Psychology Textbook Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams Stewart and University College , UK , Belgium Please cite as , 2021 ) Leadership development in sports teams . In Jones ( Essentials and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview In team environments the need for , and provision of leadership is a crucial factor impacting upon multiple outcomes for both teams and individuals . However , historically leadership in team sports has often developed in an and unstructured way . This chapter will explore the concept of leadership , particularly within the context of sports teams . Specifically exploring coach leadership , athlete leadership , and leadership development of both coaches and athletes . For correspondence

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams Introduction Leadership is a core part of sport , particularly as it relates to the effectiveness of teams within sport environments ( 2016 ) The notion of leadership has been explored in detail across a wide range of environments , both within and outside of sport , which in turn has led to the development of numerous of leadership . Leadership has been defined and described in a variety of ways depending on the context in which it was . For example , in considering the context of management , Barrow ( 1977 ) defined leadership as the behavioral process of influencing individuals and groups toward set goals ( 232 ) An alternative view was adopted by Gray ( 2004 ) who described leadership as knowing what should be done , and influencing others to cooperate in doing it ( 76 ) In addition to these two definitions , leadership has also been described by and Van Fleet ( 1992 ) to be A process that includes influencing the task objectives and strategies of a group or organization , influencing the people in the organization to implement the strategies , and achieve the objectives , influencing group maintenance and identification , and influencing the culture of the organization ( 149 ) In recent years the leadership that exists as part of sport teams has emerged as an important area of focus ( Day , 2012 ) Increasingly , team leadership has been highlighted to be a distinct form of organizational leadership ( et , 2016 ) Photo by Francesco Pa from 589

Coach Leadership Coaches in sport have traditionally been seen as either occupying a leadership role a leadership role . In considering coaches as leaders , and ( 1998 ) defined coach leadership to be a behavioral process that is used to increase athlete performance and satisfaction ( 228 ) Building upon this initial conceptualization , et al . 2010 ) further suggested that coach leadership is a process of influence that is dependent upon and constituted by the interpersonal relationship between coach and athlete ( 431 ) et al . 2010 ) also suggested the following key aspects to coach leadership ( a ) The relationship does not directly affect athlete outcomes , but rather acts as a mediating variable between coach behavior and athlete outcomes , coach leadership behaviors are used to bring about the athlete outcomes of competence , confidence , connection , and character , coach leadership behaviors are determined by the coaching context , the coach personal characteristics , and athlete characteristics . Models of Coach Leadership In an attempt to understand the mechanisms underpinning coach leadership , a number of models and theories have either been applied from other domains or developed specifically within a sporting context . These include ( a ) trait and behavioral approaches , the model of leadership , the multidimensional model of leadership , relationships , authentic leadership , and ( transformational leadership approaches . Trait and Behavioral Approaches Simply put , trait and behavioral approaches suggest that the traits and characteristics individuals have predispose them to be effective or ineffective leaders in specific . Four main trait and behavioral approaches to the study of leadership were highlighted by et al . 2005 ) in a sporting context . approach approach . approach In the approach the most successful leaders are scrutinized to understand the personality traits they possess that make them effective and successful leaders ( for more discussion on personality and physical activity , see Chapter Wilson Rhodes , 2021 ) Under this line of thinking , if you identify the desired personality traits you could then be able to select the individuals with the right traits for future leadership positions . This approach , though , has been largely dismissed as being too simplistic since a single set of key personality traits could not be found and because it fails to account for the broad range of people who are successful in leadership roles ( 2012 ) Building upon some of these initial limitations , the approach seeks to understand the traits possessed and also the characteristics of the specific situation or context . This approach works on the assumption that some personality types will be more effective in some situations than others , as proposed in ( 1967 ) contingency theory of leadership . Examples of the sorts of traits that have been historically linked to successful leadership include confidence , decision making , delegation , creativity , and authority ( 2012 ) This view that leaders are born to be effective in certain situations also suggests that the same leaders might be less effective in other . In contrast to the trait approaches , the behavioral approach suggests that individuals are not born as leaders or followers , but that leadership can be developed like other skills . The 590

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams behavior approach seeks to understand how leaders behave and how this makes them successful or effective as leaders . Four main styles have emerged from this approach ( 2012 ) Concern for task focusing on achieving specific objectives Concern for people seeking to understand the people they lead . Directive leadership making decisions for others Participative leadership sharing decisions with others In the approach , the focus is on understanding what leadership behaviors and approaches are successful in specific situations . Examples of positive leadership behaviors include leading by example , communicating effectively , asking for feedback , treating everyone fairly , listening , and acting consistently ( 2012 ) Although these behavioral approaches have merit , they do fail to consider the need for authentic leadership ( the idea that leaders should embody their true selves in their leadership role ) instead of adopting a set of general leadership behaviors that have been suggested to be effective . The Model of Leadership A number of leadership theories have sought to build upon these earlier trait and behavioral approaches , embedding a range of important factors , including both leadership behaviors and perceptions . One example of this is the model of leadership suggested by Smith et al . 1977 ) The core components of this model are coach behaviors , both athletes perceptions of and recall of these behaviors , and athletes evaluative reactions to the coach . One of the core principles of this model is that both perceptions and memories ( the mediators ) are just as important as the actual demonstrated coach behaviors in determining athletes evaluative reactions to the coach . In this model , coach behaviors are believed to be influenced by the uniqueness of the coach ( individual differences ) including factors such as coaching goals , intentions , perception of coaching norms , role conception , perception of athlete motives , and gender ( Smith , 1989 ) Athlete perceptions and recall , on the other hand , are influenced by athletes individual differences , such as age , gender , perception of coaching norms , achievement motives , competitive trait anxiety , general , and athletic ( Smith , 1989 ) Finally , all core components of the coach behaviors , athletes perceptions and recall , and athletes influenced by situational factors , such as the nature of the sport , level of competition , setting ( practice or game ) previous successes and failures , current outcomes , and attraction ( Smith et , 1977 ) The model offers insight into how mental performance consultants might improve leadership outcomes by either modifying coach behaviors or shaping athletes perceptions or recall abilities ( 2012 ) If one is looking to modify coach behaviors , an effective approach would be to work on optimizing the coaches goals and motives and associated behavioral intentions . If the focus is on changing athlete perceptions , then one would focus on understanding athletes perceptions of coaching behaviors , and more specifically , expected coaching goals , intentions , norms , and roles within the team and broader sport . The Multidimensional Model of Leadership The multidimensional model developed by ( 1978 ) seeks to build upon all of the previously mentioned theories , integrates the core aspects of the trait , behavioral , and approaches into a comprehensive model that seeks to outline a comprehensive range of factors that influence coach leadership behavior . A central tenet of the model is the congruence between three categories of leadership behaviors required , actual , and preferred behaviors . According to , whether the leadership approach is adopted ( and how well it is received ) in a given situation is determined by a range of specific situational factors , the preferred behaviors of the group , and the 591

preferences of the leader . The actual leadership behavior is a function of the characteristics of the leader , the behaviors required by the situation or composition of the team , and the behavior preferences of the athletes , To illustrate the impact of preferred behaviors , previous studies on leadership suggested that when coaches leadership style is not aligned with athletes preferred style , the performance of athletes may develop , but their level of satisfaction may decrease ( 2012 ) In 2007 , further adapted the model to include the concept of transformational leadership . This concept was included as felt that coaches served to transform relatively unaccomplished novices into expert performers . As such , it could be argued that successful coaches exhibited transformational leadership ( covered later in this chapter ) Authentic Leadership In recent years the concept of authentic leadership has gained increased traction within literature . This approach to leadership was originally developed building upon reflections about the unethical ways that transformational leaders can manipulate their followers ( Gardner et , 2011 ) Authentic leadership has been defined in the literature to be A pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate , to foster greater , internalized moral perspective , balanced processing of information , and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers , fostering positive ( et , 2008 , 90 ) It has been argued that while transformational approaches outline what to do in order to facilitate change , they do not really focus on personal growth for either the leader or the follower . Furthermore , while transformational leadership requires authenticity as part of the characteristics of being visionary and of high moral character , the distinction between the two lies in the authentic leaders faith in their own deep sense of and beliefs ( 2016 ) In contrast , an authentic leader leads with purpose , gives more consideration to contextual and organizational factors that influence the effectiveness of leadership , and ensures the psychological of followers ( 2014 ) In addition , authentic leadership is not only limited to the authenticity of the leader , but also includes the quality of the relationships . Central to the development ofthese relationships are the concepts of integrity , respectability and trustworthiness ( 2013 ) Recent published research has highlighted that coaches who are viewed to be authentic create transparent relationships with their athletes ( 2018 ) These positive relationships serve to then raise levels of follower commitment , motivation , and positive emotion , and they can also facilitate positive follower behaviors such as active engagement and independent critical thinking ( 2016 ) In a recent study , and ( 2018 ) also highlighted that coaches who are viewed to be authentic are perceived as being trustworthy and fostering autonomy in athletes who , as a result , reported greater enjoyment and higher commitment . Transformational Leadership A revised version of the multidimensional model ( 2007 ) incorporated the concept of transformational leadership , in which the leader transforms the aspirations and attitudes of group members and subordinate leaders ( assistant coaches , team captains ) by creating and articulating a new mission for the group . This extension to the model suggests that leadership can help to change the expectations ofthe group regarding the leadership requirements of a specific situation . 592

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams The transformational model of leadership has been applied to the sports coaching context with positive results ( et , 2010 ) and has seen increased application to sporting environments in recent years ( Arthur et , 2017 ) Transformational leadership has been described as the process of influencing major changes in the attitudes and assumptions of organization members ( organization culture ) and building commitment for major changes in the organization objectives and strategies ( 1989 , 174 ) More simply , it is a course of action in which both leaders and participants engage in a mutual ongoing process of raising one another to higher levels of motivation , moral reasoning , and ( et , 2001 ) Research exploring the leadership approaches of 132 business managers suggested that individuals scoring in the highest group of on the Multi Factor Leadership Questionnaire ( exhibited more transformational leadership behaviors than leaders scoring in the lowest group ( Turner et , 2002 ) Four specific leader behaviors have been associated with transformational leadership ( et , 2007 ) a ) Idealized influence , inspirational motivation , intellectual stimulation , and ( individualized consideration . A number of studies have reported links between these four behaviors and key group factors including team members values , team needs , team awareness , and ultimately team performance ( Bass , Idealized influence is a behavior through which leaders seek to instill pride in the group members , set a good example , and earn the respect of the group . Inspirational motivation refers to a behavior that leaders adopt to motivate and inspire those around them by developing a collective purpose and shared vision . Enthusiasm and optimism are displayed as athletes are engaged in helping leaders create an exciting and attractive future . Intellectual stimulation occurs when leaders are creative and innovative with group members through questioning assumptions , problems , and encouraging creativity in one another . One outcome of this process is the enhancement of each person knowledge and abilities . Finally , individualized consideration guides the behavior of leaders in growing future leaders by paying attention to each individual needs for achievement and growth . Leaders serve as supporters , mentors , and coaches for participants , thereby increasing these individuals potential for development and increased competence . In sport , one example of the application of transformational leadership is captured in et ( phenomenological study of 11 female team sport athletes . The athletes highlighted transformational approaches adopted by coaches , including caring , motivating , teaching life lessons , and trusting . This example suggests that coaches who wish to adopt a transformational approach should seek to focus on interpersonal skills , including how to both motivate and care for their athletes , with a focus on them as people and not just sporting outcomes . Relationships Coach leadership requires engagement with athletes and as a result , the quality of the relationships that exist between the coach and their athletes is crucial in underpinning how effective the coach can be as a leader . Crucial to this is the development of and interpersonal knowledge . knowledge includes and reflection , both of which have been shown to influence the development of coaching and leadership ( et , 2010 ) In contrast , interpersonal knowledge is the awareness of others in relation to oneself . The importance of these forms of knowledge and associated interpersonal skills can not be overstated , and , as such , should form a core component of understanding and assessing effective leadership . relationship are built upon the view that both leadership and coaching are social processes that are constituted and maintained by reciprocal , interpersonal relationships . The relationship has been by ( 2006 ) in relation to four interpersonal constructs closeness , commitment , and . Closeness is reflected in mutual feelings of trust and respect that result from appraisals of coaches and athletes 593

relationship experiences . Commitment is represented in coaches and athletes orientation toward the relationship . This orientation includes thoughts of attachment and the intention to maintain the athletic relationship . is reflected in coaches and athletes actions of cooperation . includes reciprocal behavior whereby , for example , the coach instructs while the athlete follows instructions . The corresponding behavior would then be when the coach and the athlete manifest a friendly attitude toward one another and communicate effectively during training sessions ( 2007 ) and ( 2003 ) presented a motivational framework that outlined core aspects of the coach that can affect both the quality of and perception of the relationship . These factors include the coach personal orientation , the coaching context , and the coach perceptions of the behavior and motivation , all of which influence the coach behavior ( the degree to which the coach empowers the athlete to be autonomous ) The core importance of supporting athlete autonomy in this model relates to the premise that behaviors have a beneficial impact on athletes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation , which are important of performance and persistence ( for more on autonomy , intrinsic motivation , and extrinsic motivation , see Chapter et , 2021 ) Assessing and Coach Leadership in Sport In seeking to assess , compare , and contrast coach leadership , a number of specific measures have been developed including the Leadership Scale for Sports ( 1980 ) and the Leadership Questionnaire ( Bass , 1995 ) Leadership Scale for Sports The Leadership Scale for Sports ( developed by and ( 1980 ) is based upon the multidimensional model of leadership ( 1978 ) The scale is composed of 40 items , representing five dimensions of leader behavior ( 2012 ) a ) training and instruction , democratic behavior , autocratic behavior , social support , and ( positive feedback and rewarding behavior . Training and instruction refer to the development of athletic performance through the use of technical skill , tactical , and team culture development . Democratic behavior reflects the degree to which the individual involves athletes in the team process . Autocratic behavior scores reflect the degree to which the coach acts as an independent and acts in an autocratic manner . The social support dimension reflects the degree to which the coach demonstrates care , concern , and the provision of support to athletes . Positive feedback and rewarding behavior refer to the extent to which the coach rewards positive or desirable athlete behavior . The scale is assessed using a scale ( always , often , occasionally , seldom , never ) One interesting feature of the measure is that it can be used to better understand the leadership preferences of both athletes and coaches and can identify the existence of differences between the two . One study to utilize the was conducted by and Hardy ( 2005 ) who used the to compare the leadership behaviors both of coaches and athlete leaders . Their results suggested some differences between coaches and athlete leaders . First , that the coaches were more likely to score higher on the training and instruction , and autocratic behavior dimensions . In addition , the athlete leaders recorded higher scores on the social support , positive feedback , and democratic behavior dimensions when compared to the coaches . These findings highlight that not all of the leadership needs of a team are met by coaches . As a result , mental performance consultants should look to develop a holistic view of the leadership needs of a team and how these needs can be met ( see Chapter 20 for more discussion on mental skills training or psychological skills training et , 2021 ) 594

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams Leadership Questionnaire ( The second tool developed to assess leadership behavior is the Leadership Questionnaire ( Bass , 1995 ) Similar to the , the assesses leadership styles including passive leadership , transactional leadership , and transformational leadership . A number of studies have been conducted using the in a sporting setting , For example , and ( 2010 ) in their study of leadership in youth sport athletes , reported that the individualized consideration ( the leader differentiates among us ) and inspirational motivation ( the leader expresses confidence ) dimensions of the transformational leadership scale were most decisive in determining the effectiveness of youth sports leaders . In a study of female adolescent soccer players , Price and Weiss ( 2013 ) asked participants to fill out the for both the coach and the athlete leader in the team . The results suggested that the transformational leadership behaviors of both coaches and athlete leaders were positively related to perceived competence , intrinsic motivation , enjoyment , team cohesion , and confidence . Interestingly , it was also reported that athlete leadership behaviors were overshadowed by the coach for individual outcomes ( such as enjoyment ) but were equal for team outcomes ( such as collective efficacy ) Athlete Leadership Although there has been significant focus on coach leadership in the last 40 years , it has only been recently that the concept of leadership within teams and groups of athletes , termed athlete leadership , has started to receive significant attention . An athlete leader has been defined as an athlete , occupying a formal or informal role within a team , who influences a group of team members to achieve a common goal ( et , 2006 , 144 ) Building upon previous research , et , 2014 ) developed a athlete leadership categorization system . This system includes two leadership roles on the field the task leader , who provides tactical instructions to their teammates , and the motivational leader , who motivates their teammates on the field . The categorization system also includes two leadership roles off the field the social leader , who fosters a good team atmosphere off the field , and the external leader , who handles the communication with club management , media , and sponsors . and colleagues ( 2014 ) emphasized the relevance of this leadership classification by demonstrating that effective fulfillment of the four leadership roles within a team resulted in higher team confidence , stronger team identification , and better team performance outcomes ( ranking ) There has also been an increased focus on different types of athlete leaders as characterized by how formal their leadership position is . Some leadership is provided by formally appointed leaders such as captains , while at the same time , unappointed teammates can also provide peer leadership for their teams ( Hardy , 2005 ) As a result , a second approach to categorizing athlete leadership has been to explore the formal versus informal nature of leadership ( Eys , 2012 ) Formal leadership roles are those that are prescribed or awarded ( captains and vice captains ) Informal leadership roles are those that emerge within the team as a result of interactions between teammates and the demands of the task ( 2012 ) These informal leaders often act as the cultural architects for the team . Cultural architects are leaders who possess the ability to change the mindset of others ( 1986 ) In sports teams , cultural architects are often more senior and vocal individuals who are respected by the rest of the team and thus play a prominent role in the development and maintenance of dominant team culture . Informal leaders can both help and hinder the work of formal leaders ( 2017 ) When informal leaders views complement the views of the formal leaders , they reinforce core messages , further enhancing the focused nature of the team environment . However , when informal leaders views conflict with those of the formal leaders , this can result in a lack of clarity within the 595

team , resistance to the proposed approach , and broader conflict within the team . The same can be true for formal leaders . For example , when behaving in a negative way ( behavior ) formal leaders can also have a negative impact on the team motivation and performance ( Van et , 2015 , et , 2018 ) behaviors include providing negative feedback and displaying a lack of confidence in the ability of individuals and the team . and colleagues ( 2014 ) emphasized the importance of informal leaders , reporting that in a study of participants across nine team sports , the team captain in almost half ( 44 ) of the teams was not perceived as best leader in relation to any of the four leadership roles . In addition , a study using a network approach to leadership tempered these findings by demonstrating that leadership is shared within sport teams . In half of the teams observed , the team captain was perceived as the best leader in general . In the other half ofthese teams , the informal leaders , rather than the team captain , were perceived as the real leaders ( Van , et , 2015 ) With regard to the specific leadership roles , findings demonstrated that in the majority of the teams , the captains were perceived as best task and external leaders . However , in the motivational and the social leadership role domains , informal leaders were largely perceived as the best leaders . Ultimately , leadership is shared within teams . The coach , team captain , and informal athlete leaders all pursue different leadership roles . Finally , it is important to note that the specific formal role of , and the importance assigned to , the captain can vary significantly from sport to sport , and across levels of performance ( 2015 ) Characteristics of Athlete Leaders Initial research focused on athlete leaders characteristics explored a number of descriptive and observable aspects of leader behavior that athlete leaders are more highly skilled than their teammates ( Glenn Horn , 1993 Moran Weiss , 2006 Price Weiss , 2011 et , 1983 ) are more likely to be starters ( Gill Perry , 1979 et , 2006 ) have more experience ( Gill Perry , 1979 et , 1983 ) and have more playing time ( Van , et , 2015 ) A number of research studies have sought to understand the behaviors , traits and skills of effective athlete leaders . For example , 1991 ) reported that athlete leaders demonstrated higher levels of dominance , ambition , competitiveness , and responsibility compared to players who were not perceived as leaders . In a more recent study , Moran and Weiss ( 2006 ) suggested that athlete leaders could be viewed in terms of both instrumental traits ( including being independent , energetic , and expressiveness traits ( including being emotional , gentle , kind , warm in interactions with others ) It has also been reported that effective athlete leaders need good interpersonal skills ( Holmes et , 2010 ) have the ability to develop effective relationships with other team members ( Van , et , 2015 ) and crucially need to be trusted and respected their teammates ( et , 2012 et , 2006 ) Furthermore , Callow et al . 2009 ) identified transformational leadership behaviors that are important for athlete leaders , such as individual consideration ( showing respect for followers and concern for their personal feelings and needs ) inspirational motivation ( developing , articulating , and inspiring others with their vision for the future ) and intellectual stimulation ( challenging followers to reexamine their assumptions about their work and reconsider how it can be performed ) These leaders also foster acceptance of group goals , have high performance expectations , use appropriate role modelling of behaviors that are consistent with values that the leaders espouse , and provide positive reinforcement in return for appropriate follower behavior and performance . A more modern approach to peer leadership in sport is the social identity approach ( et , 2011 ) This perspective asserts that in order to mobilize athletes efforts and to be successful as a peer leader , leaders need to be seen as one of us ( be identity prototypes ) craft a sense of us ( be identity entrepreneurs ) do it for us ( be identity champions ) and embed a sense of us ( be identity 596

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams et , 2014 ) Research has highlighted that when coaches and athlete leaders succeed in building a united feeling of we and us , team identity will , in turn , foster athletes motivation and outcomes ( et , 2015 et , 2016 et , 2015 Slater et , 2015 Slater et , 2018 ) Assessing Athlete Leadership A number of assessment tools and been developed that have been used to assess athlete leadership quality including the Player Leadership Scale ( 1993 ) the Identity Leadership Inventory ( et , 2014 ) and Social Network Analysis ( Faust , 1994 ) The Player Leadership Scale distinguished between instrumental and task leadership behaviors ( helps to set goals for the team ) as well as expressive and social leadership behaviors ( helps to settle conflicts among team members ) Research with interscholastic demonstrated that male generally perceived task leadership behaviors as significantly more important for athlete leaders than did female , who showed no favoritism between task and social leadership behaviors ( Todd Kent , 2004 ) The Identity Leadership Inventory ( et , 2014 van Dick et , 2018 ) explores the extent to which leadership behaviors foster a shared team identity . The scale is composed of four dimensions of effective leadership . First , effective leaders must be prototypes ( represent the unique qualities that define the group and what it means to be a member of the group ) Second , they must be champions ( advance and promote the core interests of the group ) Third , they must be entrepreneurs of identity ( bring people together by creating a shared sense of we and us within the group ) Fourth and finally , effective leaders must be of identity ( develop structures that facilitate and embed shared understanding , coordination , and success ) The initial study by and colleagues ( 2014 ) explored the leadership behaviors of team captains in a number of teams across four different team sports . The results suggested that the dimensions most related to the perceived leadership quality of the team captain were identity and identity entrepreneurship . In addition , team confidence and task cohesion were also reported to be positively correlated with the captains leadership behavior . An alternative approach that has been used to assess leadership structures and provision within teams is Social Network Analysis ( groups in terms of networks , consisting of nodes ( representing the individual actors ) and ties ( representing the relationships between the actors Faust , 1994 See Figure ) This approach allows the researcher to move beyond team member and instead explore perceptions within the team at a global level . Over the past decade , has yielded explanations for social phenomena in a wide variety of domains , including athlete leadership ( Van et , 2015 ) The approach has the potential to provide insights into the leadership structure within a team and more clarity on the importance of formal versus informal leaders . Furthermore , this approach is ideally suited to enhance our knowledge of specific leadership attributes ( Van , et , 2015 ) The approach also allows for further examination ofthe antecedents and consequences of athlete leadership ( et , 2016 ) 597

Figure Social Network Analysis An Example of Nodes and Ties Player , Player i Player Leadership Development While understanding and describing leadership behavior is important , applying this knowledge and understanding to enhance leadership for both individuals and teams is crucial to enhance both individual and team performance . As such leadership development has emerged as a scholarly discipline in its own right . Key factors in leadership development include leader identity ( Lord Hall , 2005 ) cognitive and skills ( et , 2000 ) affect , and behavioral skills ( Myers , 2014 ) A distinction can also be drawn between developing individuals as leaders ( leader development ) and meeting the leadership needs of a specific context ( leadership development ) Historically , more emphasis has been placed on leader rather than leadership development . In trying to resolve this distinction , Day ( 2001 ) suggested that the preferred approach is to link leader development with leadership development such that the development of leadership transcends but does not replace the development of individual leaders ( 605 ) In a sporting context , this distinction is important because there has been a tendency to focus on trying to develop the individual rather than to meet the leadership needs . Following this line of thought , coaches should seek to develop the leadership abilities of all members of a team to maximize the leadership provision within the team rather than focus on just developing certain individuals as leaders ( captains ) 598

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams Coach Leadership A useful starting point when considering how to further develop coaches as leaders is to reconsider the factors influencing the coach leadership approach , a summary which is presented in Table . Over the last 20 years a number of specific approaches to coach leadership development have also been suggested in the coaching literature that encompass both formal and informal development approaches that focus on the coach ability as a leader ( et , 2009 ) There has also been increasing recognition of the experiential learning that takes place within the coaching context as coaches reflect upon their own coaching practice and those of others ( Cushion et , 2003 ) One example of a coach development program was developed by Smith and ( 2007 ) They developed a coach effectiveness training ( CET ) intervention designed to enhance coach practice . The training program emphasizes five core coaching principles that can enhance coaches leadership . Having a coaching philosophy that prioritizes learning and development ( with a focus on athlete effort and enjoyment ) The coach possesses a positive approach to coaching ( demonstrating positive reinforcement and encouragement ) Embedding norms that emphasize athletes obligations to help and support one another . Engage in decision making that involves athletes ( to achieve greater compliance with team roles and responsibilities ) Demonstrate increased of one own behavior and its consequences ( through observing and recording one coaching behaviors ) A coach form was also developed by and Smith ( 2005 ) designed to be completed straight after training and competition as a tool for individual coaches to reflect upon their leadership behaviors and associated individual and team outcomes . Research exploring the CET approach suggests that it can be effective in reducing dropout ( et , 1992 ) and increasing esteem in coaches ( Smith et , 1995 ) An alternative approach to coach leadership development was suggested by et al . 2019 ) who explored the effectiveness of the relationship aspect of the United States Olympic Committee National Team Coach Leadership Education Program ( This component of the focused on developing coaches , people acuity ( the ability to discern and maximize others strengths ) interpersonal agility ( adaptability in interpersonal interactions ) and . Based upon feedback from the program attendees , researchers concluded that ( a ) interpersonal and skills were crucial for coaches to be effective leaders of teams , and ( coaches had an important role to play in determining and influencing team culture . The authors emphasized that the coach wears many hats ( including instructor , manager , and leader ) and a key role of the leader is to create a climate and personal interactions that allow individual athletes and the team as a whole to thrive and succeed . Athlete Leadership There has been a growing interest in athlete leadership , and athlete leadership development in the sport psychology literature over the last decade . Initially there was a focus on the development of personal leadership skills in youth athletes through sport ( Gould , Gould et , 2010 , 2009 ) with limited research exploring approaches to developing leadership approaches , knowledge , and behaviors in adult elite sport ( 2016 Voight , 2012 ) However , in recent years there has been a significant expansion of studies exploring adult and elite sport athlete leadership development . 599

Table The Main Factors Influencing Coaches Leadership Approaches Factor Description Coaching context The coaching context is defined by key environmental factors such as the sport , the level of competition , the age and gender of the athletes , cultural and ethnic identity , and socioeconomic background . The most effective coaches will develop a good understanding of these contextual factors and implications for the way that they conduct themselves . For example , youth and collegiate athletes differ in the coaching style they prefer , so coaches should adjust their approach accordingly . Coaches personal characteristics This factor includes coaches interpersonal and knowledge , values , beliefs , personality , and goals . is important for developing leadership ability . By understanding what they do , how they do it , and why , coaches can operate in ways that are better aligned with their own beliefs and values while also considering the needs of the group they lead . Athlete outcomes The competence , confidence , connection , and character of athletes are outcomes that are also the focus of successful leadership . Effective coaches are able to develop each of these key characteristics and , in particular , help to enhance confidence at both an individual level ( and a team or group level ( collective efficacy ) Which in turn may be reflected in athlete performance outcomes . Athlete characteristics The perceived effectiveness of coaches in the eyes of athletes is also influenced by the athletes perceptions , beliefs , and attitudes . Even if coaches are doing a good job ( objectively ) individuals might view this differently . As a result , there is sometimes a need for coaches to manage perceptions and to challenge existing beliefs and attitudes . Coaching behaviors How coaches actually act or behave is a major factor influencing how they lead and how they are perceived by others . Having a coaching mentor can be a very effective way to help coaches to reflect on how they behave and why . This increased can further help coaches to maximize their effectiveness in a given situation . Youth Athlete Leadership A number of published studies have reported the effectiveness of leadership programs with youth athletes . One example of this is the work of Gould and ( 2010 ) They developed a development program for high school captains that included a clinic ( development group ) and a team captain guide . Examples of workshop topics included What you need to know as a leader and Handling common team The guidebook , titled , Becoming an Effective Team Captain Guide , focused on topics such as the role of a team captain , effective 600

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams communication , team motivation , team building and cohesion , handling tough team situations , and recommendations from captains and coaches . One particular concern regarding the development of youth sport athlete leaders is the support and guidance provided to them by their coaches ( Collins et , 2009 et , 2011 ) Part ofthe problem is that often the coaches are not sufficiently equipped or educated ( in relation to leadership development ) to develop the leadership skills and abilities of their athletes ( Gould et , 2013 ) A relatively recent development in the leadership development literature relating to sport is the application of mentorship ( Mead , 2017 ) In this approach , the more experienced leader ( the coach ) trains a by consistently interacting and sharing ideas ( Day , 2001 ) The effectiveness of this approach relies heavily on how positive the relationship is between the mentor and the ( 2013 ) In a study of American high school basketball , Mead and ( explored the impact of coach mentoring on athlete leadership development . The study itself provided a rich and detailed description of the coach approach to mentoring , and their successes and failures . Specifically , the coach sought to allow captains to use their personal voice , distribute and delegate leadership tasks to the captains , offer reminders of important leadership concepts , and set an effective example as the coach . The captains in this study were also encouraged to reflect on their own leadership approach that has been suggested to be an important part of the leader development process ( et , 2010 ) Adult Athlete Leadership There is an increasing focus on adult athlete leadership development within sport . According to and colleagues ( 2010 ) occupying the position of captain within Division III intercollegiate athletics teams appears to lead to the development of the leadership skills of the individuals involved , suggesting that effective programs of leadership development should include the opportunity for future leaders to practice leading and applying leadership skills . However , historically , the focus on the development of athlete leaders in sport has not been great . In reviewing current practices at the collegiate level , Voight ( 2012 ) reported that much of the leadership training that team captains received consisted of either receiving a list of books or articles about leadership or being given a list of responsibilities without guidance or instruction . Building upon these initial gaps in the approach to leadership development for athletes , a number of studies have sought to systematically apply and report the implementation of structured leadership development programs . For example , Voight ( implemented a leadership development program with two regional volleyball teams . Although the program proved to be effective at this level , it was recommended that future research explore the delivery of similar intervention programs at different levels ( youth , recreational , and professional levels ) In addition , 2016 ) developed a leadership development program for elite ( international ) professional cricketers . The program sought to develop athlete leadership at three specific levels ( a ) captaincy development , leadership skill development ( teamwork , honesty , respect , excellence , enjoyment , resilience ) and ( personal growth and leadership development . These three levels have been identified as crucial in helping to cultivate leaders at an international level of performance . Captaincy development was delivered through a leadership development group , which focused on awareness of the self and others using the Type Indicator ( tool . This structured program used a range of relevant guest speakers and offered the opportunity to get practical experience as a captain and to receive leadership performance debriefs from a sport psychologist and coaches . Reflections on the program by the participants suggest that a formal development program can be beneficial in enhancing the leadership capabilities of elite players . Recently , an alternative approach has focused on seeking to develop individuals social identity ( leadership identity ) This approach has been implemented with both athlete leaders ( 601

, et , 2018 ) and athletes and coaches ( Slater Barker , 2017 ) In the Slater and Barker study , the intervention was informed by the five program created by et , 2017 ) reflecting , representing , realizing , readying , and reporting . Slater and on the three that related to identify , representing , and included a number of new activities delivered with the senior leadership team ( An outline of the specific components of the program is presented in Table . In a similar vein , and colleagues ( 2018 ) reported the implementation of a leadership development program that focused on teaching the athlete leaders how to create a sense of we and us , as a way to create a shared identity for the team . This program adopted a approach where workshops were delivered with the entire team and the appointed athlete leaders were given additional responsibilities to further enhance the process . Table Overview of the Stages of the Model as Implemented in the Slater Barker ( 2017 ) Study Stage Overview . Reflecting Purpose increase participant understanding and application of reflection . In the first workshop the concept of was used to allow athletes to raise awareness of current issues in a judgmental way . Identity mapping was also undertaken in the second workshop . Representing The focus in this stage was to explore values and barriers that would interfere with the team living those values . Then , in developing an action plan relating to behaviors that align to the agreed values . Realizing In this stage the senior leadership team reviewed the of the values and behaviors agreed in the representing stage , then focused on creating a team vision . Conclusion Understanding of leadership within sport has developed significantly over the last 20 years , moving from the application of global leadership models and theories to the development and implementation of models and approaches . However , while the description of leadership as a concept in sport has progressed , the evidence base underpinning leadership development has lagged behind . Future research needs to explore the implementation of leadership development programs in different , with different sports , and at different levels . The studies that have been conducted have been quite disparate and focused on different leadership development environments ( professional teams , collegiate athletes , high school athletes ) and have adopted varying approaches to leadership development ( education programs , personal development ) As a result , far more research exploring applied intervention programs is required . A good starting point might be the development of a conceptual framework to underpin leadership development projects . There is also a need to better share and disseminate the leadership development approaches for both coaches and athletes being applied out in the applied sporting world . 602

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams Learning Exercises How would you describe the concept of leadership ?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using theories and models of leadership from other domains to explain and describe leadership in sporting ?

Why is the position of the coach seen as a leadership role ?

Why are trait and behavioral approaches to explaining leadership seen as too simplistic ?

How do the and models of leadership build upon the trait and behavioral approaches ?

What is authentic leadership , and how can it be applied in sports teams by coaches ?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the transformational leadership approach ?

What factors influence the quality of relationships ?

What is athlete leadership ?

What are the key characteristics of successful athlete leaders ?

What lessons can be learnt from the Coach Effectiveness Training ( CET ) program to enhance coach leadership development ?

What approaches have been adopted to develop leadership skills in youth athletes ?

How can youth leadership development be enhanced ?

What further work is required to better understand how to effectively develop adult athlete leaders ?

Reflecting on the chapter , where do you feel the current gaps in knowledge and understanding are ?

603 Further Reading , Eys , A . 2012 ) Group dynamics in sport ( Fitness Information Technology . A great starting point for seeking to understand group functioning and processes . Will serve as a good foundation upon which to explore key concepts in greater detail . 2016 ) Leadership in team sports Current understanding and future directions . International Review and Exercise Psychology , This article presents a comprehensive overview of the concept of athlete leadership , its measurement and approaches to further enhancing athlete leadership within teams . Barling , 2007 ) Transformational leadership in sport . In Eys ( Group dynamics in sport and exercise psychology Contemporary themes ( 60 ) A good overview of transformational leadership within a sporting context , and crucially how to look to apply the theory in practice . References Arthur , 2017 ) Transformational leadership in sport Current status and future directions . Current Opinion in Psychology , 16 , 2018 ) Authentic leadership in sport Its relationship with athletes enjoyment and commitment and the mediating role of autonomy and trust . International Journal Science and Coaching , 13 , Smith , 1992 ) Effects of enhancing relationships on youth sport attrition . The Sport Psychologist , Barrow , 1977 ) The variables of leadership A review and conceptual framework . The Academy of Management Review , 102307 257906 Bass , 1995 ) The leadership questionnaire . Mind Garden . Bass , 2006 ) Transformational leadership ( Lawrence . Bloom , 2012 ) Ice hockey coaches perceptions of athlete leadership . Journal Sport Psychology , 24 , Callow , Smith , Hardy , Arthur , Hardy , 2009 ) Measurement of transformational leadership and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level . Journal Sport Psychology , 21 , Eys , A . 2012 ) Group dynamics in sport ( Fitness Information Technology . Eys , A . 2005 ) Group dynamics in sport ( Fitness Information Technology . Barling , 2001 ) Transformational leadership and sports performance The mediating role of intrinsic motivation . Journal Social Psychology , 31 , 1978 ) Leadership . Canada , Sociology of Sport Monograph Series . 1993 ) Leadership . In Singer , Murphy , Tennant ( The handbook on research in sport psychology ( Macmillan . 2012 ) Leadership and manifestations in sport . In Murphy ( Ed . The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology ( Oxford University Press . 604

Chapter 25 Leadership Development in Sports Teams , 2007 ) Leadership in sports . In ( Handbook psychology ( ed , 17 ) Wiley . A . 1998 ) Measuring leadership in sport . In ( Ed . Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement ( Fitness Information Technology . 1980 ) Dimensions of leader behavior in sports Development of a leadership scale . Journal Psychology , Collins , Gould , Chung , 2009 ) Coaching life skills through football Philosophical beliefs of outstanding high school football coaches . International Journal Science , 2012 ) Team psychology in sports Theory and practice . 2015 ) Preparing for performance Strategies adopted across performance domains . The Sport Psychologist , 29 , 2016 ) Developing leadership skills in sport A case study of elite cricketers . Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology . 2017 ) The experiences of captaincy in professional sport The case of elite professional rugby . European Journal Science , 17 , 2016 ) Leadership in team sports Current understanding and future directions . International Review and Exercise Psychology , Cushion , Armour , Jones , 2003 ) Coach education and continuing professional development Experience and learning to coach , Quest , 55 , Day , 2001 ) Leadership development A review in context . Leadership Quarterly , 11 , 00 ) Day , 2012 ) Leadership . In ( Ed . The Oxford handbook of organizational psychology ( Vol . Oxford University . Myers , 2014 ) Leadership development A review and agenda research . In Day ( Ed . Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations ( Oxford University Pres . Bloom , 2006 ) Team captains perceptions of athlete leadership . Journal of Sport Behavior , 29 , A . 2013 ) Authentic leadership Commitment to a supervisor , follower empowerment , and procedural justice climate . Emerging Leadership Journeys , 2019 ) Building high performing relationships The national team coach leadership education program ( International Sport Coaching Journal , 1967 ) A theory effectiveness . New York , NY . Peters , 2019 ) All for us and us for all Introducing the Shared Leadership Program , Conference Handbook of 2019 , University of Stirling , UK . De , 2015 ) Believing in us Exploring leaders capacity to enhance team confidence and performance by building a sense of shared social identity . Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied , 21 , 0000033 605

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