Psychology Textbook Chapter 28 Diagnosing Problems, Prescribing Solutions, and Advancing Athlete Burnout Research

Chapter 28 Diagnosing Problems , Prescribing Solutions , and Advancing Athlete Burnout Research Daniel . York St John University , UK Please cite as , 2021 ) Diagnosing problems , prescribing solutions , and advancing athlete burnout research . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International , with the exception of Table This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview Burnout is highly problematic for athletes . It is unsurprising that , like outside of sport , there is growing interest in this area of research . However , while we know a lot about the correlates of athlete burnout , there are few guidelines for how to deal with burnout in practice . In the present chapter , my aim is to diagnose problems that are preventing progress in this regard . In doing so , I have identified nine key problems that I think are the most important issues currently facing athlete burnout research . These include conceptual ( whether burnout is the same as depression ) methodological ( whether is a sufficient means to measure burnout ) and practical problems ( whether current interventions work ) I have also prescribed possible solutions . It is hoped that my proposed solutions can help advance the development of guidelines and , in doing so , aid prevention and intervention of burnout in athletes . For correspondence

Chapter 28 Advancing Athlete Burnout Research Introduction Burnout is a growing public health concern . For example , several organizations and public health bodies including Health Education England ( 2019 ) the ( 2019 ) and the European Union ( 2017 ) have all now formally recognized burnout as a serious problem facing individuals in many . In addition , the World Health Organization recently revised and significantly expanded its description of burnout in the revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases ( World Health Organization , 2018 ) However , all these organizations have highlighted that there are few available guidelines on how to prevent , monitor , and reduce burnout . This is particularly the case in relation to burnout in athletes ( et , 2019 ) It is against this background that , in the present chapter , I have diagnosed problems that continue to hinder progress in this area . I have also prescribed possible solutions to these problems . To aid these discussions , I begin by introducing the concept of burnout and outlining its consequences for athletes . What is Burnout ?

Research on the phenomenon of burnout began in the human services professions in the . The term was coined to describe the process of gradual exhaustion and loss of commitment that had been observed in those working in these . Based on these observations , burnout was defined as a multidimensional psychological syndrome that develops in response to chronic work stress ( Jackson , 1981 ) As a multidimensional syndrome , burnout is characterized by three symptoms , namely , reduced professional efficacy ( feelings of reduced competence and achievement in one work with people ) cynicism ( an unfeeling and impersonal response toward recipients of service , care , treatment , or instruction ) and emotional exhaustion ( feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted at one work et , 1986 ) To reflect differences in the context of sport compared to human services settings , the definition of burnout was for athletes . In this regard , athlete burnout reflects an extreme form of sport disillusionment and is comprised of three symptoms that mirror those in the work domain a reduced sense of athletic accomplishment , devaluation or cynicism directed at sport , and physical and emotional exhaustion ( Smith , 2001 ) Reduced sense of athletic accomplishment is characterized by a negative evaluation of one sporting abilities and achievements . Sport devaluation is the development of a cynical attitude towards sport participation . Finally , physical and emotional exhaustion is characterized by the perceived depletion of emotional and physical resources resulting from training competition . and Smith ( 2001 ) developed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire ( to measure these symptoms in athletes . The consists of 15 items , with five items reflecting a reduced sense of accomplishment , five items reflecting sport devaluation , and five items reflecting physical and emotional exhaustion . Athletes respond to questions in relation to how frequently they are experiencing these symptoms , with higher scores reflecting a greater frequency ( almost never to almost always ) Since its development , many studies have explored the validity and reliability of the . In this regard , there is evidence to support its use with athletes of many ages , competitive levels , and across a large range of individual and team sports ( 2020 ) Consequently , the is currently considered the gold standard manner in which to measure athlete burnout . I have provided example items and the response format in Table . Why is Burnout Important ?

Several studies have explored typical levels of burnout in athletes . These studies have produced various estimates of how common it is for an athlete to experience burnout symptoms . Together , they suggest that approximately 10 of athletes experience burnout symptoms at any 665

particular point in time ( et , 2007 ) In addition , because burnout is considered to gradually develop over time , many more athletes are at risk of developing burnout symptoms throughout an athletic season ( 2006 ) Indeed , there is even evidence to suggest that most professional athletes will experience frequent burnout symptoms sometime in their career ( 2015 ) Many studies have examined the antecedents , correlates , and consequences of burnout in athletes ( see , 2020 et , 2007 et , 2017 , 2018 Smith et , 2019 for reviews ) Research on burnout in athletes has now spanned several decades . The first systematic collation of this research was provided by et al . 2007 ) Across a total of 27 studies , these authors showed that a range of psychological ( coping ) demographic ( age ) and situational factors ( training load ) were all related to burnout . This systematic review was followed by a series of quantitative that focused on specific factors . For example , Li et al . 2013 ) provided a of 18 studies examining motivation , psychological needs , and burnout . Burnout was consistently associated with need thwarting and forms of motivation ( controlled ) Hill and ( 2016 ) showed that , across 19 studies , perfectionism ( a personality trait characterized by excessively high standards and overly critical evaluations of behavior ) predicted more frequent burnout symptoms . Most recently , et al . 2019 ) showed that across 20 studies , social support was negatively associated with burnout , while negative social interactions increased the likelihood of burnout . Aside from the factors that have been summarized in reviews , there is evidence that burnout has many other consequences . For example , not only does burnout reduce performance , but it also diminishes physical and psychological wellbeing ( Smith , 2014 ) Other specific outcomes include an increased risk of depression , more frequent negative emotions ( anxiety ) and heightened fear of failure ( et , 2015 ) Burnout also negatively affects interpersonal relationships , perceived recovery , and reduces the likelihood that athletes enjoy their sport participation ( 2016 ) Perhaps most troubling of all , especially for youth athletes , are the links that have been found between burnout and dropout ( see Larson et , 2019 ) In particular , those who experience very frequent burnout symptoms are likely to leave their sport , and in some instances , never return . 666

Chapter 28 Advancing Athlete Burnout Research Table Symptoms , Example Items , and Adapted Response Format for Determining the Frequency , Intensity , and Duration of Athlete Burnout Frequency Intensity Duration Symptom Athlete report Coach report Almost never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Almost always Very mild Moderate Very strong No time Some time A very long time My athlete does not much in their sport Reduced sense of athletic I am not achieving accomplishment much in my sport I feel less concerned My athlete seems less about being successful concerned about being Sport devaluation in my sport than I used successful in their sport to than they used to I am exhausted by the a appears ex Physical and emotional by the mental . mental and physical exhaustion and physical demands of demands of sport their sport Note . Adapted from et al . 2019 ) First published in The Sport and Exercise Scientist , Issue 61 , Autumn 2019 . Published by the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences 667

Diagnosing Problems , Prescribing Solutions , and Advancing Research The summary of the literature clearly illustrates that burnout is problematic for athletes . It is somewhat surprising , then , that there are few guidelines for how to deal with burnout in practice . In the remainder of the chapter , I have diagnosed nine key problems that I think are preventing progress in this regard . I have also prescribed possible solutions with the aim of advancing research in this area . To aid in this goal , I have grouped my discussion into conceptual , methodological , and practical problems . Conceptual Problems I first discuss problems that pertain to the theoretical basis of burnout . These span ( a ) which theoretical lens is best to understand burnout development , whether burnout is different from depression , whether it is sufficient to measure only the exhaustion dimension of burnout , should emotional exhaustion be differentiated from physical exhaustion , and ( whether burnout is contagious . Which Theoretical Lens is Best to Understand Burnout Development ?

Many theories have been proposed to explain the development of athlete burnout ( see et , 2018 ) This includes , and explanations ( see also , 2006 ) Most research , however , has focused on two specific theories . Smith ( 1986 ) model . This theory posits that burnout develops because of chronic stress . Specifically , when athletes appraise an imbalance between the demands of a situation ( training ) and their resources to cope with these demands , they will experience stress . Over time , a chronic imbalance between perceived demands and resources will result in a range of emotions ( anxiety ) and rigid behavioral responses ( withdrawal ) that comprise the athletes attempt to alleviate the negative experiences associated with chronic stress . This model argues that one such behavioral response is burnout development . and Ryan ( 2002 ) theory ( This theory argues that environmental conditions are fundamental to the progression or attenuation of behavior and health via the satisfaction or thwarting of three basic psychological needs ( autonomy , relatedness , and competence Ryan , assumes that characteristics of the social environment are critical to the level of need satisfaction that individuals experience ( Ryan , 2000 ) As such , athletes who are in particularly controlling environments ( working with an authoritative coach ) will have their needs thwarted , develop less intrinsic motives for participation , and , over time , this will lead to burnout development . For more on , see ( et , 2021 ) Many studies have sought to examine the validity of these theories ( see Smith et , 2019 ) However , empirical tests ( studies ) typically yield some degree of confirmation ( a significant correlation coefficient ) Enough , at least , to keep the theory being tested from being rejected . In burnout research , it is rare to see one theory pitted against another . Thus , despite a large empirical literature , there is still no consensus that one of these models of burnout is more accurate than the other or that certain variables are more influential than others ( stress motivation see , 1993 ) Researchers have yet to engage in the winnowing process that is necessary for scientific progress in this area . To help progress research in this regard , I recommend that researchers increase their focus on the refutation of burnout models . This should include explicit comparative tests of their predictive and explanatory validity ( 1967 ) These approaches will help develop this area of research into a mature scientific discipline . 668

Chapter 28 Advancing Athlete Burnout Research Burnout More than Depression ?

Since the scientific study of burnout as a phenomenon began , researchers have frequently discussed the overlap between burnout and depression ( see , 2016 ) There are certainly some similarities between these concepts . For example , they share similar developmental pathways ( chronic stress ) and manifest similarly in some regards ( negative affect ) Because of these similarities , some researchers have argued that they are not unique constructs but are instead one and the same construct ( see et , 2015 ) a case of the Jangle Fallacy ( that two identical or almost identical things are different because they are labeled differently Marsh 1994 ) This argument clearly has important and implications with one being bringing the entire empirical edifice of burnout research into question . For further discussion of exercise and depression , see Chapter 15 ( Brush , 2021 ) I think that burnout is distinct from depression for two main reasons . The first reason is that they are conceptually distinct . Depression is a pervasive affective disorder ( Beck et , 1998 ) That is , it affects all an individual experiences , no matter what they are doing or where they happen to be . Burnout , however , is context specific ( 2016 ) It manifests in specific domains of life such as sport , education , or work . Burnout may well have effects beyond a specific domain , but these are likely to be indirect , smaller in size , and unlikely to affect all areas of life . For example , individuals experiencing frequent burnout symptoms are still able to derive pleasure from other activities . Those suffering from depression are not ( 2014 ) The second reason is that they are empirically distinct . In sport , there are three studies that have examined the correlation between burnout and depression in athletes ( 856 , 2006 et , 2013 Smith et , 2018 ) On average , across the symptoms of burnout , this correlation is around . Although this is what is classically termed a correlation ( Cohen , 1992 ) these findings suggest that the majority of variance between burnout and unique , rather than shared between the constructs . Interestingly , a relatively similar pattern of relationships is found across the burnout symptoms suggesting that all dimensions are similarly separated from depression . Both conceptually and empirically , burnout from depression . It is therefore appropriate to consider these distinct constructs , and to study them as such . Additional research is , however , required to explore their similarities . As a starting point , this work could examine whether burnout and depression do share similar developmental pathways ( chronic stress ) Is it Sufficient to Measure Exhaustion on its Own ?

Athlete burnout is multidimensional . Nonetheless , there is a growing trend for researchers to examine only the exhaustion component of burnout . There are likely many reasons for doing so . However , it would appear that the main reason for the shift to this approach is based on a recent conceptual debate that has arisen in the broader burnout literature . This debate centers around alternative models of burnout that define burnout simply as exhaustion , or subtly different forms of exhaustion ( Melamed , 2006 ) This is obviously at odds with the definition provided by and colleagues . While there is some evidence to support this notion in sport ( some studies have shown that exhaustion shows the strongest relationships with various outcomes ) this line of theorizing and burnout is problematic . This is for several reasons . First , exhaustion is not always the strongest predictor of outcomes . For example , several reviews attest to the differential predictive ability of burnout dimensions ( Li et , 2013 ) Second , and perhaps more importantly , this line of argument brings into question the discriminant validity of the construct if burnout is exhaustion , then why study burnout at all , why not study exhaustion ?

And so , we end up in a similar place as to where the discussions of the overlap led us . There are inevitably going to be some instances where it is appropriate to examine only the 669 exhaustion dimension of burnout . For example , when researchers are interested in burnout but do not have the time to measure all three dimensions . If this does end up being the case , and only the exhaustion dimension is measured , it is essential that researchers are clear about this when they are reporting their findings ( that they pertain to exhaustion , rather than burnout per se , et , 2016 ) I suggest that researchers wishing to measure burnout as originally defined ( and by and Smith 2001 ) which is in keeping with the broader scientific consensus ( World Health Organisation , 2018 ) measure all three dimensions of burnout wherever possible . This approach will ensure that burnout is measured in a manner consistent with its definition . is it Necessary to Differentiate Physical from Emotional Exhaustion ?

As defined by and Smith ( 2001 ) the exhaustion dimension of burnout comprises both physical and emotional aspects . In this regard , of the that comprise the physical and emotional exhaustion of the , three items focus on exhaustion in general ( I feel overly tired from my sport participation ) one focuses on physical exhaustion ( I feel physically worn out from sport ) and the final item focuses on mental and physical exhaustion ( I am exhausted by the mental and physical demands of sport ) It has been argued that as a consequence , researchers are unable to examine whether the forms of exhaustion ( physical and emotional ) are part of a single construct or if they are separate dimensions ( 2010 see also et , 2018 ) It is currently unclear whether athletes make this distinction , or whether instead they experience a general sense of exhaustion . The notion that burnout shares some overlap with the consequences of physical training ( supports the latter idea ( see et , 2007 ) Indeed , there is a small amount of empirical evidence suggesting training load is associated with athlete burnout ( et , 2007 ) In addition , factor analyses show that the five items of the ( different parts of exhaustion ) load onto a single factor ( rather than two or more ) suggesting that the underlying latent construct of exhaustion is best represented by one factor . Together , these points question whether athletes do differentiate between different forms of exhaustion . It is possible that burnout represents a broad appraisal of ones resources relevant to sport . Future research is required to further substantiate these ideas . Does Burnout Transfer from One Athlete to Another ?

We have a limited understanding as to whether athlete burnout is contagious . That is , whether burnout can pass from one athlete to another ( 2000 ) Research in sport has explored the possibility for athletes to pick up and imitate others emotions ( see , et , 2013 ) and there is evidence that athletes are particular astute at doing so . Aside from this indirect evidence , however , we have little understanding of the potential of a burnout contagion in sport . Following work in other settings , and education in particular , that has found evidence for interpersonal burnout transmission ( Kim , 2021 , 2016 ) studies that look to explore this pathway as a mechanism of burnout development in athletes are warranted . In doing so , researchers should seek to examine the conditions under which this process may be exacerbated . These conditions could include competition failure ( how the stress of losing affects the emotions and stress of players collectively ) and environments ( coach controlling practices ) This line of research will help further understand whether burnout is not just an individual issue , but that other people also have a significant part to play in its development . Methodological Problems In the next section I discuss problems related to methodological , measurement , and analytical factors . These include ( a ) whether is a sufficient means to measure burnout , whether 670

Chapter 28 Advancing Athlete Burnout Research frequency of burnout symptoms could be expanded upon , and ( which designs and analyses are most appropriate for future burnout work . Is Enough ?

Much like many other areas of sport psychology , we rely exclusively on measures . is extremely useful , especially when the construct of interest is a primarily psychological phenomenon , as is the case for burnout . However , there are several issues associated with an reliance on this method of measurement . These issues include a high chance of methodological bias in terms of socially desirable responding some athletes are likely to respond in a manner consistent with how they think they should respond based on perceptions of others ( their coach see , 2002 ) This issue is even more relevant when the same source of report ( athlete ) is used for both dependent and independent variables ( for example , when athletes provide of burnout and its potential consequences ) Here , the risk of common method variance is also inflated . This is when the explained variance is attributable to the measurement method rather than to the constructs that are trying to be measured ( see also et , 2003 ) There are two proposed solutions . First is the development of observational tools for athlete burnout . This would provide a means for those working in sport as the to monitor burnout in their athletes . This could be as simple as altering the referent of the ( see Table for examples ) Exploring the viability of this option should be a priority of athlete burnout research . Second would be an increased emphasis on the measurement of potentially objective antecedents or outcomes of athlete burnout ( see et , 2018 ) In this regard , it would be very interesting to see more research on . So far , three studies have been conducted examining and athlete burnout . These studies have explored salivary A ( a marker of immune function ) cortisol ( a marker of stress ) and voluntary hyperventilation ( a test of lung function ) Unfortunately , all studies have relied on small sample sizes and , have found small , significant effects . The hunt for relevant and objective correlates and consequences of burnout in sport continues ( see et , 2011 ) Is Frequency Enough ?

When and Jackson developed their original measure of burnout , it included frequency ratings and also intensity ratings respondents reported how frequently they were experiencing burnout symptoms , and at what intensity ( how strong from very mild to very strong Jackson , 1981 ) The utility of this approach was demonstrated in several early studies . However , and colleagues subsequently removed the intensity rating arguing there was a degree of redundancy between it and the frequency rating ( see et , 1996 ) In addition , research on other psychological constructs also includes duration ratings for what duration do they experience symptoms ( from no time to a very long time see Arnold et , 2013 ) To date , neither the intensity nor duration rating methods have been employed in athlete burnout research . Why is this important ?

Doing so may allow for further insight and understanding of burnout in sport . In particular , it may allow for more detailed exploration of the temporal dynamics by which burnout develops over time ( do increases in frequency precede increases in intensity , or vice versa ?

It may also provide a means to differentiate those most at risk from the more severe consequences . For example , when athletes burnout experiences are not only frequent but intense and enduring . Likewise , these response formats may prove useful in further the and antecedents of burnout . As such , including intensity and duration formats may be appropriate for athlete burnout . To aid burnout research in this regard , I have provided an example of these response formats in Table . 671

Which Research Designs Should We Use ?

It is ever more commonplace for a review of a psychological construct to lament the lack of longitudinal studies . This is because temporal precedence ( that one thing precedes the other in time ) is a necessary ( but not sufficient ) condition for causal claims . It also allows researchers to test the direction of effects across time ( including reciprocal effects between multiple constructs ) There is indeed a growing tendency towards the use of longitudinal designs in the field of sport psychology as a whole , and this is also the case for research on athlete burnout . In fact , with over 25 longitudinal studies , athlete burnout research is leading the way . These studies have explored a range of antecedents ( perfectionism et , 2015 ) and outcomes ( motivation , 2005 ) and provided us with important information about burnout development and consequences . I am not calling for a change in increasing use of longitudinal designs is very I do have some comments regarding the ways in which such data are analyzed . Longitudinal studies will have a nested data structure ( time points nested in individuals ) and so the analyses must take this into account . Much longitudinal work in this area has , however , relied on lagged panel models , which do not do so ( et , 2015 ) Techniques that allow for a multilevel disaggregation of effects ( intercept and slope ) are necessary ( see also Preacher , 2009 ) Thus , future studies are encouraged to use multilevel models to consider how burnout changes over time , and how its antecedents or consequences do too ( see et , 2020 et , 2017 ) Practical Problems In the final section of the chapter , I focus on the main problem . This is how can we , as researchers , coaches , parents , and athletes , intervene to prevent and reduce burnout symptoms . How Do We Intervene ?

This is perhaps the most important , and yet most problematic issue . Important because of the numerous negative consequences of burnout , and problematic because so few interventions to reduce burnout symptoms have been tested using athlete samples . In fact , my search of the literature returned only three studies . Of these , two are observational studies that focused on student athletes and one is a randomized controlled trial focused on Gaelic football players . These studies are summarized in Table . The earliest study adopted an observational design and examined the effectiveness of a intervention in a small sample of athletes from various sports ( 2015 ) The intervention was informed by the Resonance Performance Model . This is a framework that is used to help individuals learn how to regulate how they feel , think , and behave to achieve congruency between their self and their environment ( 2008 ) The intervention employed athlete and researcher discussions about topics such as perceived demands , resources , behavioral and emotional responses , preferred standards ( how they wanted to feel ) goals , preparation and coping strategies , and performance outcomes . Following biweekly sessions , reductions in both exhaustion and reduced sense of accomplishment were found . More recently , et al . 2019 ) also adopting an observational design , explored the efficacy of a intervention . Gratitude is defined as acknowledging a benefit received from someone else , or recognizing the value of a general benefit to one life ( Lambert et , 2009 ) The intervention consisted of a workshop where gratitude was defined , participants reflected on what they were grateful for , and why they were grateful for it , and reflected on what meaning this brought to their life . following this single workshop , reductions in athletes total burnout were found . 672

Chapter 28 Advancing Athlete Burnout Research As noted , the study by and colleagues , and that of and Bush ( 2015 ) were observational in design . Such designs are limited , however , because it is extremely difficult to determine whether changes in burnout are causally related to the intervention . In this regard , the final study ( et , 2015 ) may provide stronger evidence for causality because it adopted a randomized controlled design . Specifically , the unit of randomization were the coaches ( and their athletes ) which is known as a cluster randomized design . and colleagues based their intervention on . In this regard , they trained coaches to adopt strategies designed to increase their provision of need support and reduce their use of a controlling interpersonal style ( Reeve , 2009 ) In terms of need supportive behaviours , these included explanatory , informational noncontrolling language , displaying patience and allowing time for learning . Following six training sessions in the experimental group , no changes in burnout were found , but increases in burnout were found in the control group . This finding suggests that the intervention may have attenuated any potential increases in burnout over the study period . The findings in this area can be best described as preliminary , especially considering that two of the three studies did not include a control group . This being said , the evidence is promising given that all three studies reported beneficial effects to some degree . Luckily , in addition to the small amount of evidence in sport , there is an abundance of intervention studies in other ( West et , 2016 ) This includes studies in healthcare ( physicians , nurses ) and also education ( teachers , students ) While these may reflect different experiences and environments than in sport , these studies can be used as a basis from which to help us intervene with athletes . I have recently made some suggestions in this regard ( et , 2019 ) This evidence suggests that the following strategies may be particularly useful . therapies are effective in reducing burnout in other , and are effective for other disorders in sport , so it is likely they will also be useful for athlete burnout ( see et , 2017 ) In this regard , developments from what is known as the third wave of cognitive behavioral therapy including mindfulness and acceptance have great potential . Mindfulness relates to the ability to stay attuned to the present , rather than ruminating about the past or worrying about the future and has a growing body of evidence supporting its use in relation to reducing stress and burnout ( et , 2020 ) Furthermore , rational emotive behavior therapies are gaining traction in sport psychology ( see Turner , 2016 ) and are useful based on evidence in other . Such approaches seek to identify , challenge , and restructure irrational beliefs that are believed to underpin a negative pattern of behavior . Therefore , challenging irrational beliefs that may underpin burnout development ( need for perfection ) may also be worthwhile in sport . Taken together , these studies provide an excellent starting point from which to develop and test interventions for athlete burnout . 673

Table Studies Examining Interventions to Reduce Burnout in Athletes Study Con Sport Burnout Design Mode of Duration Intervention Main Findings measure delivery Hockey ( and significantly swimming ( design individual biweekly intervention reduced over the fencing ( athlete sessions intervention period . 2015 ) and basketball ( et al . 51 Wrestlers ( 27 ) Total burnout ( 2019 ) and swimmers ( design group workshop based significantly reduced 24 ) athlete intervention at weeks post intervention . et al . coaches , coaches , Gaelic football ( Cluster , sessions , Burnout ( total and all ( 2015 ) 41 46 87 ) randomized individual intervention dimensions ) increased athletes athletes control trial coach minutes in control group but did not change in experimental group . Note . Athlete Burnout Questionnaire . exhaustion . Reduced sense of accomplishment . Theory . experimental . Con Control . 674

Chapter 28 Advancing Athlete Burnout Research Conclusion Commensurate with the increasing interest in burnout in relation to public health , a growing body of work is examining burnout in athletes . We have begun to make significant progress in our understanding of the correlates and consequences of athlete burnout . My comments presented in this chapter are aimed to help advance our overall ability to protect athletes from this syndrome . In summarizing my thoughts , a focus on conceptual , methodological , and practical problems is integral to progressing the scientific study of athlete burnout . I hope that my prescribed solutions not only stimulate academic debate , but also provide impetus for better research that can be used to develop guidelines to protect athletes from burnout and its consequences . Learning Exercises What are the symptoms of athlete burnout ?

What are the consequences of burnout for athletes ?

In what ways does burnout differ from depression ?

What are the problems with burnout symptoms ?

What strategies are currently available to reduce burnout in athletes ?

Further Reading , 2020 ) Athlete burnout . In , Handbook psychology ( New York John Wiley Sons . 2017 ) Athlete burnout Review and recommendations . Current Opinion in Psychology , 16 , Smith , Hill , 2019 ) The BASES expert statement on burnout in sport . The Sport and Exercise Scientist , 61 , Smith , 2001 ) Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 23 , Smith , 2019 ) Athlete burnout in competitive sport . In Horn , Smith ( Advances in sport and exercise psychology ( Human Kinetics . 675

References , 2016 ) Examining the interactive effects of empowering and climate dimensions on athletes health and functioning . Psychology and Exercise , 26 , Arnold , Fletcher , Daniels , 2013 ) Development and validation of the organizational stressor indicator for sport performers ( Journal and Exercise Psychology , 35 , A . 2000 ) Burnout contagion processes among teachers . Journal Social Psychology , 30 , Beck , Beck , 1998 ) Depression . Clinics in Geriatric Medicine , 14 , Laurent , 2015 ) overlap A review . Clinical Psychology Review , 36 , Brush , 2021 ) Exercise and physical activity for depression . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . 2008 ) A group resonance intervention with a volleyball team An exploration of the process between a consultant , coach , and athletes . Athletic Insight , 10 . Cohen , 1992 ) A power primer . Psychological Bulletin , 112 , 155 . Changes in athlete burnout and motivation over a league tournament . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 37 , 2006 ) Changes in athlete burnout over a rugby year . Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport , van Veen , 2011 ) in burnout a systematic review . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 70 , Ryan , 2002 ) Overview of theory An organismic dialectical perspective . Handbook of research , Smith , 2014 ) Athlete social support , negative social interactions , and psychological health across a competitive sport season . Journal and Exercise Psychology , 36 , 2015 ) Moving to action the effects of a intervention on the stress , burnout , and capacity levels of university . Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology , 2015 ) Athlete burnout What we know , what we could know , and how we can find out more . International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences , 27 , 2020 ) Athlete burnout . In , Handbook psychology ( John Wiley Sons . European Union ( 2017 ) Mental health in the workplace in Europe . en . pi , Lane , Devonport , Stanley , 2013 ) Emotion in sport Considering interpersonal regulation strategies . International Review and Exercise Psychology , Wong , Chung , 2019 ) Attitude of gratitude Exploring the implementation of a gratitude intervention with college athletes . Journal Sport Psychology , 31 , 676

Chapter 28 Advancing Athlete Burnout Research , Best , Brand , 2018 ) and longitudinal associations between athlete burnout , insomnia and indices in young elite athletes . Journal of Sport Exercise Psychology , 40 , Brand , 2018 ) Usefulness of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire ( as a screening tool for the detection of clinically relevant burnout symptoms among young elite athletes . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 39 , 2007 ) Burnout in sport A systematic review . The Sport Psychologist , 21 , 2017 ) Athlete burnout Review and recommendations . Current Opinion in Psychology , 16 , 2007 ) Prevalence of burnout in competitive adolescent athletes . The Sport Psychologist , 21 , 2018 ) Burnout in athletes . In ( und sport . Springer . Davis , 2015 ) Mindfulness and its relationship with perceived stress , affect , and burnout in elite junior athletes . Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology , 2015 ) A critique of the panel model . Psychological Methods , 20 , in press ) Dimensions over categories a of research . Psychological Medicine , Health Education England . 2019 ) staff and learners mental wellbeing report 20 ( HEE ) ing , Cece , A . 2018 ) Development and evaluation of the psychometric properties of a new measure of athlete burnout The Athlete Burnout Scale . Management , 25 , 2016 ) Exhaustion experiences in junior athletes The importance of motivation and . Frontiers in Psychology , 1867 . Lambert , Graham , 2009 ) A prototype analysis of gratitude Varieties of gratitude experiences . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 35 , Toner , Blake , 2015 ) Testing the effects of a based intervention with youth Gaelic football coaches on athlete motivation and burnout . The Sport Psychologist , 29 , Roberts , 2007 ) Motivation , and burnout Can motivation predict and burnout in elite athletes ?

European Journal Science , Li , Wang , Kee , 2013 ) Burnout and its relations with basic psychological needs and motivation among athletes A systematic review and . Psychology and Exercise , 14 , Smith , Hill , 2019 ) The BASES expert statement on burnout in sport . The Sport and Exercise Scientist , 61 , Kim , 2021 ) Does teacher burnout affect students ?

A systematic review of its association with academic achievement and outcomes . International Journal of Educational Research , 105 , 101714 . 677 , 2020 ) Coping tendencies and changes in athlete burnout over time . Psychology and Exercise , 48 , 101666 . 2015 ) Perfectionism and burnout in junior athletes A month longitudinal study . Journal Exercise Psychology , 37 , Motivation the relationship A longitudinal study with junior athletes . Journal and Exercise Psychology , 38 , Perfectionism and changes in athlete burnout over three months Interactive effects of personal standards and evaluative concerns perfectionism . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 26 , Marsh , 1994 ) Sport motivation Beware fallacies . Journal Exercise , Jackson , 1981 ) The measurement of experienced of Organizational Behavior , Jackson , 1986 ) burnout inventory ( Vol . 21 , Consulting psychologists press . 2016 ) Understanding the burnout experience recent research and its implications for psychiatry . World Psychiatry , 15 , 1967 ) in psychology and physics A methodological paradox . Philosophy of Science , 34 , National Health Service . 2019 ) Interim people plan . A . 2016 ) Stress contagion in the classroom ?

The link between classroom teacher burnout and morning cortisol in elementary school students . Social Science Medicine , 159 , Smith , 2019 ) A review of the relationship between social constructs and athlete burnout . Psychology and Exercise , 43 , 2002 ) Socially desirable responding The evolution of a construct . In Braun , Jackson , Wiley ( The role of constructs in psychological and educational measurement ( A . 2014 ) Depression , stress , and anhedonia Toward a synthesis and integrated model . Annual Review of Clinical Psychology , 10 , MacKenzie , Lee , 2003 ) Common method biases in behavioral research A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies . Journal of Applied Psychology , 879 . De Francisco , 2013 ) The construct validity of the Spanish version of the using a approach . de , 29 , Smith , 2001 ) Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 23 , Reeve , 2009 ) Why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style toward students and how they can become more autonomy supportive . Educational Psychologist , 44 , 2013 ) Introduction to the method A . Ryan , 2000 ) theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation , social development , and . American Psychologist , 55 , 68 . Ryan , 2017 ) theory Basic psychological needs in motivation , development , and wellness . Publications . 678

Chapter 28 Advancing Athlete Burnout Research , A . A . 2001 ) On the clinical validity of the Burnout Inventory and the Burnout Measure . Psychology Health , 16 , Van , 1995 ) A cautionary note about the and clinical validity of points for the Burnout Inventory . Psychological Reports , 76 , Preacher , 2009 ) Mediation models for longitudinal data in developmental research . Research in Human Development , Melamed , 2006 ) A comparison ofthe construct validity of two burnout measures in two groups of professionals . International Journal Management , 13 , 176 . Silva , 1990 ) An analysis of the training stress syndrome in competitive athletics . Journal Sport Psychology , Smith , Hill , Hall , 2018 ) Perfectionism , burnout , and depression in youth soccer players A longitudinal study . Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology , 12 , Smith , 2019 ) Athlete burnout in competitive sport . In Horn , Smith ( Advances in sport and exercise psychology ( Human Kinetics . 2017 ) The only constant is change Analysing and understanding change in sport and exercise psychology research . International Review and Exercise Psychology , 10 , La , De La , 2020 ) The effect of mindfulness training on burnout syndrome in nursing A systematic review and . Journal Nursing , 76 , Turner , 2016 ) Rational emotive behavior therapy ( irrational and rational beliefs , and the mental health of athletes . Frontiers in Psychology , 1423 . 2010 ) Exploring the of in dancers A test of basic needs theory . Journal and Exercise Psychology , 32 , 2021 ) Promoting determined motivation for physical activity From theory to intervention work . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . 1993 ) Testing four competing theories of behavior . Health Psychology , 12 , 324 . West , Erwin , 2016 ) Interventions to prevent and reduce physician burnout A systematic review and . The Lancet , 388 , World Health organization . 2018 ) Disease prevention , including early detection of illness . Geneva World Health Organization . World Health Organization . 2018 ) International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics ( Revision ) en ( accessed June 2020 ) 679