ( Behavior of child ( Commitment of players ( Decision making ( Expectations from others ( A , Fitness concerns ( A , Fear of failure ( Fear of physical harm ( Injury ( A , Interference from other parents ( Lack of respect from coaches , players , and spectators ( Lack of skills in helping child manage emotions ( Managing own emotions ( A , Match environment ( A , Match outcome ( A , Performance of player ( A , Performance of self ( A , Poor preparation ( A , Poor refereeing ( A , Presence of supervisor ( Pressure game ( A , Professionalism ( Recovery ( Rivalry ( A , Administration ( Athletic career ( A ) Coach ( A , Coaching style ( A ) Conflict with others ( A , Environment ( A , Finances ( A , Governing Body ( A , Lack of communication ( A , Lack of recognition ( Lack of respect from organization ( Leadership ( A , Organization ( A , Overload ( A , Performance development ( A , Presence of media ( A , Schedule ( A , A , Team factors ( A , Training environment ( A , Travel ( A , Uncertainty around signing and release ( Career development ( A , Child education ( Family issues ( A ) Finances ( A , Ineffective social support ( A , Interpersonal conflict ( A , Sibling inequality and guilt ( Time constraints ( balance ( A , Note . Letters in brackets correspond to the performer ( who may experience the stressor . A athlete , coach , official , parent . Stressors included in this table are collated from the literature discussed throughout the chapter . The table is not exhaustive . 689

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance Appraising Now that the array of stressors that athletes , coaches , parents , and officials may experience has been explored , it is timely to consider how individuals may evaluate , or appraise , these stressors . Appraising is an cognitive mechanism that bridges the gap between stressors and coping and lies at the theoretical heart of psychological stress ( Lazarus , 1999 , 61 ) When viewed from a transactional perspective , appraising is conceived as an evaluation of situations that is influenced by an individual beliefs , values , goals ( Lazarus , 1984 ) At it is worth briefly discussing the distinction between the terms appraising and appraisal ( Lazarus , 1999 ) Appraising refers to the act of making an evaluation whereas appraisal refers to the evaluative product of appraising . Unfortunately , this distinction is rarely made in the sport psychology literature where it is more commonplace to use appraisal as an umbrella term for all aspects of appraising and appraisal . Transactional stress theory ( Lazarus , 1984 ) suggests that appraising involves two different but related processes primary and secondary appraising . Although these two processes are interdependent , they are best discussed separately because of their distinct contents ( Lazarus , 1999 ) Before moving to a deeper discussion of primary and secondary appraising , it is pertinent to note that the terms primary and secondary were not intended by works to infer that one process occurs before the other or that secondary appraising is of less importance . The qualifying adjectives ( primary , secondary ) are reflective of the contents of each type of appraising rather than of their importance or temporal occurrence during stress transactions ( Lazarus , 1999 ) It has been noted elsewhere ( Didymus Jones , 2021 ) that it is not entirely clear when the two types of appraising occur during stress transactions how they interact with each other or whether any given appraisal is purely primary , secondary , or a combination of the two . Primary Appraising Primary appraising refers to evaluations of whether an encounter is relevant or significant to an individual beliefs , values , goal commitments , and situational intentions . These types of appraisals are influenced by goal relevance , goal congruence , and type of ego involvement ( Lazarus , 1999 ) Lazarus and ( 1984 ) suggested three types of primary appraising irrelevant , and stressful ( see Table ) If an encounter is appraised as stressful , there are four possible transactional alternatives that may be experienced challenge , benefit , threat , and ( Lazarus , 1984 see Table ) These transactional alternatives are important because they represent the essence of appraisals and have implications for individuals health and . For example , an individual who typically stressful situations as a challenge is more likely to have higher morale , quality of functioning , and somatic health compared to an individual who typically experiences threat appraisals ( Lazarus , 1999 ) Challenge appraisals are likely to increase quality of functioning , for example , because they are related to elevated confidence , reduced emotional strain , and an increased capability to draw on coping resources when managing stressful encounters . 690

Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff Table Types of Primary Appraising Type of Primary Appraising Irrelevant The stressor is evaluated as having no implications for ( there is no potential for loss or gain ) The stressor is evaluated as having the potential to enhance . Stressful The stressor is evaluated as being significant for ( there is potential for loss or gain ) Table Transactional Alternatives During Stressful Appraisals Transactional Alternative Challenge When personal significance is in proportion to the available coping resources and gain may result from the situation . Benefit When the individual perceives that enhancement of their has already occurred . Threat When personal significance outweighs available coping resources and damage to the is anticipated . When the individual perceives that damage to their has already occurred . Although threat and challenge appraisals differ in their cognitive ( judgment of potential harm or loss versus mastery or gain ) and affective ( negative versus positive emotions ) components , researchers ( Lazarus , 1999 Lazarus , 1984 Moore et , 2019 ) have long asserted that they can occur simultaneously . Thus , transactional alternatives are not mutually exclusive but are discrete , related constructs that are essentially different forms of a common process ( Lazarus , 1999 Lazarus , 1984 ) The transactional alternatives experienced by an individual can evolve in any given encounter . For example , transference from threat to challenge may occur if the relationship changes for the better . Take the example of a lacrosse player who did not make her starting but is subbed into play during the first quarter of the game . This athlete may have initially experienced a threat appraisal but , the field of play , her appraisal may shift to one of challenge ( she feels enthusiastic toward playing ) or even benefit ( enhancement of her being occurred when she was moved from the bench ) Sport psychology research on primary appraising has highlighted associations between this process and other psychological constructs . For example , relationships have been suggested between situational properties of stressors ( duration , timing ) and appraisals ( Didymus Fletcher , 2012 ) and between appraisals and anxiety ( et , 2012 ) Threat appraisals have been shown to mediate relationships between satisfaction of basic psychological needs ( autonomy , competence , relatedness ) and anxiety intensity ( et , 2012 ) and between trait anxiety and burnout ( et , 2017 ) Some sport psychology researchers ( et , 2012 ) have suggested that primary appraisals consistently influence the coping strategies employed but doing so undermines the foundations of transactional of stress . This is because each stress transaction is context dependent and , thus , common or consistent associations can not be expected 691

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance ( Didymus Fletcher , 2014 ) Indeed , appraising , coping , and the associations between them are idiosyncratic and will change according to the relationship in any given situation . Researchers have also examined the relationships between primary appraisals and outcomes of stress transactions . For example , threat and challenge appraisals have been shown to partially mediate relationships between goals and ( et , 2008 ) be linked with performance ( et , 2010 Didymus Fletcher , mediate relationships between organizational stressors and psychological need experiences ( et , 2017 ) and influence affective responses ( et , 2020 ) All of the aforementioned research has been conducted with athletes . Coaches , parents , and officials have received scant academic attention and the limited research that does exist is exploratory and largely descriptive in nature . One study ( Thatcher , 2005 ) that has examined rugby league officials primary appraisals found that the same stressor was perceived as a threat by some individuals and as a challenge by others . In a study that examined coaches primary appraisals , Didymus ( 2017 ) found that Olympic and international level coaches predominantly experienced challenge and threat appraisals when evaluating stressors . The limited research that has focused on sport parents appraisals highlights that stressors were predominantly appraised as harm or challenge , that harm appraisals increased negative emotions , and that challenge appraisals increased positive emotions ( et , 2019 ) Learning Exercise Two From the list of stressors that you created during exercise one , choose one or two that you can remember clearly . Write briefly about how you appraised the stressor ( For example , did you perceive it to be a challenge , a benefit , a threat , or a ?

Secondary Appraising If a stressful appraisal is made during primary appraising ( one of challenge , benefit , threat , or ) the individual will engage in secondary appraising . Secondary appraising is defined as an evaluation of available coping resources in relation to the stressor encountered ( Lazarus , 1984 ) In short , this is when the individual decides what might and can be done to cope with a situation . Secondary appraising involves a complex evaluation of the degree of control that an individual has over the stressor , the coping resources that are available , the likelihood of various coping options effectively managing the situation , and the possibility that one can employ a particular strategy ( or combination of ) effectively ( Lazarus , 1984 ) When compared to the literature on primary appraising , notably less work in sport has examined secondary appraising , perhaps because of the lack of accurate measures of such and the difficulty of assessing a process that often occurs below waking consciousness . Researchers have , however , reported a significant negative correlation between perceived stressor intensity and perceived stressor control ( et , 2009 ) suggesting that some stressors may be perceived as more controllable than others ( Reeves et , 2011 ) and that challenge and threat appraisals are related to more and less controllability respectively ( et , 2012 Williams Cumming , 2012 ) Person factors ( culture , personality , gender ) have also been linked to perceptions of control ( et , 2005 ) and control has been shown to mediate the relationship between primary appraisals and basic psychological needs ( et , 2017 ) As was shown to be the case with sport psychology literature on primary appraising , research that focused on secondary appraising has been almost exclusively conducted with athletes . Thus , substantial gaps in understanding relating to how coaches , parents , and officials evaluate stressors are evident . 692

Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff Coping From a transactional perspective , coping is defined as constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person ( Lazarus , 1984 , 141 ) Understanding coping in sport is important because it can have implications for athletes , coaches , parents , and officials performance and or ( Gould et , 2006 et , 1999 Stewart et , 2004 ) Historically , researchers have examined coping from either a or perspective ( see , 2001 ) The trait perspective suggests that individuals cope with stressors in a somewhat consistent manner ( Voight , 2009 ) Research that adopts a state perspective , however , is more common in sport psychology ( et , 2010 ) is more closely aligned to transactional of stress , and emphasizes the ways in which coping changes according to the context . Researchers have explored coping in sport by identifying the specific strategies that individuals use and the wider categories of coping that differ according to the adaptive functions and or intentions of coping efforts ( Didymus , 2017 Didymus Fletcher , 2014 , Skinner , 2007 ) Lazarus and ( 1984 ) of coping ( and ) have informed much of the research in sport . However , this structure may oversimplify the roles of coping during stress transactions ( Skinner et , 2003 ) As a result , researchers have proposed additional relating to avoidance , approach , and appraisal ( see Table ) These five categories are the most widely used among sport psychology researchers to date ( Norris et , 2017 ) Table Categories of Coping , Definitions of Each Category , and Exemplar Coping Strategies Category of Coping Definition Exemplar Coping Strategies change the troubled , information relationship by acting on the environment or seeking oneself ( Lazarus , 1993 , Change either the way the , venting , wishful environment relationship is attended to or thinking the meaning ofthe stressor for an individual ( Lazarus , 1993 ) Actions and decisions to disengage oneself Blocking , distraction , behavioral from a stressful situation ( avoidance Actions and decisions to attend to the Action planning , stressor for the purpose of reducing or managing the unpleasant experience ( 2001 ) Efforts to the stressor ( Looking into the future , keeping et , 2010 ) things in perspective The majority of sport coping research has focused on the strategies that athletes and coaches use to manage stressors . Research in these areas that adopts a transactional perspective has highlighted that athletes and coaches use a plethora of strategies related to each of the aforementioned categories , and that these strategies are deployed either in isolation or in combination . The multitude of individual coping options that athletes and coaches use are too extensive to review in a chapter of this nature , but 693

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance commonly reported coping strategies include planning , increased concentration , thought stopping , relaxation , minimization , venting of emotions , and ( Didymus , Didymus Fletcher , 2014 Potts et , 2019 ) With reference to parents , some researchers ( et , 2020 ) have reported that parents detach from sport and seek information to cope with stressors . Others ( Gould et , 2006 ) have shown that parents who do not cope effectively and , thus , experience strain , are more likely to exhibit negative behaviors ( criticizing their child ) and that these behaviors could have a detrimental impact on their child performance ( et , 2020 ) Research with officials has highlighted that these individuals may also detach from sport and or avoid situations to manage stressors in sport ( Neil et , 2013 ) Coping among all individuals in sport can be either adaptive ( facilitative of performance et , 2016 ) or ( facilitative of burnout et , 2020 ) and , as a result , can have implications for their own and others performance and . The degree to which a coping strategy or combination of strategies is effective is tied to the perceived success of coping in alleviating stress . Effective coping contributes , for example , to sustained motivation ( Crocker et , 2015 ) and enhanced psychological ( et , 2016 ) while ineffective coping is associated with decreased performance satisfaction ( et , 2019 ) burnout ( et , 2020 ) and lower levels of psychological ( et , 2016 ) Some researchers ( et , 2009 ) have suggested that certain strategies ( may be more effective than others ( or avoidance ) when managing stressors in sport . However , from a transactional perspective , coping strategies are considered and functional and , thus , are neither inherently effective nor ineffective ( Lazarus , 1999 ) For example , an athlete who avoids sharing information about an injury with her coach to maintain a place on the team may perceive this strategy as effective in the short term yet coping in this way may have detrimental consequences for her performance , health , and . Levy et al . 2009 ) explored one coach coping strategies and their perceived effectiveness over a period . They identified that focused strategies were used more frequently than and strategies . The effectiveness of such strategies declined as the volume of stressors increased . et al . 2009 ) reported that athletes employed different coping strategies on training days when compared to competition days and that coping effectiveness was higher on competition clays . Learning Exercise Three Write down some of the stressors that you have experienced in sport or life over the past seven days . How did you cope with these ?

List the coping strategies that you used and categorize them according to the five categories presented in Table . Rate each strategy on a scale of one to ten according to how effective it was in helping you to cope with the stressor ( in question ( completely ineffective , 10 completely effective ) Although the study of coping among individuals has offered considerable understanding of and practical implications for those operating in sport , researchers have suggested that significant others can influence an coping resources and efforts ( Neely et , 2017 Staff et , This means that coping should be considered and researched from an interpersonal perspective to understand how people ( athletes and coaches ) may work together to manage the stressors they experience . 694

Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff Interpersonal Coping Researchers in general psychology have used various terms to refer to the interpersonal nature of coping ( dyadic coping , 1997 communal coping , Lyons et , 1998 ) Dyadic coping generally refers to the process whereby sport based ( manage stressors together ( Staff et , 2020 , whereas communal coping relates to the pooling of coping resources and the efforts of several individuals ( teams or communities ) to confront adversity ( Lyons et , 1998 ) It is important to understand how relationships ( between athletes , coaches , and parents ) influence coping because stress transactions usually involve at least one other person ( 2017 Staff et , To facilitate understanding of coping among and groups , researchers have proposed various theories of interpersonal coping . The Communal Coping Model ( Lyons et , 1998 ) for example , recognizes that two or more individuals can perceive a stressor as our problem , instead of my or your problem , to enhance individuals . Use of communal coping depends on three factors . One individual in the group must hold a communal coping orientation ( the belief that working together to manage a stressor is valuable ) At least one individual must communicate the stressor within the group . Individuals must collaboratively construct coping strategies to try and reduce the consequences of a stressor . Developed with and for athletes and coaches , Staff et al . 2020 ) proposed a theory of dyadic coping in relationships . This theory focuses on dyadic , rather than communal , coping and is underpinned by the model of stress ( 1995 ) The theory states that , when athletes and coaches communicate a stressor within their dyad , each partner individually that stressor and the available coping options . If they perceive the stressor to be meaningful to their goals , dyadic coping strategies are used to manage the stressor together . These strategies are then appraised individually by both members of the dyad , which leads to positive or negative outcomes ( on performance and ) and influences the dyad future coping efforts . In addition to the recognition and application of general psychology theories of interpersonal coping in sport , the development of a sport specific theory of dyadic coping appears promising for the future of sport coping research . Indeed , this theory provides researchers with an initial understanding of the ways in which and groups manage stressors together . They also pave the way for researchers to move beyond a focus on coping at an individual level , to develop a more sophisticated understanding of how coping occurs between people , and , importantly , to explore the influence of interpersonal coping on and performance . Implications of Psychological Stress for and Performance This chapter so far has highlighted how individuals experience , appraise , and cope with stressors . In addition to considering these components of stress transactions , it is important to explore the implications of psychological stress for and performance . Indeed , should be of paramount importance to researchers , organizations , and because of the consequences that impaired has for individuals , particularly for his or her health ( et , 2015 ) From a sport policy and management perspective , it is important to put at the heart of work with performers . A number of organizations have indeed done so . For example , The English Institute of Sport ( 2017 ) High Performance Sport New Zealand ( 2019 ) and the Australian Institute of Sport ( 2019 ) have each highlighted athlete as a key priority area . The Australian 695

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance Institute of Sport suggests that a successful culture includes athletes finding the right balance between , engagement in activities outside of training and competition , and the requirements of elite sport ( 2019 , A notable shift in the culture of sport is created when put high on their list of priorities and when all members of the sport system truly buy into the of performer . Defining is a notable challenge . Indeed , there is little consensus among the academic community about how best to do so . From a positive psychology standpoint , can be defined as a broad category of phenomena that includes people emotional responses , domain satisfactions , and global judgements of life satisfaction ( et , 1999 , 277 ) Aside from striving to define what is , researchers ( Dodge et , 2012 ) have focused on discovering and exploring various dimensions of . For example , in seminal research , 1989 ) and and ( 1995 ) proposed a multidimensional conceptualization that captures the depth and breadth of being and focuses on optimal psychological functioning ( see Table ) Table Characteristics of and Their Definitions Characteristic of Definition Autonomy An individual perceptions of control and the independence and regulation of his or her thoughts or behaviors . Environmental mastery An individual ability to choose or create environments that are suited to them , control an array of complex external activities , and make effective use of surrounding opportunities . Personal growth An individual emphasis on continual growth and development whilst remaining open to new experiences and challenges . Relationships with others An individual ability to have strong feelings of empathy and affection towards others , to develop deep friendships , and to warm to and care for others . Purpose in life An individual goals , ambitions , and sense of direction that contribute to a meaningful life . An individual positive attitude towards the self , understanding and acceptance of multiple aspects of the self ( both positive and negative ) and positivity about his or her past life . In more recent work , Robertson and Cooper ( 2011 ) referred to two dimensions of and . relates to an happiness , subjective , and positive emotions whereas refers to purposeful aspects of life such as , personal growth , and environmental mastery . Aligned with this conceptualization , 2000 ) likened to life satisfaction ( global judgements on one life ) low levels of negative affect ( experiencing few unpleasant emotions and moods ) high levels of positive affect ( experiencing many pleasant emotions and moods ) and satisfaction with important domains ( work satisfaction ) 696

Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff Learning Exercise Four Think about and make notes on a recent competition or training session . Using the information in Table , write down the parts of that experience that enhanced or reduced your . For example , did you have opportunities to develop your skills ( personal growth ) or maintain relationships with others ?

Sport psychology researchers have typically focused on the study of among athletes . The findings ofthis research highlight that impaired can have a detrimental impact on performance ( et , 2015 ) It is also evident that policy makers , program managers , and should develop an approach to promote and protect ( et , 2007 ) This requires consideration of athletes rights and developmental needs , rather than simply focusing on athletic performance and achievements ( Wicker et , 2020 ) By adopting an centered approach , and health can be enhanced ( Kerr et , 2017 ) which can in turn encourage better performance ( et , 2007 ) With reference to coaches , their experiences of stress can lead to emotional exhaustion , depersonalization , cynicism , and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment ( et , 1999 ) Each of these factors can contribute to burnout ( et , 2007 ) which can have negative ramifications for coaches and performance . To prevent negative consequences of stress and facilitate coach , researchers have highlighted three conditions that are needed ( see , for a review , Norris et , 2017 ) basic psychological needs satisfaction , lack of basic psychological needs thwarting , and motivation ( et , 2015 et , 2012 ) Furthermore , greater job security , opportunities for professional development , and lower conflict have been linked with improved among coaches ( et , 2012 ) As alluded to in previous sections of this chapter , officials are performers in their own right and their contribution is essential if sport , particularly that of a competitive nature , is to operate in a fair manner . Despite the important role that officials play , very few studies have explored among this population . In one of the only studies in this area , Dell et al . 2016 ) reported that receiving abuse within a game was one of the main reasons why football referees considered leaving the profession . This was due to the impact of abuse on officials and , consequently , their motivation to remain engaged . The fundamental role that parents play in children engagement with sport can compromise their own health and , particularly when extensive commitments are required to support their child journey through sport ( 2020 ) Parents may , however , benefit in some ways from the social connectedness that sport environments offer ( 2020 ) Research on sport parents being is limited despite the important role they play , particularly in the youth sport experience ( et , 2020 ) It is important that practitioners work with parents ( et , 2019 ) to offer support , to indirectly support athletes and coaches , and to foster among all parties . There are a number of ways in which a performer can be enhanced . The following is not an exhaustive list but provides insight to some of the approaches that can be used to develop being among those who are involved with sport Goal setting to facilitate goal attainment ( Smith et , 2011 ) Resilience building to facilitate management of a variety of stressors ( Fletcher , 2012 ) 697

Chapter 29 Psychological Stress and Performance Enhancing a sense of role and position security among athletes and coaches ( et , 2012 ) Building motivation ( et , 2015 ) Building relationships to develop a strong social support network ( Norris et , 2020 ) Applied Implications The content presented in this chapter highlights a number of implications for practitioners , researchers , and sport stakeholders ( athletes , coaches , officials , parents , For example , while stressors are an important element of stress transactions , it is likely that appraising and coping have more bearing on and performance . Indeed , different appraisals ( threat and challenge ) have varied implications for performance and and coping can be either adaptive or . Thus , stress management interventions that focus on the ways in which individuals perceive demands ( via training ) and or on the optimization of coping efforts ( via or simulation training ) should be prioritized during applied work . Relationships are important during stress transactions and can act as either a buffer or of stress . This means that practitioners should work with multiple stakeholders ( coaches , athletes , parents ) when aiming to optimize stress transactions . Better understanding of the interpersonal nature of stress will enable the design and delivery of interventions that support performance , personal development , and relationship satisfaction among various members of sport communities . It is clear that performance should not be the sole or central focus of or sport organization policy . Rather , performer and stakeholder should be at the fore to ensure that the benefits of sport are realized . Policy makers , program managers , and will need to take a approach ( by having a genuine interest in and by listening to all who are involved in sport ) to achieve a focus on for those who work at and support the front lines of sport . Future Research While noteworthy understanding of various components , mediators , and of stress transactions has been developed since the inception of research on stress in sport , many opportunities for future research still exist . For example , research with parents and officials is limited in many areas , including that on stressors , appraising , coping , and . A similar point can be made about the literature with coaches , which remains underdeveloped when compared to that with athletes . Given that appraising lies at the heart of stress transactions and has important ramifications for coping , being , and performance , considerable further research is needed in this area . For example , it is not yet clear when primary and secondary appraising occur during stress transactions how they interact with each other or whether any given appraisal is purely primary , secondary , or a combination of the two . Further work on secondary appraising is needed with all stakeholders in sport . Explorations of the positive and negative outcomes of interpersonal coping are warranted , as are considerations of how best to capitalize on both individual and interpersonal coping resources . Examining the links between stress and among athletes , coaches , officials , and parents will contribute to understanding that has relevance both within and outside of sport , and will offer insight to the benefits of sport for individuals and society . The majority of the aforementioned priorities for future research could be facilitated by more robust measures of stress and . Innovative qualitative approaches ( diary methods , social network analysis , think aloud protocols ) will be needed to develop depth of knowledge and understanding . 698

Didymus , Norris , Potts , Staff Conclusions This chapter has offered a brief overview of theoretical perspectives of stress and has introduced stressors , appraising , coping , and , and their links with performance . Athletes , coaches , and officials have each been considered performers in their own right and parents are regarded throughout the chapter as key stakeholders in sport . The chapter reports a myriad of stressors that can be experienced and highlights some of the commonalities and differences between stressors encountered by athletes , coaches , officials , and parents . The helpful or unhelpful implications that stress has for and performance is likely to depend on how individuals appraise and cope with stressors . All elements of stress transactions should be considered from an interpersonal perspective that recognizes the complex networks of people who are involved in sport . Further Reading , Williams , 2020 ) Understanding and managing stress in sport . In Williams ( Applied sport psychology Personal growth to peak performance . Education . Campo , 2012 ) Emotions in team contact sports A systematic review . The Sport Psychologist , 26 ( Didymus , Jones , 2021 ) Cognitive appraisals . In . Arnold Fletcher ( Stress , being , and performance in sport ( Didymus , Staff , 2019 ) Promoting and protecting coach and performance . In Dicks ( Professional advances in sports coaching ( 271 ) Jones , McCarthy , Sheffield , 2009 ) A theory of challenge and threat states in athletes . International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology , A . 2019 ) The role of emotion in sport coaching A review of the literature . The Sport Journal . Neil , Smith , 2016 ) in sport organizations . In ( Ed . The organizational psychology of sport Key issues and practical applications ( 119 ) 2007 ) Coping in sport A systematic review . Journal Sciences , 25 ( Potts , Didymus , 2021 ) Psychological stress and psychological among sports coaches A of the qualitative research evidence . International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology . Advance online publication . Staff , Didymus , Backhouse , 2020 ) Dyadic coping in relationships A grounded theory . Psychology and Exercise . Advance online publication . 2014 ) Coping , social support , and emotional regulation in teams . In Eys ( Group dynamics in exercise and sport psychology Contemporary themes ( 699

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