Psychology Textbook Chapter 24 Values-Based Coaching The Role Coaches in Moral Development

Chapter 24 Coaching The Role of Coaches in Moral Development John Mills and Tristan University of Essex , UK Please cite as Mills , 2021 ) coaching The role of coaches in moral development In Jones ( Essentials and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview The purpose of this chapter is to highlight ways in which coaches can support moral development in their athletes through Coaching ( That is , by placing ethicality , excellence ( of character and thought ) and empowerment ( the Three ) at the forefront of their practice . In providing a theoretical framework that explains the interactive processes that influences moral development and how the moral atmosphere may be constructed , the present chapter provides a foundation from which researchers can understand and explain the creation of normatively appropriate , morally enhancing , and empowering coaching environments . Our attention then focuses on the tangible processes that may be used to aid the development of the Three Es within both individuals and groups . It is hoped that by enhancing our understanding of the Three Es , coaches may be better supported in their endeavors to promote moral development and empower athletes to stay engaged in sport . Furthermore , in presenting a theoretical framework , it is expected that the present chapter will initiate discussion around normative standards . For correspondence

Chapter 24 Coaching Coaching The Role of Coaches in Moral Development Sport is in many ways , a dress rehearsal for life be it receiving feedback , learning about one roles , responsibilities , obligations , and expectations developing discipline , organization , and communication skills or experiencing the highs of victory or the lows of defeat . As a social context capable of impacting others rights and wellbeing , sport also represents an important setting for the development of ethical thought and action ( 1991 ) Despite this important function , few have sought to study why some in sport value development over winning , service over , empowerment over domination , and care over abuse . Fewer still have sought to examine how the personal values people hold and the cultural values they operate within shape attitudes and behavior . et al . 2017 ) define values as what is good and worthy . Cultural values are those that represent the goals of a social collective and are thought to guide and justify social behavior ( Schwartz et , 2012 ) Personal values are the value systems individuals hold and are viewed as guiding principles that both influence goals and direct intentions to act . Personal values both shape and are shaped by preferences and behavior over time and across situations ( Schwartz et , 2012 ) In sport , values are by those who play , coach , officiate , parent , and dictate the policy , prepare the kit and equipment , cook the food , support the hurt , and cheer from the sidelines . Sport provides opportunities for those on and off the field to experiment with ethical norms and test the limits of their personal value system ( 2004 ) Be it the player taking a dive , the parent abusing an official or the fan acting violently , the sporting environment often acts as a form of naturalistic moral laboratory ( 2004 ) Whilst sport may act as a moral laboratory , contrary to popular opinion , it is unlikely that sport , in as of itself , is a teacher . Sport merely provides opportunities for moments of implicit or explicit learning . It is how we think and act in such moments , that , over time , shape who we are . For learning to happen , a level of reflection needs to occur in which the participants of sport are able to evaluate their thoughts , feelings , and actions ( 1986 ) As Durant ( 2012 ) notes , we do not act rightly because we have virtue or excellence , but rather because we have acted rightly , virtues are formed through our actions ( 96 ) Both ethicality and excellence , then , are not an act , but are in part , the result of habit . Although the notion of habits has been a controversial topic within psychology ( see , 2006 ) the emergence of social cognitive theories have gone some way in resolving previous concerns . By examining the formation of habits through , for example , the schema model of ( Markus , 1977 ) the development of moral character can be broken down into cognitive units ( and prototypes ) that emerge from repeated experience , guided instruction , observation , and immersive experience ( for a full review see Leary , 2007 ) Through this process , habits continually evolve through training and competition . As such , participants understanding of contextual standards of right and wrong and the ability to make moral judgements ( 2006 Van et , 2015 ) may be influenced by their involvement in sport . At a local level , coaches and managers play an important role in shaping the culture and moral climate within clubs and training environments more broadly . Researchers in both developmental and sport psychology have emphasized the important role coaches play in the socialization of young people within sport . Be it through tacit gestures , explicit endorsement , or the modelling of appropriate and inappropriate behavior , coaches are thought to play a key role in developing moral agency and constructing the moral environment to which participants of sport are socialized ( Weiss et , 2008 ) Given the civic importance of this function , it is unsurprising that researchers interested in moral psychology have allocated considerable efforts over the preceding decades to develop our understanding of individual differences in moral processing within sport ( for a full review see , 2020 ) and how this combines to create a moral atmosphere ( Benson et , 2017 et , 2002 Shields , 2007 Stephens , 1996 Benson et , 2017 ) Despite these efforts , 566

Mills however , the role sport plays in the moral development ( learning socially accepted values and behaviors , 1977 ) of sport participants is often overlooked both in terms of coach education and applied practice . The purpose of this chapter , therefore , is . First , we aim to provide an introduction into the study of moral psychology in sport . Second , we hope to provide practical advice around placing ethicality , excellence ( of character and thought ) and participant empowerment at the forefront of sport and sports coaching . We do this by introducing the Three ( ethicality , and empowerment ) of Coaching ( It is hoped that by providing a simple in these three Es , coaches , clubs and sports organizations will be able to easily recall the content discussed here and use this as a basis for reflecting upon their motives , goals , and behaviors . Given the enormity of this topic , a broad discussion around descriptive , normative , applied , and will not take place here . Instead , this chapter will focus on introducing factors relating to moral development that fall within normative ethics specifically , Deontology ( and Virtue Ethics ( Aristotle , Century ) These theories provide the requisite conceptual backdrop to the underpinnings of moral philosophy and cover the vast majority of psychological research interested in moral judgement and action . Unlike others who discuss empowerment from the perspective of motivational climate ( 2016 , 2016 , 2013 ) here , and are viewed as the determinant of empowerment ( Conger , 1998 ) and as such , the antecedent processes of ethicality , and of character and thought are discussed . It is important to note that there is no one right way to approach moral philosophy and we fully appreciate that the application and importance placed on moral ideologies and foundations differ between sports , coaches , athletes , and teams . The topics presented here are included to provide a guide to aid in the of constructing normatively appropriate standards relevant to specific . With this in mind , is defined by identifying normatively appropriate standards that guide the formation of personal and collective goals and the actuation of subsequent behavior . It is important to note , however , that whilst ideologies and the importance placed on individual values and ethics differ , their inclusion as the foundation to moral systems largely do not ( Graham et , 2013 ) Through enhancing our understanding of the expected values and ethics of individuals participating in sport and recognizing cultural differences in the rules , expectations , obligations , and outcomes associated with sporting participation , we can begin to develop new approaches to moral education that help redress the ethical issues currently experienced within many sports . The Three Es of Coaching Ethicality The question of how we ought to act and make judgements ( normative ethics ) has been discussed by philosophers for centuries ( Aristotle , Century ) The earliest and arguably most influential theories of moral development in psychology ( 1981 , 1984 ) were heavily influenced by ( deontological ethics . For , the moral status of an act is judged in terms of the rules , duties , or obligations that constrain action ( 1997 ) From a perspective , actions that violate these constraints are viewed as morally prohibited . Within this view , it is implied that responsibility for action is derived based on the freedom of will . In other words , an individual is morally blameworthy if they freely contravene the rules or their duties and obligations to both themselves and others . In sport , this view of morality may be demonstrated by the blame attached to single or repeat users of prohibited forms of performance enhancing methods or substances . One is often met with a 567

Chapter 24 Coaching degree of sympathy , while the other is vilified for knowingly and willingly contravening the rules and foregoing their associated duties and obligations . studies examining how blame is attributed and the influence blame has on perceived moral character support this notion ( et , 2017 ) How blame is attributed , however , may be dependent on the context and ethical position of those applying blame . Unlike deontology , for example , makes no distinctions regarding rules , duties , and obligations . Instead , actions are according to whether they yield favorable or unfavorable consequences . is often viewed as a cold and calculating ideology that seeks to maximize good while minimizing harm ( Smart Williams , 1973 ) However , comes in many forms , including , but not limited to Utilitarianism , Ethical Egoism , and Teleological Ethics . In the interests of brevity , each form of will not be outlined here . Instead , see the seminal text by Smart and Williams ( 1973 ) for a review of these approaches . Within all forms of , however , the intent or will of the person is of little importance as it is the act rather than the individual that . For example , 2000 ) argues that , from a Utilitarian perspective , Diego infamous Hand of God England in the 1986 World Cup is morally vindicated as it had a positive effect on football and helped diffuse international tensions around the Falklands War . In this example , is primarily focused on judging the outcome of the act by its consequences and not by its adherence to the rules of the game , duties and obligations to fellow players , or by character as a person . We also see this approach in high performance sport , more broadly . For example , through the adoption of funding models , which emphasize winning over athlete welfare ( et , 2020 ) Winning medals ( The Effect ) is seen as good for sport and society ( Porsche , 2008 ) For example , researchers have demonstrated economic benefits , improved participation , and a perceived increase to quality of life ( 2010 ) These benefits , however , are contrasted to the potential abuse of athletes and those involved in the construction of such events ( 2018 ) For many , the ends the means . For others , they may not . Both of the views presented thus far have been , rather than based on the person . Within virtue third approach to normative ethics discussed primary concern is to do the right thing , at the right time , and for the right reason ( 2011 ) As a approach , virtue argue that a person traits , dispositions , and character should also be factored into consideration when evaluating moral issues ( et , 2015 ) Specifically , virtue ethics emphasizes the character of the agent and whether they possess desired virtues . Further , they propose that moral evaluations should focus on local features of an act and agent . For example , whether the action violates a rule , whether the agent mental state at the time of the action allowed for alternative actions , or whether the act caused harm . As such , virtue ethics is sometimes referred to as the third way of normative ethics ( Stan Van , 2014 ) Although this approach fell out of favor in moral philosophy and psychology during the early twentieth century , in recent times it has seen something of a resurgence ( See , 2011 ) From a sporting perspective , differences in these philosophical positions can be observed in the way coaches approach athlete development . Within a recent debate in the sports leadership literature , and Collins ( 2015 , 2016 , 2017 ) and Mills and ( highlight differences in philosophical approaches to moral investigation . On one side of the debate , Mills and ( champion a and virtue approach to the study of sports The Hand of God Goal is how Diego referred to his first goal in Argentina victory over England in the 1986 men World Cup . It is clear to see from the footage that handles the ball into the goal with his arm above his head . Argentina would go on to win the match and eventually the World Cup . 568

Mills leaders . On the other side of the argument , and Collins ( 2017 ) advocate an and approach For clarity , we still see that work on the full spectrum of leadership behavior , including that of a socially undesirable nature , plus a consideration of the cognitive drivers of leadership behavior , are essential routes forward if researchers are to make a significant stride in practically meaningful knowledge in short , what leaders do . On the basis of their calls to explore attitudes , character , morality and value congruence , it seems Mills and are perhaps more focused on who leaders are . 573 ) Although these approaches often lead to the same outcome , the process can be markedly different . For example , in attempting to encourage athletes to achieve high performance outcomes , and Collins ( 2015 , 2016 , 2017 ) advocate the use of manipulative , deceitful , cunning , exploitative , cynical , distrusting , controlling , and domineering coaching behaviors . Such behaviors , however , are incompatible with the virtue ethics position adopted by Mills and . Fundamentally , the researchers here are viewing the same issue through different lenses . In judging the ethicality of an outcome based on the personal success achieved , and Collins position would appear to fall within a of called ethical egoism . In contrast to other approaches to ethics that refer to maximizing the greatest good , ethical egoism suggests that moral agents ought to act in their own ( Smart Williams , 1973 ) In this instance , a coach may be abusive towards an athlete in the name of achieving personal goals . Although such coaches may also argue that they adopt such methods for the good of the athlete by pushing them to achieve one must question the toll in enduring abuse to those who survive . We must also consider what might have been for many athletes whose performance suffered due to such behavior . Rather than extolling such behavior or accepting them as the norm , we should consider how it may damage the relationship and affect an athlete wellbeing ( 2002 ) Everyone enjoys winning , but for some , how they win is also important . For someone who aligns with this view of ethical egoism , winning through manipulation , abuse , and exploitation to advance one ego may result in the same level of satisfaction as winning in a virtuous manner . Similarly , for those who primarily follow deontological ethics , the act of exploitation , for example , often breaches moral obligations and expectations . This again limits what can be considered ethical behavior within deontology . Given these differences , those involved in sport should be mindful of their own ethical position and of those they work with . Moral Excellence Excellence of Character Aristotle suggests that there are two different kinds of human ( a ) excellence of character , and ( excellence of thought . of character are often referred to as the embodiment of moral virtues such as fairness , trustworthiness , and honesty . According to ( 2005 ) however , excellence of character can be defined by three higher order virtues ( a ) integrity ( consistency ) moral desires ( possessing moral goals and ambitions ) and ( willpower ( the ability to resist the temptation to morally disengage or transgress ) Although to some these may seem similar to the description of ethicality , this view is framed by your dominant ethical position . Those who favour utility , for example , may differ from in that they view fairness as equity rather than equality . For , willpower , integrity and moral desires are less susceptible to such debate . Given their global importance to the self , higher order virtues are positioned as a core aspect of the . Although lower order virtues , such as honesty and fairness are important , 2009 ) argues that they are largely context specific . Lastly , deficiencies of character may reflect egoistic or misguided moral 569

Chapter 24 Coaching desires or as a failure of will ( insufficient determination , perseverance , or courage to act consistently with one ideals Shields , 1995 ) Although moral character is viewed as complex and multifaceted ( Walker , 2004 ) the core of character is relatively straightforward . When dealing with others , perceptions are created through consistency in words and actions , a belief that the actor holds moral intentions , is able to resist temptation , and can be relied upon ( Reed , 2002 ) Similarly , lower order virtues ( compassion and conscientiousness ) and emotional responses that indicate empathetic reactions ( care and concern ) are viewed as valuable indicators of character ( et , 2015 ) Further , such responses act as a useful source of social information and permit the perceiver to gauge intent towards action . That is , whether the individual is worthy of investment and likely to behave in a considerate and cooperative manner . In toxic or abusive cultures , those with power seek to ensure that the athletes are made to feel they have no voice or control ( 2018 ) making cooperation from the athletes within this environment easier . Based on these evaluations , we may decide that an individual is a bad character if they appear manipulative and untrustworthy ( Machiavellian ) and acting in their ( Narcissism ) or behaving unfairly to others and lacking empathy ( Psychopathy , 2011 ) Equally , this may extend to perceptions of the intent ( moral desire ) and a perceived lack of willpower to resist the temptation to act in a normatively inappropriate manner . The frequency and impact of the action also acts as social information in the evaluation of character ( et , 2015 ) Deliberate acts that can be explained via multiple motives and are of low impact are thought to possess low informational value . In contrast , automatic decisions that are taken with ease ( et , 2013 ) and acts that are harder to explain or have high impact are perceived as character defining ( et , 2015 ) Coaches , therefore , should be mindful of what they practice , how they practice , and why they practice as they do . It should go without saying , but coaches wishing to develop positive and relationships with their participants should avoid using manipulative , exploitative , or deceptive means . An example of this is coaches recruiting athletes to college or performance programmes using disingenuous or manipulative tactics when describing the culture . Once the athlete has joined it is very hard for that athlete to then leave a culture that was not accurately described . Honesty , trustworthiness , and fairness should be the norm rather than the exception when coaching ( Shields , 1995 ) Coaches who place me above we are likely to be viewed skeptically by their participants , who may assign negative based on the social information conveys ( Mills , 2019 ) Ultimately , participants will use this social information to make inferences around the coach motive and character ( Mills , Those who forego their usual ethical standards in order to seek a competitive advantage may also raise concerns around the coach character . This , of course , depends on whether a similar win at all costs position is shared by participants ( value congruence ) but any drastic deviation from typical intentions and behaviors will likely to be viewed skeptically . Excellence of Thought Aristotle proposes of thought to be intellectual virtues such as technical expertise and practical wisdom . Despite nearly 40 years of research , defining technical expertise within the realm of sport coaching has been problematic . Authors have historically used percentages , athlete attributes , length of time in coaching , and level of competition as approaches to define coaching expertise . and Gilbert ( 2009 ) have attempted to integrate these definitions and suggest that the effective implementation of coaching expertise requires the consistent application of integrated professional , interpersonal , and knowledge to improve athletes competence , confidence , connection , and character in specific coaching ( 316 ) Although the mention of character here is welcomed , possessing virtuous qualities is just one aspect of moral development and fails to 570

Mills consider moral functioning ( moral sensitivity , agency , motivation , and intent ) and the alternate philosophical positions available . Should the coach and athlete share similar motivation for moral excellence , they may begin working together to a moral atmosphere . If not , either the coach , athlete or both may seek to their moral to find a shared position or one or both may wish to leave the group ( Mills , 2019 ) In terms of practical wisdom , coaches and athletes require a combination of perceptual attunement , complex understanding , motivation for excellence , and the capacity to use this expertise to demonstrate normatively appropriate decision making and behavior ( Rest , 1995 ) Based on Rest ( 1986 ) Four Component Model of Moral Functioning , coaches and athletes should be sensitive to environmental cues and consider the impact of any potential action on the welfare of others . Sometimes interpreting the situation permits a deliberate and considered response ( the decision to engage in or report prohibited forms of performance enhancement ) however , other times require a snap judgement ( purposefully initiating contact with an opponent to solicit a foul ) In these examples , the athlete is seeking to gain an ill gotten advantage , which may or may not fall outside of the social norms for their specific sport . Although some sports may be more permissive of such transgressions than others , Rest ( 1986 ) argues that the moral agent should consider whether the course of action is socially responsible , equitable , and how one ought to act . As you may recall from the ethicality section earlier , such decisions are largely and may differ depending on the philosophical position one adopts . argues that the agent must consider the of their transgression . Using the doping example again , would the coach or athlete who is encouraging or considering using prohibited forms of performance enhancement wish to see everyone using such substances in sport ?

From a purely functional perspective ( see , 2013 ) the athlete may argue that they are purely motivated to use such substances to push the boundaries of their capabilities and would accept all others doing the same . However , those from a moral perspective may argue that , for example , such an approach would create an environment where free will and moral agency is limited with everyone feeling required to take potentially harmful substances in order to compete . According to , an action is deemed morally acceptable if it can be . That is , everyone could do it . In this case , it is difficult to see how either , virtue , or ( excluding ethical egoism ) could argue in favour of the latter . Once the situation is assessed and a judgement around the moral course of action formed , one must then weigh up whether they are motivated to act . Before doing so , however , they must also consider whether competing interests are more dominant and whether the action is likely to garner either an intrinsic or extrinsic emotional response ( Rest , 1995 ) On one hand they may be drawn by the perceived rewards and on the other anticipated guilt , shame , or fear of social reprisal as a result of pyrrhic action . The coach and athlete must then draw on their resoluteness and persevere to turn these intentions into actions . Should one or more of these processes fail , it is likely that a moral failure will occur ( Rest , 1995 ) Empowerment Conger and ( 1987 ) define empowerment as the process of raising others perceptions . However , 1995 ) has since broadened this definition to include collective efficacy and . is the individual belief in his or her ability to successfully perform tasks ( 1986 ) Further , collective efficacy is similar to and is defined as a belief that a team or group can function effectively and perform its tasks successfully ( 1986 ) Coaches who encourage personal identification ( with the coach ) are thought to advocate dependency ( et , 2003 ) As such , collective efficacy may be more prominent within empowering rather than dependent environments . Finally , has been defined as the extent to which an individual takes a positive view of their self ( 1971 ) The concept of has been well examined within sport and 571

Chapter 24 Coaching exercise , both in terms of a predictor of mental health ( Standage , 2007 ) and an outcome of sporting participation ( 2009 ) Because of its significance for mental health , wellbeing , and quality of life , enhancement should be a priority for sports coaches of all levels , but particularly those working within grassroots sport ( Fox , 1997 ) In more recent times , high profile cases of athlete welfare issues including Alberto Salazar ( suspended from coaching pending appeal ) and Larry ( incarcerated for wide scale abuse of athletes ) suggest performance coaches in future may also view enhancement with greater importance . An empowered athlete believes in his or her ability to perform successfully and understands their ( Conger , 1987 ) Therefore , coaches can have an empowering effect on those they work with in terms of raising their beliefs by delegating responsibility , enhancing a capacity to solve intellectually challenging problems , and through encouraging the generation of new and creative ideas ( et , 2002 ) Further , athletes high in global view themselves as important , influential , effective , and worthwhile ( 1965 ) Coaches can nurture athlete esteem by setting and supporting athletes to achieve high expectations , expressing belief in their abilities , setting intellectually stimulating challenges , and by demonstrating how activities help support the group collective goals and values ( Shamir et ) Should one attempt to seize power back from supposedly empowered individuals ( see , Collins , this would undoubtedly undermine the process . Further , by seizing control from their athletes , coaches risk developing deference and ultimately dependency in the group . Both of which are thought to stifle any empowering effect that may have previously been experienced ( et , 2003 ) If not managed carefully , however , feelings of empowerment may develop into righteousness ( holding the view that one is morally superior , 2012 ) To temper this , those involved in sport should be encouraged to show humility and resist temptation ( efficacy ) to gloat about their perceived and capability . efficacy is a facet of global and beyond tempering ego , performs an important function in governing transgressive behavior . For example , individuals high in efficacy have consistently been shown to resist personal and social pressures to engage in detrimental conduct ( et , 2001 ) Within sport , this has primarily been examined in terms of doping ( et , 2017 ) cheating ( et , 2010 ) and aggression ( et , 2009 ) Although perceived serves a regulatory function in all developmental periods , adolescence is a key phase of enquiry ( et , 2010 ) As a period often associated with exploratory engagement in activities ( substance abuse , unprotected sex , and transgressive conduct in various domains , including sports ) providing an appropriate and supportive example during this time may be of critical importance to athlete moral development . Practical Advice for Coaches Within the relationship , consistency between words and actions is key . From the perspective of moral excellence and to be viewed as possessing integrity , this consistency in words and actions should reflect trust in athletes , fairness , and empathetic concern . For those responsible for recruiting coaches within the junior sport and for the coaches occupying such roles , the aforementioned qualities should be placed above all else . it appears that recruiters are most concerned with understanding what a coach has won and what experiences they have from previous employment when hiring . Although the ability to develop technical and tactical competency is of course a key outcome of coaching . Focus on how they have developed their athletes beyond the may provide more useful insight . However , identifying an ability to nurture the development of moral functioning , that is , supporting athletes to interpret normatively appropriate standards of what is right and wrong , make moral judgements , prioritize moral motivations , and take responsibility for their 572

Mills actions , is arguably of equal if not greater importance than their ability to enhance technical and tactical skill . The coach has an important role to play in this process as their words and actions align with those of important others within an athlete moral creating a heuristic for appropriate behavior within set . Photo by . studio from Developing the Three Es In this section , consideration is given to how the moral atmosphere within sport may be constructed and habituated ( see Figure ) Although these processes are relevant to all in sport , in the following section a particular focus is paid to coaches and athletes , as they , to the general public at least , are the main actors and outward face of sport . Further , within the early years , coaches are thought to be particularly prominent in shaping the moral education of their players through sport ( Weiss et , 2008 ) During an athlete formative years , the coach plays a key role in setting appropriate standards and establishing an ethical culture . Although the directionality of these processes may be more ( an apprenticeship model ) in the early years , as athletes become more aware of themselves as moral agents , progressing towards of moral standards and a moral environment is key . 573

Chapter 24 Coaching Figure Interactive Processes Leading to Moral Development and Atmosphere Coach Athlete Athlete Excellence of Excellence of Moral of Excellence Character Thought Atmosphere Thought Understanding Understanding appropriate ' social social , standards standards Interchange of Motivation Moral Intent Moral Intent Supporting Individuals As and ( 2004 ) suggest , the habituation of moral agency and function is best understood by role modelling normatively appropriate behavior . Alas , this is not particularly a new or novel concept . Social Learning Theory is arguably one of the most and influential theories in psychology ( 1986 ) Through consistent and regular practice and under the guidance of an ethical and empowering coach , normative standards can be produced and normalized within the moral atmosphere . Habits are then internalized leading to adaptations in the character that occur and can be recalled spontaneously without reflective deliberation ( 2004 ) By practicing normatively appropriate standards , individuals acquire the skills associated with said standards . From a virtue ethics perspective , which is arguably the most intuitive of the ideologies for moral education ( 2012 ) this may be the development of characteristics such as fair play , integrity , and consciousness . Similarly , from a deontological position this may result in a greater understanding and respect for rules , expectations , and obligations . Lastly , those who align with a position may learn to maximize good for all , the group ( collective ) or the self ( ethical egoism ) Although these positions use different means and are presented independently here for the sake of clarity , they are not mutually exclusive and are often intertwined in application . It is also important to note that other factors such as the personality , background , the environment they are exposed to , existing affiliations , and whether they derive value from achievement or social perception are also likely to influence the habit 574

Mills formation process . As such , understanding the uniqueness of individual athletes is important . The challenge of coaching is to identify commonalities between individuals within one team and to tailor their environment accordingly . However , such a challenge is not specific to developing the Three Es and is arguably a cornerstone of effective leadership ( Barling , 2014 Bass , 1999 ) and Coaching ( Cote , 2019 ) more broadly . Within this complex set of social influences , the development of excellence and normatively appropriate standards of moral agency and function is a matter of perfecting interactive skills in perception , sensitivity , reasoning and judgment , focus , and action . To acquire a virtue is to your perceptual abilities such that you detect the relevant signals , then feel the right emotions , understand their meaning , and then act in the right way ( Joseph , 2004 ) For example , to show kindness is to demonstrate sensitivity to the needs of others , to feel compassion when warranted , and to offer your support . Likewise , to be courageous , is to be able to detect very different kinds of threats and opportunities , and to respond in a very different sort of way ( 2012 ) As coaches and experts in skill acquisition more broadly are aware , the practice ofa skill leads to increased automaticity of response ( Bargh et , 1988 ) Through practice and competition , athletes develop intuitive responses that facilitate automatic judgements and behavioral responses ( 2010 ) Although in sport , this is primarily discussed in terms of technical skill development and tactical decision making , the process is the same for moral development . That is , through frequent activation , moral processing around ethical dilemmas may become incorporated within social cognitive to the point of chronic automaticity ( Hill , 2008 ) In other words , athletes develop automatic ways of responding to ethically challenging situations within sport through repeated exposure much in the same way as they automatically perform a complex skill . Coaches , then , can support moral development through frequent and consistent use of positive reinforcement , modelling appropriate behaviors , and consistently enforcing normative ethical standards ( Bargh et , 1988 Smith et , 1977 ) Groups The focus thus far has been on individuals , however , how one successfully into the group culture is of equal importance . It is almost universally the case that the hiring process seeks a fit between the person and the organization , broadly defined as the congruence of an beliefs and values with the culture , norms , and values of an organization ( et , 2017 , 526 ) Research conducted within the leadership domain suggests that value congruence may have a mediating effect on the relationship between perceptions of the values and follower outcomes ( Brown , 2006 ) More specifically , should the group perceptions of the leader value match their desired values , positive follower outcomes are likely to be demonstrated . In contrast , should the perceived values of the leader deviate from those desired by the group , negative outcomes and a potentially toxic environment are likely to follow ( Brown , Jung , 2000 ) Similarly , and Judge ( 1994 ) and Caldwell and Reilly ( 1990 ) have demonstrated a strong relationship between organization fit , and numerous measures of employee satisfaction and job performance . Where there is congruence between individual and group values , a moral atmosphere is likely to follow ( et , 2014 ) In order to maximize the benefits of moral fit , athletes need to not only uphold shared values , but rather live them ( et , 2017 ) From an external perspective , it would appear that many sports governing bodies and clubs have attempted to distil the core values they wish to espouse ( creating a philosophy document ) However , this is often superficial and fails to be developed into a moral system that is implemented and embedded within their respective cultures . Without thoroughly seeking to understand the existing culture , such an approach merely attempts to transpose values onto others . Further , it does not create a system that embeds the development of such values within the community . At an organizational level , endorsing honesty , for example , is easy . However , fostering an 575

Chapter 24 Coaching environment where athletes feel safe to freely speak their minds without fear of retribution is less so but it can be done . For example , facilitating a system to garner anonymous feedback is one mechanism . Encouraging a culture where all voices are heard and valued is harder , but again , processes can be put in place to create a more open environment ( by soliciting feedback from subversive athletes , challenging domineering behavior , or encouraging small group projects ) The first step for those involved in sport is , therefore , to reflect on personal standards both individually , as a group , and broader community . From there , individuals may work together to highlight desired moral virtues and cultural norms based upon moral foundations . Through this of normatively appropriate standards , those involved in sport can begin to find ways to incorporate moral skill development within their practice , and ultimately , within the . However , failing to achieve any one of these steps will likely result in a lack of moral internalization . Photo by Productions from Environment Beyond individuals and groups , structural modifications can be made to the competitive environment to enhance moral development . Most commonly referred to as competitive engineering ( Burton et , this approach advocates the modification of facilities , equipment , and rules to enhance participant motivation ( Burton et , et , 2017 ) Examples include ( a ) permitting participants to select their own level of competition ( playing up or down ) modifying facilities ( playing on smaller or larger fields , courts etc . adjusting equipment ( using smaller or larger equipment , balls that run faster or slower , or bounce higher or lower ) and ( altering the rules ( every player plays at least half a game Jones et , 2021 ) Whilst competitive engineering has primarily been examined from a motivational perspective , there is no reason why similar structural changes can not be used to enhance moral development . For example , ending a game and allowing participants to mix teams should one team establish an insurmountable lead ( as many of us did on the playground as children ) offering bonus points for action ( helping up an opponent should they fall , being honest and showing respect to everyone involved in the competition , 576

Mills showing good manners ) or removing officials entirely and encouraging the participants to their competition . Whilst a relatively young area of academic enquiry , Competitive Engineering has demonstrated promise in enhancing the types of positive outcomes that can be obtained through sport . Specifically , within engineered sporting environments , participants have reported increased engagement ( et , 2018 ) technical skill acquisition ( 2016 ) enjoyment , and time on ball ( Thomas Wilson , 2016 ) However , competitive engineering goes beyond motivational and skill acquisition outcomes . Similar outcomes can be initiated within the domain of moral development . Sports administrators should consider whether the approach they currently adopt is providing younger sports participants with a structure that enhances moral development and encourages healthy competitive opportunities over winning ( Cote Hancock , 2016 ) At the performance level , how success is defined needs to go beyond the medal table ( Bishop , 2020 ) with attention spent on developing the athletes beyond their sport so , at the very least , they are able to assimilate into society in a career with minimal issues ( et , 2004 ) Conclusion Coaching is a privilege that carries great responsibility none more so than supporting the moral development of the people we work with . The greatest lesson a coach can teach is what it means to strive for moral excellence in an ethically appropriate and empowering manner . The aim of this chapter was , therefore , to introduce moral philosophy within sport and to outline an approach to coaching that places the development of the Three Es at the forefront of coaching practice and research . More than that , it is a plea for those involved in sport to reflect upon what they believe are the most important elements of their role . Historically , for example , coaches have spent the majority of their time seeking ways to develop technical skills . Although important , such skills mean little without appropriate moral development and socialization . Further , at youth levels , developing moral agents who understand normatively appropriate social standards and are motivated to behave in a moral manner should be of equal , if not greater , importance to technical and tactical skill acquisition . That said , it is not a competition and just like personal , and skills , one process can be mastered alongside the other ( Evans et , 2015 et , 2016 ) Despite frequent admission of the importance of using sport as a vehicle for moral education , to date , these endeavors have lacked clear conceptualization and direction . Through presenting both an argument for the importance of developing normatively appropriate ethical standards in sport and an explanation as to how such standards are cognitively incorporated within the , it is hoped that this chapter goes some way in addressing these concerns . To further aid in this process a series of considerations are presented below . Most importantly , a framework outlining the development of normatively appropriate ethical standards is also discussed with a clear progression towards a system of to meet the changing needs and capabilities of the athlete . Within this approach , the moral agency of the reader is considered . Although normative approaches to ethics are highlighted and character development advocated , specific standards are not prescribed . Instead , it is left up to the reader to reflect upon their own beliefs and consider how they may incorporate the concepts discussed here within their own practice . Presented are a series of tips below to aid this process Consider your ethical position . Reflect upon decisions you have made and the motives for doing so . Openly discuss your ethical position and expectations for others . Work with your athletes to normative moral standards . Identify shared values , consider the group habits , and where appropriate , adjust . 577

Chapter 24 Coaching Continually strive for excellence . Contemplate whether you are of integrity ( consistent in your words and actions ) have moral desires , and are able to resist the temptation to win by lowering your personal standards . Consider your lower order virtues and speak to others to gauge how the social information you present is being perceived . Reflect upon whether there is a discrepancy between how you think and act when stressed , tired , under pressure compared to when you are not . If you make poor choices or behave in a way that you do not like under such conditions , try to limit their influence . Examine ways to develop your contextual understanding and explore opportunities to embed different forms of learning opportunities within your practice . Empower your athletes . Share power and responsibility with your athlete , set intellectually challenging problems to solve , and show support and encouragement for new and creative ideas . Nurture athlete and collective esteem by setting and supporting athletes to achieve high expectations , expressing belief in their abilities , and by demonstrating how activities help support the group collective goals and values . Consider the level of value congruence within your club or organization . Implement mechanisms that support the development of a moral and empowering culture ( challenging behavior that does not fit within the organization aims ) Learning Exercises What ethical position do you take within your coaching practice ?

How do you embed moral development in your practice ?

How do you develop the moral climate within your group or team ?

What impact do the athletes you coach have on your morals ?

How do you evaluate whether you are meeting the moral standards you set for yourself as a coach ?

How are you able to modify your equipment in your environment to support moral development of the athletes ?

Further Reading , A . 1991 ) Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action . In ( Handbook of moral behavior and development Theory , research and applications ( Vol . Lawrence Associates , A . 2005 ) Moral Character A psychological approach . In edited by , and Power , Character psychology and character education ( University of Notre Dame Press . 2020 ) Moral behavior in sport reviewing the past and envisioning the future . In ( Handbook psychology ( Human Kinetics . 1984 ) The psychology of moral development The nature and validity of moral stages . Harper Row . 578

Mills , 2006 ) Character Education . In , Damon , Handbook psychology Child psychology in practice ( John Wiley Sons Mills , 2016 ) Expert Premier League soccer managers use of transformational leadership behaviours and attitude towards sport integrity An intrinsic case study . International Journal of Sports Science Coaching , 11 , Mills , Advancing leadership in sport time to actually take the blinkers off ?

Sports Medicine , 47 , Rest , 1995 ) The four components of acting morally . In , Moral behavior and moral development An introduction ( Rest , 1986 ) Moral development Advances in research and theory . Schwartz , Fischer , Ramos , 2012 ) Refining the theory of basic individual values . Journal and Social Psychology , 103 ( Acknowledgement The authors give thanks to Professor Jean Cote for his feedback and advice in shaping this manuscript . References , 2016 ) Examining the interactive effects of empowering and climate dimensions on athletes health and functioning . Psychology and Exercise , 26 , Aristotle ( Century , The ethics . Oxford Oxford University Press . Reed , II . 2002 ) The of moral identity . Journal and Social Psychology , 83 , A . 1977 ) Social learning theory . Prentice Hall . A . 1986 ) of thought and action A social cognitive theory . A . 1991 ) Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action . In ( Handbook of moral behavior and development Theory , research and applications ( Vol . Lawrence Associates , A . 2006 ) Guide for constructing scales . In ( Adolescence and education and adolescence ( Vol . Information Age . Regalia , 2001 ) regulatory mechanisms governing transgressive behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 80 , 2007 ) The total economic value of sporting events theory and practice . Journal Economics , Bargh , Higgins , 1988 ) Automaticity of chronically accessible constructs in person situation effects on person perception It just a matter of time . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 55 ( Barling , 2014 ) The science of leadership Lessons from research for organizational leaders . Oxford University Press . Bass , 1999 ) Two decades of research and development in transformational leadership . European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , 579

Chapter 24 Coaching Benson , Eys , 2017 ) A social identity approach to understanding the conditions associated with antisocial behaviors among teammates in female teams . Sport , Exercise , and Performance Psychology , 0000090 Bishop , 2020 ) The long win The search for a better way to win . Practical Implication Publishing . A . 2005 ) Moral Character A psychological approach . In , and Power , Character psychology and character education ( University of Notre Dame Press . A . 2009 ) Moral reasoning and the moral functioning of mature adults . In , Personality , identity and character Explorations in moral psychology ( Cambridge University Press . 2020 ) Moral behavior in sport reviewing the past and envisioning the future . In ( Handbook psychology ( Human Kinetics . Smith , Mills , 2017 ) Empathic and processes governing doping behavior . Frontiers in Psychology , Judge , A . 1994 ) fit and the theory of work adjustment Implications for satisfaction , tenure , and career success . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 44 , Brown , 2006 ) Ethical leadership A review and future directions . Leadership Quarterly , 17 , Burton , Competitive engineering structural climate modifications to enhance youth athletes competitive experience . Science and Coaching , Burton , More cheers and fewer tears Examining the impact of competitive engineering on scoring and attrition in youth flag football . International Journal of Sports Science Coaching , Caldwell , 1990 ) Measuring fit using a profile comparison process . Journal of Applied Psychology . 75 , Conger , A . 1987 ) Towards a behavioral theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings . Academy of Management Review , 12 , Conger , A . 1998 ) Charismatic leadership in organizations . Sage Publications . Long , Smith , 2009 ) It not my fault it not serious Athlete accounts of moral disengagement in competitive sport . The Sport Psychologist , 23 , 404 . 2010 ) Athlete development and coaching . In Lyle Cushion ( Sport coaching Professionalization and practice ( Gilbert , 2009 ) An Integrative Definition of Coaching Effectiveness and Expertise . International Journal of Sports Science Coaching , Hancock , 2016 ) policies for youth sport programmes . International Journal of Sport Policy Politics . A . 2013 ) How quick decisions illuminate moral character . Social Psychological and Personality Science , Collins , 2015 ) Illuminating and applying the dark side Insights from elite team leaders . Journal Sport Psychology , 27 ( Collins ( 2016 ) Advancing leadership in sport Time to take off the blinkers ?

Sports Medicine , 46 , 580 Mills , Collins , 2017 ) Authors reply to Mills and Advancing leadership in sport Time to take off the blinkers ?

Sports Medicine , 47 , A . 2010 ) regulatory mechanisms governing judgments of the acceptability and likelihood of sport cheating . Journal of Sport Exercise Psychology , 32 , 2013 ) The conceptual and empirical foundations of Empowering Coaching Setting the stage for the PAPA project . International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 11 ( 2016 ) Empowering and coaching climates Conceptualization , measurement considerations , and intervention implications . In , Sport and exercise psychology research From theory to practice ( Durant , 2012 ) The story of philosophy The lives and opinions of the greater philosophers . Pocket Books , Eden , Shamir , 2002 ) Impact of transformational leadership on follower development and performance A field experiment . Academy , 45 , Evans , 2015 ) Coach development programmes to improve interpersonal coach behaviours A systematic review using the framework . British Journal of Sports Medicine , 49 , Morris , 2020 ) The influence of change on national governing bodies in British Olympic sports . Sport in Society , Fox , 1997 ) The physical self and processes in development . In Fox ( Ed . The physical self From motivation to ( Human Kinetics . 1971 ) The concept . Holt Graham , Ditto , 2013 ) Moral foundations theory The pragmatic validity of moral pluralism . Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , 47 , 2012 ) The righteous mind Why good people are divided by politics and religion . Pantheon Books . Joseph , 2004 ) Intuitive ethics How innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues . Daedalus , 133 , King , 2017 ) The influence of cricket pitch length on ball release bowlers . In , David ( Proceedings of the conference of the international society of biomechanics in sports , Cologne . Jones , Hope , Hammond , Moran , Mills , 2021 ) Play more , enjoy more , keep playing rugby is a simple game . International Journal Science Coaching . Advance online publication . 2002 ) Incompatibility in the relationship . In ( Ed . Solutions in sport psychology ( Learning . Jung , 2000 ) Opening the black box An experimental investigation of the mediating effects of trust and value congruence on transformational and transactional leadership . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 21 , 1997 ) Temperament and reactions to unfamiliarity . Child Development , 68 , 1131931 , Shamir , Chen , 2003 ) The two faces of transformational leadership Empowerment and dependency . Journal Psychology , 88 , 101037 581

Chapter 24 Coaching ant , I . the metaphysics ( Oxford University Press . 2010 ) National and international sports events . Journal Psychology , 31 ( Roberts , 2002 ) Contextual influences on moral functioning of college basketball players . The Sport Psychologist , 16 , 1981 ) The philosophy of moral development Moral stages and the idea of justice . Harper Row . 1984 ) The psychology of moral development The nature and validity of moral stages . Harper Row . Graham , 2017 ) Moral foundations theory Building value through moral pluralism . In ( Ed . The handbook of virtue ethics in business and management ( Springer . Hill , 2008 ) On dual processing and heuristic approaches to moral cognition . Journal of Moral Education , 37 ( 2006 ) Character Education . In , Damon , Handbook psychology Child psychology in practice ( John Wiley Sons Inc , 2007 ) The curse of the self , egotism , and the quality ofhuman life . Oxford University Press . Blair , Cote , 2016 ) Describing and classifying coach development programmes A synthesis of empirical research and applied practice . International Journal of Sport Science and Coaching , 11 ( 2019 ) What is ethical coaching ?

of Coaching Science , 13 ( Markus , 1977 ) and processing information about the self . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 35 , Evans , 2017 ) Young female soccer players perceptions of their modified sport environment . The Sport Psychologist , 31 , 65 , 2004 ) Sport , rules and values Philosophical investigations into the nature of sport . Mills , 2016 ) Expert Premier League soccer managers use of transformational leadership behaviours and attitude towards sport integrity An intrinsic case study . International Journal of Sports Science Coaching , 11 , Mills , Advancing leadership in sport time to actually take the blinkers off ?

Sports Medicine , 47 , Mills , Response to and Collins ( 2017 ) Response to Mills and Advancing leadership in sport Time to actually take off the blinkers ?

Mills , 2017 ) Development and initial validation of an indirect measure of transformational leadership integrity . Psychology and Exercise , 32 , Mills , 2019 , May 10 ) A conceptual model and research agenda for studying transformational leadership holistically in sport . Till , 2016 ) Does modifying competition affect the frequency of technical skills in junior rugby league ?

International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching , 11 ( 582 Mills , A . 2014 ) How ideological migration geographically groups . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 51 , 2018 ) Only by speaking out can we create lasting change What can we learn from the Larry tragedy ?

British Journal Medicine , 53 ( 2010 ) Moral complexity The fatal attraction of truthiness and the importance of mature moral functioning . Perspectives on Psychological Science , Rest , 1995 ) The four components of acting morally . In ( Moral behavior and moral development An introduction ( A . 2013 ) The doping I Implications of the functional use theory on mental representations of doping . Performance Enhancement Health , The ofthe child . Free Press . 2011 ) Bringing character back How the motivation to evaluate character influences judgments of moral blame . In Shaver ( The social psychology Exploring the causes of good and evil ( APA Books . Rest , 1986 ) Moral development Advances in research and theory . 1965 ) Society and the adolescent . Princeton University Press . Schwartz , 2017 ) Personal values in human life . Nature Human Behavior . Schwartz , Fischer , Ramos , 2012 ) Refining the theory of basic individual values . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 103 ( Shamir , House , Arthur , 1993 ) The motivational effects of charismatic leadership A concept based theory . Organization Science , Shields , 1995 ) Character Development and . Human Kinetics Shields , 2007 ) Advances in sport morality research . In ( Handbook psychology ( Wiley . 2017 ) Inferences about moral character moderate the impact of consequences on blame and praise . Cognition , 167 , 2009 ) The link between children sport participation and Exploring the mediating role of sport . Psychology and Exercise , 10 ( Smart , Williams , 1973 ) Utilitarianism For and against . Cambridge University Press . Smith , Hunt , 1977 ) Training the Coaching Behaviour Assessment System ( American Psychological Association . Smith , Sarrazin , 2015 ) Development and validation of the multidimensional motivational climate observation system . Journal and Exercise Psychology , 37 , 1995 ) Psychological empowerment in the workplace Dimensions , measurement , and validation . Academy of Management Journal , 38 , Standage , 2007 ) Students motivational responses toward school physical education and their relationship to general and quality of life . Psychology and Exercise , 583

Chapter 24 Coaching Stephens , 1996 ) Moral atmosphere and judgments about aggression in girls soccer Relationships among moral and motivational variables . Journal Exercise Psychology , 18 , 2004 ) Cultivating sentimental dispositions through Aristotelian habituation . Journal of the Philosophy of Education , 38 ( 2000 ) The Hand of God ?

Essays in the Philosophy . Sweden . Acta . Thomas , Wilson , 2016 ) Playing by the rules A developmentally appropriate introduction to rugby union . Science and Coaching , 10 , Cote , 2019 ) Observing coaches leadership behaviours in sport The development of the Coach Leadership Assessment System ( Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science , 23 , 2015 ) A approach to moral judgment . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 10 ( Van , 2015 ) The neuroscience of moral cognition From dual process to dynamic systems . Current Opinion in Psychology , Van , 2014 ) The handbook of virtue ethics . Walker , 2004 ) Differing Conceptions of moral Just , brave and caring . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 86 , Weiss , Smith , 2008 ) Moral development in sport and physical activity . In Horn ( Ed . Advances in sport psychology ( Human Kinetics . 2004 ) Career transitions in sport European perspectives . Psychology Exercise , 02 ) 584