Psychology Textbook Chapter 23 Music in Sport From Conceptual Underpinnings to Applications

Chapter 23 Music in Sport From Conceptual Underpinnings to Applications Costas , Garry , and University London , UK Malaysia , Malaysia University Medical Center , the Netherlands Please cite as , Kuan , 2021 ) Music in sport From conceptual underpinnings to applications . In Jones ( Essentials and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Figure is with permission of Taylor Francis UK Books , from Sport and exercise psychology ( 301 ) by Lane ( Ed ) London , UK . Copyright 2016 permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center . Attribution 40 International , with the exception of Figure . This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview This chapter provides an overview of the key concepts , theory , underlying mechanisms , empirical research , and application relevant to the use of music in sport . The chapter begins with a colorful introduction to the subject matter , in which the use of music in sport is set within a historical frame . Thereafter , a theoretical model is presented that coaches and practitioners can use as a reference point in the design of interventions . This leads into consideration of the , perceptual , and underlie the effects of music in sport . Throughout the chapter , the taxonomy of , and applications of music serves as a common denominator to aid the absorbability of the material . This is reflected in both a critical appraisal of recent literature and consideration of applied aspects . The key contribution of this chapter is that comprehensive guidelines are provided to facilitate athletes and coaches in their application of music . The centrepiece of these guidelines is a new framework that presents factors relevant to optimizing music selection in sport . For correspondence

Chapter 23 Music in Sport Introduction In the first two decades of the century , technological advances in personal listening devices sparked an explosion in the use of music by athletes . As a consequence , the influence of music on the athletes psyche has captured the interest of researchers and practitioners alike . Music has , of course , been widely used since ancient times for a broad variety of purposes to soothe bawling infants , to rejuvenate senior citizens , to punctuate civil ceremonies , to send soldiers into the fray , and even as a form of therapy ( 2008 ) The neuropsychologist , Daniel , wrote that music is unusual among human activities for both its ubiquity and its antiquity ( 2008 ) Greek philosophers from the century were widely known to prescribe music . The mode or key in which the music was written was thought to carry specific benefits . For example , Plato declared that the Dorian mode was conducive to steadfast endurance , whereas the mode was considered appropriate for acts of peace and acquiescence . Mathematician par excellence Pythagoras is credited with discovering the chromatic of all of the notes from to on a piano . Most contemporary Western musicians and composers borrow from the system of tuning which is over 2500 years old . The modern Olympic Games have served a seminal role in formalizing the link between music and sporting endeavor . Prominent composers such as Claude , John Williams , and have been stirred by the Olympic ideals . Chariots Of Fire stands as one of the defining compositions in fusing music with the notion of athletic prowess . The piece was popularized through association with the eponymous movie that depicts the story of two athletes who graced the 1924 Paris Olympics Eric , a devout Scottish Christian who ran for the glory of God , and Harold , an English Jew who ran to combat prejudice . Music has been integral to many Olympic events such as rhythmic gymnastics or figure skating , and the artists of the day performed at the opening and closing ceremonies of each . Among the most memorable performances was that of the late , great American songstress Whitney Houston with One Moment In Time , the anthem of the 1988 Seoul Olympics . But it is not only that provide a vehicle for musical expression in the sporting realm . Pay a visit to your local football , soccer , or rugby team on a weekend and you will hear chants that have been passed down through generations of fans . At Liverpool it the You Never Walk Alone , which was popularized by Gerry and the Pacemakers in the . At Yale football stadium , it the distinctive long cheer taken from Aristophanes play The Frogs ( 405 ) Yale , Yale , Yale , Rah , rah , rah , rah , rah , rah , rah , rah , rah , Yale ! Yale ! Yale ! Oftentimes , musicians compose pieces for a particular team or even a special sporting occasion . One of the examples to embrace both a team and a sporting occasion is Three Lions ( Coming , which became the hit song associated with the Euro Soccer Championships . The chorus belted out by the England coming home , it coming home , football coming home to the fact that England , considered to be the spiritual home of soccer ( known as football in the UK ) had not won a major championship since the 1966 World Cup . The music lent a certain aura to Euro that bridged the gap between a mere soccer tournament and a stage for the nation hopes and dreams . Athletes have made extensive use of music in order to fuel their performances and the literature reveals a common taxonomy that has been applied to the categorization of related 531

, Kuan , interventions . The taxonomy is predicated on when such interventions are used , and . music generally serves a or function and can be used to prime athletes or engender an optimal level of activation either for training or competition . Sometimes music is used to regulate a particular mindset without having either a or function . In terms of the function , music is a particularly potent tool in tempering anxiety . The celebrated British athlete , Dame Kelly Holmes generated a great deal of media interest for her use of the soulful ballads of Alicia Keys at the 2004 Athens Olympics . The expectations of an entire nation can weigh rather heavily on an athlete shoulders but Holmes prevailed , and made history by winning two golds ( 800 and 1500 ) The application of music takes two and asynchronous . Synchronous music entails synchronization between an athlete movement patterns and the rhythmical qualities of a piece of music . In light of technological advances , delineated two distinct forms of synchronization ( a ) Active synchronization entails a motor process in which an athlete or group of consciously synchronize their movement rate with the rhythmical qualities of music and ( passive synchronization entails a process in which a digital interface adapts the tempo of music in or assigns a track at a tempo to match the movement rate of an athlete or group of . Asynchronous music is akin to ambient music where there is no conscious or planned synchronization taking place . Such music can , however , be played loudly , while we tend to think of ambient music as just being part of the sonic background . When used , a central role of music is to lower perceived exertion and thereby increase the amount of work performed ( to engender an effect ) It is notable that music can temper the shift toward negative affect ( displeasure ) that is typically associated with more intense exercise ( see Bird et , 2019 Stork et , 2019 ) Music also provides a rhythmic cue that serves a metronomic function in terms of regulating movement patterns particularly when used in the synchronous mode ( 2012 et , 2019 ) music is proposed to aid recovery from competition or training ( Terry , 2011 ) This application has been by Jones et al . 2017 ) into respite music ( used in between interval bouts ) and recuperative music , which is used at the end of a training session or competition to guide the athlete back toward homeostasis . The respite function was recently redefined by ( 2020 ) in terms of active ( movement based ) and passive ( static ) forms of recovery . This , however , creates an interesting conceptual anomaly , as music is also a form of application ! Nonetheless , the goal of music is to facilitate recovery following intensity activity , such as circuit training or training . This chapter will consider theoretical underpinnings for the application of music in sport , outline underlying neurophysiological mechanisms , provide a critical review of recent studies using the aforementioned taxonomy , and present a broad range of applications to hopefully inspire athletes and their coaches . A Theoretical Model for Music Applications in Sport ( 2016 ) published a theoretical model detailing the antecedents , and consequences of music use in exercise and sport ( see Figure ) Herein , we will focus solely upon the implications of the model for sport participation and training . Moreover , we will not discuss every detail of the model the interested reader is referred to the original 2016 publication and also to chapter of the ( 2017 ) text . The model embraced several aspects of previous models ( et , 1999 Terry , 2006 ) but took an ecumenical and fully integrative approach , particularly in relation to proposed antecedents and . Moreover , the model is heuristic in nature and not mechanistic , meaning that it provides a fisheye view to facilitate fluid 532

Chapter 23 Music in Sport understanding of what is , in actuality , a highly complex array of relationships , processes , and neural mechanisms . Figure A Theoretical Model of the Antecedents , and Consequences of Music Use in the Exercise and Sport Domain Antecedents Consequences Selection Decisions ( moderated by Personal Factors ) Personal Factors Personality Age Gender Musical Upbringing Peer Group Musical Preferences Familiarity Rhythmic Ability Personal Associations Attentional Style Training Status Hearing Acuity Beat Deafness Psychological Positive States Dissociation Arousal Regulation Flow State Enjoyment imagery Musical Factors Intrinsic Tempo Rhythm Metre Modality Psychophysical Melody Harmony Lyrical Content Reduced ( DY Intensity ) Hierarchy i Situational Factors Behavioural Iconic Cues Work Output ' Enhanced Exercise Adherence . When of Exercise ! played . sound , Energy Source Sound Synchronicity ' Enhanced or Recovery Rate Directed Location Presence of Verbal Leader Variety Instruction Selection Decisions Factors ) Note . with permission of Taylor Francis UK Books , from Sport and exercise psychology ( 301 ) by Lane ( Ed . London , UK . Copyright 2016 permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center . The antecedents or precursors are the intrinsic and extrinsic qualities of music , are those factors that influence the strength of the relationship between a musical stimulus and an responses to it ( age and attentional style ) and consequences relate to the main outcomes associated with music use during activities ( arousal regulation , reduced rating of perceived exertion , or enhanced recovery ) The model is predicated on 50 years of empirical research ( see Priest , Terry , 1997 , 1972 , 2017 Terry et , 2020 , for reviews ) The model includes variables relating to athletes themselves , the nature of the task in which they are engaged , and the specifics of the sporting context ( see Figure ) Moreover , both individual and training are considered . Given that the model is heuristic in nature and thus embraces a broad range of factors , only segments of it can be tested in any single empirical study . The complexity 533

, Kuan , of relationships represented within the model is such that individual hypotheses are not made explicit in pictorial form rather these are summarized in narrative form ( see , 2016 ) The model postulates a series of reciprocal interactions and feedback loops among the antecedents , and consequences of music use . Input , in this instance , music , is identified , coded , and moderated by a broad range of personal and situational factors . To touch on intrinsic musical factors ( see Antecedents in Figure ) the temporal aspects of music such as tempo , rhythm , and meter can bear strong influence on an athlete level of activation . Contrastingly , aspects such as modality ( major minor ) and harmony ( how notes are combined ) may be salient in terms of evoking affective responses ( 2013 ) Rhythm and tempo will lead to differential responses depending on the age or personality profile of athletes and the nature of the task in which they are engaged ( et , 2014 et , 2019 et , 2013 ) It is thought that are likely to prefer stimulative music ( 1967 et , 1997 ) which is characterized by a fast tempo ( 120 ) prominent rhythmical features , and exaggerated bass tones . Along similar lines , the melodic and harmonic qualities of music will lead to differential responses depending on an athlete cultural background . Lyrics contain semantic information and their effects on the athlete will depend on the way they receive them as well as the relevance of lyrics to a given athletic task ( 2017 Sanchez et , 2014 ) Among the extrinsic properties of music , iconic cues pertain to how structural elements of a piece of music relate to the tone of certain emotions . For example , music that is slow and soft may sound because there are intrinsic commonalities with sedation and restiveness ( see , North Hargreaves , 2008 ) Because such cues are grounded in the structure of music , it is expected that the same music should hold similar iconic meaning for different athletes ( irrespective of their ethnic or cultural background ) Cultural associations are often forged through the mass media and are , therefore , likely to be relevant to large sections of the population . Taking the example of Chariots Of Fire , the piece immediately conjures images of athletes striding over the sands at Andrews , Scotland and of striving for Olympic glory . Such imagery is fused in the collective consciousness due to the immediate associations with Hugh Hudson movie . The model depicts a reciprocal relationship between personal and situational factors given that , in a sport setting , the music should or carefully coordinated with the tasks and specifics of the session ( et , 1986 ) such as personal preferences and attentional style ( associative dissociative see , 2013 ) will interact with the social environment to determine an athlete response to music . There is a wealth of empirical evidence showing that gender and age moderate athletes response to pieces of music ( Crust , 2008 et , 2010 , et , 2018 ) There is a tendency for women to rate the rhythmical qualities and of music more highly than men nonetheless , men tend to value the importance of cultural associations to a greater degree than women , and prefer styles that might be described as heavier ( Colley , 2008 2017 ) To touch on the consequences ( see the side of Figure ) the two strongest and most consistent appear first ( psychological and psychophysical ) followed by behavioral consequences , and finally , psychophysiological consequences , that are the least consistent ( see Priest , Terry et , 2020 ) Several empirical studies show that athletes appear to experience several of the consequences in unison . For example , appropriate music use can result in enhanced affect that is coupled with greater work output ( et , 2010 et , 2015 Terry et , 2012 ) In Figure , you will notice the inclusion of a feedback loop from the consequences back to the music factors . This relates to how the consequences that an athlete might experience influence their future decisions , and how this process is moderated by personal factors and situational factors . Accordingly , the model predicts that an athlete response to music will be evaluated by them with reference to the moderator factors , and that their evaluation will serve to shape future selection 534

Chapter 23 Music in Sport decisions . The implication is that an athlete is more likely to reselect pieces of music that are deemed to lead to positive consequences and vice versa . Mechanisms that Underlie the Effects of Music in Sport Following a period in which a large number of observational and studies entered the literature , the past 20 years have witnessed a steady stream of studies and chapters that have addressed the underlying mechanisms ( et , 2018 Brett , 2007 et , 2017 et , 2010 ) This subsection will outline a typology of three mechanisms that are commonly advanced to explain how music takes effect in the sport context ( a ) in influencing athletes affective and emotional states ( as a dissociative technique , particularly during endurance and ( as a facilitator of synchronization and rhythmic action . Affect and Emotions The common reasons athletes give for using music include the control of arousal , the regulation or modulation of affective states , and the elicitation of specific emotions ( liveliness , calmness , or aggression Quick , 2013 ) We use the term affect to refer to a neurophysiological state that is consciously accessible as a simple primitive , feeling ( Russell Barrett , 1999 ) We use the term emotion with reference to feelings that are typically brief , intense , and attributable to a discernible cause ( et , 2005 ) For more on the conceptual distinctions between affect and emotion , please see Chapter 12 ( 2013 ) offered a theoretical framework that proposed eight psychological mechanisms through which music influences affective and emotional responses . In the interests of brevity , we will focus here on just four of these mechanisms and duly refer the reader to paper for the full complement . The brain stem reflex refers to the process by which the fundamental acoustic properties of music stimulate responses through signaling a potentially important or urgent event . For example , fast , loud music would automatically stimulate the listener by activating the central nervous system irrespective of how the music is subsequently appraised . This stimulation results in elevated heart rate ( blood pressure , body temperature , skin conductance , and muscle tension ( 2008 ) Soft , slow music has the converse effect and thus decreases sympathetic arousal . The second mechanism offered by ( 2013 ) is the process of rhythmic entrainment . The rate of movement and bodily pulses such as and respiration rate are drawn toward synchronization with the rhythmical qualities of music . Invariably , athletes express a preference for musical tempo to remain relatively high during intense training sessions ( Jones , 2014 Quick , 2013 ) Along similar lines , given the propensity for brainwaves to entrain with tempo ( Will Berg , 2007 ) music can have a priming effect pretraining or as part of an routine ( 2015 , 2020 ) Slow , calming music can also be used to combat the symptoms of anxiety ( Kuan et , 2018 Quick , 2013 ) and ( 2001 ) highlighted that music can influence the human organism by serving as a trigger for emotional associations , a process that may rely on subcortical mechanisms . Related to this notion , the third of ( 2013 ) hypothesized mechanisms , evaluative conditioning , refers to the repeated pairing of a particular piece of music with other positively or negatively stimuli . For example , a specific piece may , through repetition , become inextricably linked with part of an routine . This is a form of classical conditioning , wherein a previously neutrally conditioned stimulus ( a piece of music ) gains the ability to evoke the same emotional response as a positively unconditioned stimulus ( a sense of being mentally ready ) 535

, Kuan , Visual imagery is another particularly relevant mechanism from a sports perspective ( Kuan et , 2018 ) explained this in terms of emotions induced due to the music evoking memories of an specific life events ( imaging a previously successful sporting performance conjures the associated emotions ) Music is effective in stimulating visual imagery ( 1995 ) and athletes are generally adept in using visual imagery to , for example , induce relaxation or achieve an appropriate mindset ( Gregg et , 2005 , et , 2018 ) It appears plausible , therefore , that emotional responses to music listening originate , in part at least , from the visual images generated by the listener ( et , 2009 ) Dissociation and Perception of Exertion Music is a stimulus that promotes dissociation or an of focus and so it can distract athletes from pain as well as from cues . Neural mechanisms that influence the perception of exertion are thought to underlie some of the documented effects of music in the sport context . The afferent nervous system , which transmits impulses ( pain and fatigue ) toward the spinal column and brain , exhibits a limited channel capacity ( analogous to internet bandwidth ) Consequently , sensory stimuli such as music may inhibit the physiological feedback signals associated with physical exertion ( et , 1961 , 1985 ) A study using electroencephalography ( EEG ) showed that music is effective in theta waves ( in the frontal , central , parietal , and occipital regions of the brain ( et , 2016 ) This process has been directly associated with the suppression of symptoms ( see Craig et , 2012 ) The aforementioned capacity of music is far less pronounced at higher physical activity ( 75 ) when the signal strength of physiological feedback is more potent ( 2003 , 2001 ) Nonetheless , even during physical activity , affective stimuli such as music appear to retain some influence on how athletes feel and therefore how they interpret the sensations of physical effort and fatigue ( et , 2015 Terry et , 2012 ) In recent neurophysiological work , again using EEG , it was demonstrated that music reduced brain connectivity across frontal and central regions of the cortex ( the sensorimotor regions ) a phenomenon that is associated with reduced exercise consciousness ( et , 2017 ) Rhythmic Responses to Music From an evolutionary perspective , it seems that humans have developed a genetic predisposition to respond to music ( Patel , 2008 Keller , 2012 ) and this is important in helping to explain the potential benefits of music in the realm of sport . The coupling of perception and movement is guided by recurrent patterns in the structure of music ( Leman et , 2013 ) Coupling pertains to the connection between agents that enables them to communicate and receive information about each other actions ( 2017 ) In the case of entrainment , coupling is normally mutual or bidirectional , allowing two agents to perceive and influence each other . In the application of synchronous music to an activity such as running , until recently , the coupling was unidirectional , as the athlete could follow the musical rhythm , but the rhythm did not alter in response to their movement rate . Athletes can now use and digital interfaces that facilitate mutual synchronization ( et , 2014 ) this relates directly to the described notion of passive synchronization . The central processing demands that pertain to passive synchronization are , conceivably , of a lesser order when compared to unidirectional coupling ( active synchronization ) albeit comparative studies have yet to emerge in the literature . It has been proposed that a central pattern generator or pacemaker in the brain may serve to regulate temporal functioning and govern the rhythm innate human predisposition to synchronize movement with musical rhythms ( Schneider et , 2010 ) This mechanism would coordinate afferent nerve signals with their efferent counterparts that control movement , and also regulate 536

Chapter 23 Music in Sport locomotion , neurovascular control , and sensory integration . The supplementary motor area of the brain is another likely seat of the rhythm response , as this sector is activated both during the perception of musical rhythms and in the rhythmic ordering of motor tasks ( et , 1996 ) The process of synchronizing movement with music , often referred to as synchronization ( Bood et , 2013 et , 2019 et , 2013 ) is a form of rhythmic entrainment ( see , 2013 ) In mechanistic terms , training in synchrony with music can lower the metabolic cost ofthe activity by promoting greater neuromuscular and kinetic efficiency ( Bacon et , 2012 , 2008 Terry et , 2012 ) Now that we have covered some of the key underlying mechanisms , we will go on to critically review empirical research studies in the area of music and sport . The Scientific Study of Music in Sport In recent decades , numerous studies have explored the application of music as a regulator of emotion and as an aid in the sporting realm ( see Terry et , 2020 ) and Priest ( highlighted the advantages of applying music to athletes routines as well as to their training . More recently , a by Terry et al . 2020 ) that embraced sport and exercise , showed that music had a small but significant effect on physical performance ( We will review the literature in line with the taxonomy of , and applications of music in sport . Music Many of the studies exploring the effects of music prior to sports performance have focused on the dichotomy of stimulative sedative music ( et , 2007 , et , 2018 ) Albeit many of sports governing bodies have prohibited the use of personal music devices in the competitive arena , music has been commonly used during and as part of a routine . In his review , 2017 ) suggested that research into music lacked systematic organization , was methodologically constrained , and appeared only infrequently in the broader sports science literature . Moreover , he highlighted that the findings pertaining to the application of music were inconclusive in terms of ensuing effects . It appears that , as might be expected , music has a more pronounced effect on brief or anaerobic tasks , such as grip strength or Anaerobic Test ( WAnT ) performance , when compared to tasks of longer duration ( 2017 ) In an early related study , Hall and ( 1995 ) administered a stimulating musical piece ( Gon na Fly Now by Bill ) and found that it contributed to faster times over a dash when compared to a control . The researchers only administered a stimulative music condition and so we do not know the effects of an alternative music condition or sound per se on sprint performance ( sedative music or crowd noise ) Yamamoto et al . 2003 ) reported that 20 min of music lowered levels of arousal prior to an effort on a cycle ergometer , whereas music had the converse effect . Neither condition had any influence on performance ( power output ) The music did , however , decrease plasma norepinephrine concentration , while the fast tempo increased plasma epinephrine , which is implicated in the response . et al . 2007 ) examined the influence of stimulative music played while participants to perform the WAnT and did not find any effect . Nonetheless , the music did elevate levels prior to execution of the task ( the music physiological arousal ) More recently , Cheek et al . 2018 ) conducted a study into grip strength that entailed five music conditions , which were administered to male athletes ( 126 ) 126 ) 87 ) 87 ) 537

, Kuan , music , and a control . They found that music played at a high intensity led to the highest scores , whereas at a , it led to much lower grip strength . In addition , affective valence scores were highest with music . Thus , the use of music could enhance affective valence and arousal levels when athletes prepare for a simple or gross motor task ( sprinting or ) The application of music in the context of sports ( archery , bowls , darts , and shooting ) is done primarily with a view to arousal levels prior to competition . Kuan ( 2014 ) conducted a study with unfamiliar relaxing and arousing music applied to elite shooters and weightlifters . He found that unfamiliar , relaxing music was more conducive to mental imagery than arousing music prior to a simulated competition in both . The mental imagery accompanied by relaxing music led to performance gains for both sets of athletes . In a study , Kuan et al . 2018 ) investigated the effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training in preparation for performance ( Figure ) Participants were assigned to one of three conditions unfamiliar relaxing music , unfamiliar arousing music , or a control . Measures of galvanic skin response , peripheral temperature , and showed that , as expected , listening to relaxing music served to lower arousal ( see Figure , Figure , and Figure ) Notably , the relaxing music elicited the greatest performance gains as well as more adaptive profiles on the revised Competitive State Anxiety ( anxiety was perceived as being more facilitative to performance ) Figure Performance Gain Scores for Unfamiliar Relaxing Music , Unfamiliar Arousing Music and Conditions 50 . 45 40 A , 35 A 30 IV 25 20 a 15 10 I I Unfamiliar Relaxing Unfamiliar Amusing No Music Music Music Research Conditions Note . Error bars represent standard deviation . Reproduced from Kuan , Morris , Terry , 2018 ) Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on performance , physiological arousal indices , and competitive state anxiety . Frontiers in Psychology , 14 , under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence ( BY ) 538

Chapter 23 Music in Sport Figure Mean Galvanic Skin Response ( From to to in Sessions and 12 ) weeks III , Unfamiliar Relaxing Music ( Unfamiliar Amusing Music ( 02 . No Music ( Session Imagery Intervention Session 12 Imagery I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ( 170 180 740 300 360 420 480 5430 ( 50170 180 740 300 35 470 480 540 Time ( Note . Measures were only taken in Session and Session 12 . Reproduced from Kuan , Morris , Terry , 2018 ) Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on throwing performance , physiological arousal indices , and competitive state anxiety . Frontiers in Psychology , 14 , under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence BY . A recent study by et al . 2019 ) that integrated a brainwave entrainment technique with music showed that alpha ( 12 ) music substantially increased participants throwing distances ( shot put , discus , and javelin ) and the theta ( music significantly reduced throwing distance . Although the study is limited given that it employed a experimental design and there were only six participants , it supported earlier findings ( Kuan , 2014 Kuan et , 2018 ) showing that the use of relaxing music can influence performance in both and sports . Research has shown that music can be used to ( a ) manipulate emotional states ( enhance athletic performance in sports ( sprint events ) promote imagery and ( assuage anxiety . There is , however , relatively limited research in this area , creating considerable scope for further applied work into how music can help athletes to attain optimal states . 539

, Kuan , Music Music is a tool that can be applied for training and , in some instances , competition . Several studies support the application of music for continuous , performance . Researchers have been interested in two main applications of and asynchronous . Figure Mean Peripheral Temperature ( From to to in Sessions and 12 35 ' A . 30 ' in Relaxing Music ( Unfamiliar Amusing Music ( 279 . No Music ( Session imagery Session 12 Imagery 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 60 170 180 740 300 360 470 480 540 Time ( Note . Measures were only taken in Session and Session 12 . Reproduced from Kuan , Morris , Terry , 2018 ) Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on throwing performance , physiological arousal indices , and competitive state anxiety . Frontiers in Psychology , 14 , under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence BY . Synchronous Music Synchronous music is used for psychological benefits as well as an aid , and often accompanies tasks such as running or indoor cycling ( Priest , The application of synchronous music is more likely to result in effects than the asynchronous application ( Priest , When athletes train in sync with music , they tend to work harder and for longer ( Terry et , 2012 ) A number of studies have explored the effects of synchronous music during activities such as running and cycle . Terry et al . 2012 ) tested elite Australian who performed a treadmill running task . Participants endured for longer in the presence of two synchronous music conditions ( motivational neutral ) The researchers found that was 540

Chapter 23 Music in Sport and longer when running in sync with motivational and neutral music , respectively , when compared to a control . Furthermore , mood responses and feeling states were more positive under motivational music compared to either neutral or conditions . A potential limitation was that the sterile laboratory environment may have been so unstimulating for the demanding based task , that the music served as a welcome distraction from rather dull surroundings . et al . 2010 ) examined the effects of synchronous music using more complex motor tasks than running or cycle . They used a series of , tasks performed to exhaustion under three conditions ( each at a tempo of 120 ) motivational music ( that inspires movement ) neutral music , and an auditory metronome . Exercises such as , standing squats , and heel raises are a staple of many athletes training . Interestingly , et al . 2010 ) found that women recorded significantly higher endurance performance and affective valence scores than men , when exposed to the two music conditions . There is scope for further examination of gender differences in response to music while experimentally manipulating the complexity of motor tasks . Photo by from 541

, Kuan , Figure Mean Heart Rate ( From to to in Sessions and 12 A weeks my . IV ) I Unfamiliar Relaxing Music ( Unfamiliar Amusing Music ( No Music ( Session Imagery Intervention a ' Session 12 Imagery Intervention I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 Time ( Note . Measures were only taken in Session and Session 12 . Reproduced from Kuan , Morris , Terry , 2018 ) Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on throwing performance , physiological arousal indices , and competitive state anxiety . Frontiers in Psychology , 14 , under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence ( BY . In an applied study , et al . 2019 ) examined the effects of synchronous music over a period of training . Twelve recreational athletes were assigned to one of two groups ( a ) Sprint training coordinated with synchronous music or ( a control condition with conventional sprint training and no music . The findings showed that , after a month of training , participants in the synchronous music group executed the time trials faster than the control group . The authors suggested that longer periods of monitoring and application of synchronous music would provide greater insight into the possible benefits of synchronous music protocols in a sport training context . The effects of synchronous music on psychophysiological parameters and running performance in hot and humid conditions was investigated by et al . 2018 ) Runners completed two running trials in simulated situations , recreating heat coupled with 70 humidity , under conditions of 542

Chapter 23 Music in Sport synchronous music and no music . Participants ran on a treadmill located inside a climate chamber for 60 min at 60 and continued to run at 80 , until they reached voluntary exhaustion . Time to exhaustion was longer in the synchronous music condition when compared to control . Moreover , scores were lower at each time point ( 15 , 30 , 45 , and 60 min ) of the part of the protocol ( 60 ) in the synchronous music condition ( see Figure ) The results illustrate how runners can benefit from synchronous music under hot and humid conditions . However , the study did not include an asynchronous music condition and so it is not known whether synchronization per se was responsible for the observed effects . The study highlights the need for more studies that compare synchronous asynchronous music ( see also , Terry et , 2020 ) Figure Participants Rating of Perceived Exertion Under Two Conditions 21 ( 19 ( I ) 17 ( I ) 15 ( I 001 ) a Rating of Perceived Exertion Scores I ( 001 ) 13 I 11 I ( MUSIC ' Synchronous Music . I . I 15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min Exhaustion Time Note . Error bars represent standard deviation . Created using data from , Kuan , Ong , Chang , Terry , 2018 ) The heat is on effects of synchronous music on psychophysiological parameters and running performance in hot and humid conditions . Frontiers in Psychology , 1114 , under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence ( BY ) Asynchronous Music The asynchronous application of music has , by a wide margin , attracted the greatest research interest in the literature ( see Terry et , 2020 ) This application of music occurs when human movement is not consciously synchronized with the rhythmical qualities of music ( Terry , 1997 ) There have been studies into the psychological , psychophysical , psychophysiological , and effects of asynchronous music in a sporting context ( et , 2009 543

, Kuan , et , 2013 ) The main benefit of using asynchronous music is that it can create a more pleasant training environment and enhance training experiences . Its application can reduce by , but only during submaximal training , given that physiological cues predominate attention during intensity tasks , such as rowing ( Priest , Asynchronous music can also enhance positive affect or reduce negative affect even at relatively high work ( et , 2018 Jones , 2014 ) Stork et al . 2015 ) conducted a study that applied asynchronous music to the WAnT , with four bouts . The peak and mean power achieved by participants was higher in the music condition when compared to a control . A potential limitation of the study is that music was used , and therefore the properties of the music were not standardized across participants . Stork et al . 2019 ) conducted a study on the effects of asynchronous music on Sprint Interval Training ( SIT ) Their findings showed that enjoyment was higher with the music condition when compared to podcast and controls . Also , the affective responses throughout the SIT trial were more positive in the music condition . These findings are relevant to athletes who engage in , training . Research has shown that music can be used to ( a ) engender an effect ( particularly when used in the synchronous mode ) enhance athletic performance when applied longitudinally ( reduce by 10 in submaximal training tasks and ( enhance affect at a range of training . There is a dearth of research comparing synchronous asynchronous music and this should be a focus for future studies . Music The use of music for recovery , also known as active recovery , or static recovery , often referred to as passive recovery , is an approach that has seldom been examined by researchers ( 2017 ) One of the most common uses of music for athletes is to regulate or modulate affective valence and arousal ( engender positive feelings ) after intense training or competition ( 2016 ) You will recall that music can be applied in respite forms ( in between exercise bouts ) and as a recuperative tool ( at the end of a training session or competition ) Jones et al . 2017 ) examined the psychophysiological effects of music ( music used for static recovery ) on acute recovery from , running bouts performed by male runners . Upon completion of each running bout , participants were exposed to tempo music ( music ( or a control . A range of measures were taken that included affective responses , gas exchange , and pulmonary ventilation . The researchers found that music resulted in higher scores on the Feeling Scale ( enhanced affective valence ) over the entire static recovery period compared to a control . et al . 2021 ) investigated the effects of music ( music used for active recovery ) They administered ( and control conditions using a interval training ( protocol . They reported that the music condition improved affective valence during exercise and active recovery . Both and music increased dissociation , exercise enjoyment , and remembered pleasure relative to the control condition . In addition , music was shown to reduce during recovery periods . Jones et al . 2020 ) contrasted two music conditions ( and continuous ) with a control using a protocol . In contrast to et , they found that music did not influence affective valence during either exercise bouts or recovery periods . Nonetheless , Jones et al . reported that the continuous application of music resulted in greater enjoyment and remembered pleasure than music . In this instance , the music tempo , 544

Chapter 23 Music in Sport which was in the range , may not have been optimal for use in active recovery toward the high end of this range . Finally , with the notion that slow , sedative music can facilitate the recovery process that follows exhaustive exercise ( a recuperative music application ) Bruce et al . 2018 ) investigated the effects of two music conditions a control on psychological and psychophysiological recovery indices . The two music conditions were slow , sedative music ( 71 ) and fast , stimulative music ( 129 ) The authors found that slow , sedative music facilitated the of affective arousal ( see Figure ) The greatest decrease in affective arousal between active and passive recovery phases was evident in the slow , sedative condition . Women had a more pronounced reduction in arousal than men in response to the slow , sedative music condition . measures showed that fast , stimulative music inhibited the return of toward resting levels . There was a main effect of condition for affective valence suggesting that the slow , sedative condition induced more positive affective responses when compared with the control and fast , stimulative conditions . Figure Condition Time Interaction for Affective Arousal ( Control Sedative Stimulative Affective Arousal Scores Active Recovery 10 min 20 min 30 min Time Note . Adapted from , Bruce , Stevens , 2018 ) Psychological and psychophysiological effects of recuperative music . Medicine Science in Sports Exercise , 50 ( under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence ( BY ) Research has shown that music can be used to ( a ) enhance affective responses following exhaustive training sessions ( improve the experience of training sessions predicated on protocols and ( facilitate physiological recovery but notably not when the tempo is high . 545

, Kuan , music has been the least investigated music application and so there is potential for a broad range of research . A particularly valuable line of work would be to use physiological ( blood lactate ) psychophysiological ( electroencephalography EEG ) and neurophysiological ( functional infrared ) measures alongside subjective measures of recovery ( the Feeling Scale Hardy , 1989 ) How to Apply Music in Sport Athletes are able to derive benefit from the use of music before , during , or even after sport , as detailed in the earlier sections of this chapter . athletes needs will differ and so the first thing to make clear is that there is no simple , solution . In this section , we explore how music can be used for performance enhancement , considering , among other factors , athletes preferences , requirements , and a range of musical factors ( rhythm and lyrics ) Using Music Before Sport For coaches and athletes wanting to harness the power of music , careful consideration of the use of music is a good point of origin . Commencing a training session or competition in the right physical and mental state is often crucial for performance success . Music can help in an athlete emotional state and controlling their thought patterns before sport ( Bishop , 2010 ) Many athletes benefit from starting a competition with an elevated level of arousal . Fast and loud music induces physiological changes such as increases in , blood pressure , and muscle tension . This happens irrespective of how much athletes actually like the music ( see , 2008 ) Fast , loud music can therefore help a sprinter to rocket out of the starting blocks and may provide a tennis player with a mental edge over an opponent . For sprinters , The Prodigy Run With The Wolves ( 166 ) might represent a good example , and for tennis players , Black Eyed Peas Boom Boom Pow ( 130 ) The latter track was famously used by Andy Murray ( former world men singles player ) To Each Their Own Not all athletes need or want to be as happy as a before a training session or competition . Some will choose to listen to dark and aggressive music , such as heavy metal , in order to feel confident and strong ( 2017 ) might pick tracks such as Park One Step Closer ( 95 ) while snowboarders might go for Lords Of The Boards by the Guano Apes ( 104 ) to feel before a sharp descent or a jump . Each athlete needs to experience a level of arousal that is compatible with their upcoming task ( but even for rather similar tasks , their personal preferences can differ . Some may interpret their heightened arousal as positive excitement , while others may dislike these sensations and feel anxious or stressed . Music can steer athletes toward a positive interpretation of their feelings of excitement , pressure , or anxiety before sporting competition ( 2017 ) Figure depicts how the athlete characteristics , components of the sport , and attributes of a musical piece relate to one another in determining the optimal musical choice for performance enhancement in sport . It not always music of the variety that does the trick . Music that is soft and slow can help an athlete to relax and attain a calm mindset ( Bishop et , 2007 ) which might be beneficial for athletes who prefer to begin their training or competition in a relatively placid state . Music chosen for the of arousal can be sourced from many musical genres , depending on an athlete preferences ( pop , folk , or reggae ) Pieces with relatively simple and slow rhythms tend to work well in terms of decreasing affective and physiological arousal ( Classical music , ballads , or ethnic songs can all work effectively . Athletes might try Johann 546

Chapter 23 Music in Sport Canon in ( 72 ) Katie Nine Million Bicycles ( 82 ) or Empire by Shakira ( 80 ) Figure Factors Relevant to Optimal Music Selection in Sport Athlete Age Gender Personality Preferences Training Status Musicality Values Rhythmic ability Associations Level of arousal Memories Concentration . Mindset Optimizing music selection Tempo Mode Music intensity Sport Distraction Motor skills volume ( Un ) ol environment Bass Instruments Modality Team The Importance of Familiarity Familiar music can simply make athletes feel good ( enhance their affective valence ) Listening to music that triggers happy memories or reminds athletes of their role , can positively impact their emotional state and increase ( Bishop et , 2007 , Cheek et , 2018 ) Perhaps basketball players will have a penchant for LeBron James and Kevin Durant rap Easy ( 88 ) while soccer players prefer World At Your Feet by Embrace ( 124 ) Gymnasts might settle their nerves with ( 133 ) a soothing piano piece that conjures images of the Olympic performance of gymnast in 2016 . Other tracks with positive extramusical associations include Katy Perry ( 90 ) and Kanye West Touch The Sky ( 106 Lupe Fiasco ) A Musical By facilitating the recall of previous successful or enjoyable sporting experiences , music can bolster motivation and . Through the process of evaluative conditioning 547

, Kuan , 2013 ) familiar music can even evoke psychological and physiological reactions of which an athlete is not consciously aware ( Terry et , 2020 ) Musical pieces can be selected to help athletes remember crucial tactical or technical instructions . In learning correct technique for the shot put , for example , young athletes can use the lyrics of Push It ( 130 ) by . This encourages them to push rather than try to throw the shot the most common technical error . When music is an integral aspect of performance , such as in ice dancing and synchronized swimming , athletes can use the soundtrack of their routine to mentally rehearse their performance as part oftheir preparations . The minutes just before a game or competition can be particularly stressful . Music can help athletes to remain suitably focused on the task at hand ( Quick , 2013 ) Athletes can also use motivational or inspiring lyrics to prompt use of a personal mantra . Repeating part of a chorus from uplifting pieces such as Sia The Greatest ( 96 feat . Kendrick Lamar ) or singing along to the lyrics of The Power ( 109 ) by Snap ! can bolster an athlete and serves to distract them from unhelpful thoughts . Building Team Cohesion As all members of a team should feel comfortable with a playlist used to promote cohesion , selecting music in team sports can be a challenging process . It is , nonetheless , well worth getting at least some from all team members ( see , et , 2018 ) Team songs can be played during the team travels or as a sonic background in the changing room . Simply moving in synchrony during a routine increases social harmony as well as a sense of belonging ( Cross et , 2019 ) Music can thus instill a strong sense of esprit de corps , enhancing a team cohesion and collaboration ( et , 2013 ) A team anthem or collective playlist can remind athletes of previous successes as well as past collective struggles . This can strengthen the belief of individual players in the team abilities , enhancing commitment and resilience even during periods of repeated losses ( Morgan et , 2017 ) Athletes who believe in their team abilities and its members qualities are more disposed toward giving their all ( 2007 ) A team might choose to use a track such as Firework by Katy Perry ( 124 ) or the New Radicals You Get What You Give ( 114 ) to strengthen the perception of team cohesion in the prematch phase . With a Little Help From Our Fans Music can motivate a crowd of sports fans , creating an atmosphere of passion and excitement . On home turf , this is an integral part of the home advantage phenomenon ( 2017 ) The sound of a supportive crowd belting out a chorus or chanting a player name can raise athletes spirits and the sense of collective efficacy ( Bray , 2000 Terry , 2011 ) In many sports , individual athletes or teams select a song that represents their values and enables fans to identify more closely with them . Such applications of music can be valuable in creating a sense of community among athletes , spectators , pundits , and even sponsors . The New Zealand rugby team is a good example of the use of music ( also incorporating tribal chanting and dance ) to increase team spirit . Fans the world over know and look forward to the traditional with which the All Blacks express their determination and lay down the challenge to their opponents . Many teams can be at least mildly intimidated by such bravado and indeed the central purpose for the All Blacks is to fill their adversaries with dread . 548

Chapter 23 Music in Sport Using Music During Sport Many have noticed that their training sessions pass easier when they listen to music . Precisely how beneficial music can be depends on many factors , such as an personality , as well as the intensity and duration of their effort . Whether or not music can be helpful also depends on the complexity and type of task that is being executed . We will go on to explore how the power of music can be tapped during sport or training . Dissociation and Distraction During sport activities of intensity , music can reduce feelings of discomfort and fatigue by hindering the transmission of sensory information from the body to the brain ( et , 2017 ) Athletes thus perceive their effort as being lower in relative terms . Given that athletes base their intended speed or power output on these perceptions of effort ( et , 2018 ) music can make them run faster or push harder , compared to when music is not available ( 2016 ) Note that during very high ( sprinting or sessions ) music is relatively ineffective in reducing perceived exertion . Maintaining Appropriate Focus Even if it does not affect athletes perceived exertion , musical distraction can make it seem as though time is passing by faster . It also facilitates positive thoughts ( 2016 ) and thus can render the experience of mundane activities such as circuit training or repetitive drills in sports like volleyball or tennis , more pleasurable . During long training sessions , such as running or swimming , athletes should select tracks with a steady beat . Concentrating on a regular rhythm helps athletes to stay focused on the task at hand and maintain regularity in their movement patterns . This approach has been shown to make endurance activities more energy efficient , particularly when the music is used synchronously ( Bacon et , 2012 ) Pieces with a predictable structure and simple melodic themes suck athletes in and can lock with their movement pattern . Good examples include Le Grand Put Your Hands Up Detroit ( 128 ) and Pump It Ug by ( 129 ) Supramaximal Efforts When athletes train or compete at high , music can not block pain and discomfort from entering their focal awareness ( et , 2011 Terry et , 2020 ) Nevertheless , listening to , preferred music can increase athletes motivation , enjoyment , and affective state ( Stork et , 2019 ) During training such as SIT , appropriate music is fast ( 125 et , 2019 ) uplifting , loud ( 70 ) and characterized by a steady beat ( 2016 ) Lyrics are somewhat less important , as it is hard for athletes to process lyrical content during highly strenuous training sessions ( 2017 ) Good examples include Daft Punk Harder Better Faster Stronger ( 126 ) or Party Rock Anthem by ( 130 feat . Lauren Bennett and ) Music as a Pacemaker Moving in time with the beat of a popular song comes rather naturally to most people ( et , 2016 Terry et , 2012 ) This form of synchronous application of music can help an athlete to maintain an even pace throughout an training session and increase their movement efficiency ( Bacon et , 2012 Terry et , 2012 ) To use music in a synchronous way , the rhythm and tempo ofthe chosen tracks need to complement an athlete movement pattern and rate ( et , 2017 ) Regular and beats make it easier for athletes to follow the music meter . 549

, Kuan , Many runners have experienced how music with the right rhythm can seem to slightly hasten their pace and thus bolster their performance ( Van Leman , 2016 ) For example , the great Ethiopian distance runner , believed that running to the track ( 136 ) by John provided exactly the rhythmic stimulus he needed to maintain an optimal pace . He used this track as the sonic backdrop to an indoor world best for 2000 min 1998 . Also , for cyclists training indoors , music can help them to sustain an optimal cadence and maintain power output throughout lengthy training sessions ( et , 2010 ) Some sports present particular challenges when it comes to syncing movement to the beat . In rowing , for example , athletes execute a movement that leads to a stroke rate of 25 strokes per min . Their preferred music , however , is often far in excess of 30 beats per minute ! A good solution is to select a track , such as Shakira Don Lie ( feat . Jean ) or Breathe And Sto at a tempo of 100 to execute one full stroke over each set of four beats ( a musical measure or bar ) Music in the Competitive Arena In many artistic sports , music is an integral part of performance . In gymnastics or ice dance , success depends greatly on the judges correspondence between a piece of music and an athlete movement pattern is thoroughly scrutinized . Soundtracks for sport routines usually comprise some fast , rhythmic sections that correspond with the most difficult , demanding , and paced movements . They also include more sedate sections , during which an athlete can catch their breath before the next burst of effort . The music each movement sequence and it seems as though the athlete merges with their auditory accompaniment . A great example concerns Gabrielle Douglas floor routine during the 2012 London Olympics , wherein she used a of Memories ( 130 ) by David feat . Kid , and Yolanda Be Cool We No Americana ( 125 ) for an impressive acrobatic tumbling series . Mindlessly using music as acoustic wallpaper is not an approach we would recommend . Music can be an unwanted distraction when athletes are learning new motor skills , or when they need to concentrate on complex processes ( Terry , 2011 ) The absence of music could also be preferable when athletes are receiving feedback from their coach or when they need to communicate with teammates . Using personal music is often not permitted during competitions ( in track and field Van Leman , 2016 ) We would thus encourage endurance athletes to complete a couple of training sessions each week without music . This makes them less reliant on music and can prepare them for the ( likely unpleasant ) sensations they will encounter while competing . Respite and Recuperative Music Respite Music In many sports , athletes have a brief period of time in between consecutive physical tasks , ranging from repeated sprint efforts or several games on one day ( in a tournament setting ) chosen respite music can help athletes to make optimal use of this ( brief ) period of recovery ( Jones et , 2017 ) Music applied during training can encourage athletes to take sufficient time to recover before going again or initiating another set of activity . This is important in sports where athletes need near maximal power output to perform ( sprint events in swimming or track and field ) When training intensity is extremely high ( during supramaximal intervals ) respite music could be most effective when used in between intervals . At these moments , athletes can concentrate on the music , which has been found to assuage negative affect ( et , 2021 ) 550

Chapter 23 Music in Sport Moderately stimulating and optimistic ( happy ) music with a simple melodic structure and catchy lyrics can be ideal . We would suggest a medium tempo for respite music ( this will help in maintaining the level of psychomotor arousal required for the next task . Examples of suitable tracks include Get Lucky by Daft Punk feat . Pharrell Williams and Nile Rodgers ( 116 ) and Madonna ( 116 ) Recuperative Music When the referee final whistle sounds or the coach calls it a day , athletes have made their last big effort and the best they can do is focus on optimizing their recovery until the next time they enter the fray . Interestingly , there are also musical solutions for the enhancement of recovery and recuperation . Recuperative music of the slow , sedative variety can accelerate decreases of physiological arousal toward an resting values . It can also have important psychological effects , as it increases feelings of wellbeing , calmness , and revitalization ( Bruce et , 2018 ) Moreover , it reduces stress and might disrupt athletes negative rumination . Being able to relax and detach from sport is relevant to recovery ( Balk , 2020 ) Hence , recuperative music might also enhance athletes wellbeing and motivation . A recuperative playlist for use directly after sporting activity should ideally have a slow tempo that descends from track to track ( 60 see Table ) Table A Selection of Music Trucks for Recovery Artist Track Tempo ( Amy Winehouse Help Yourself 90 Red Hot Chili Peppers Scar Tissue 89 Corinne Bailey Rae The Scientist 85 Gregory Porter 75 Good Morning 60 Most athletes will combine their sport with work or study , and struggle to find sufficient time for rest and recuperation in their crowded schedules . training sessions or competitions and spending time in unfamiliar surroundings for away fixtures can make it difficult for athletes to sleep . Relaxing music can be part of a structured bedtime routine that promotes a restful night sleep . Many types of soft , sedative , and slow music can work , such as Erik ( various tempi ) or ( 71 ) 551

, Kuan , Conclusions This chapter has explored concepts , theoretical approaches , underlying mechanisms , empirical research , and applications relevant to the use of music in the domain of sport . Music is a potentially powerful tool that can be used before , during , or after sport . Across a broad range , music is important in regulating emotion , boosting confidence , and optimizing focus . By reminding members of a team of shared experiences and values , music can instill a sense of esprit de corps , while also bringing players closer to the fans . music can serve as a type of pacemaker and enable athletes to dissociate from related symptoms or unhelpful thoughts and feelings , when their results , performance , or both , might be disappointing . Nonetheless , it should be noted that with overuse , the potency of a piece of music can be diminished . Athletes might lose interest in a playlist or even develop a strong aversion toward it particularly if it gets associated with failure , anxiety , or frustration . It is therefore advisable for athletes and coaches to have several options at their fingertips ( a variety of ) When music is not permitted , athletes can use auditory imagery to hear or sing a piece in their mind . Even when music is imagined , its rhythm can serve as a pacing aid or a catchy lyric can provide a personal mantra . Carefully selecting pieces of music for use before , during , and after sport is a worthwhile pursuit . Athletes will , invariably , go through a process of to discover which selections work best for them , and when . Analyzing the effects different tracks have on their mindset and thought processes might even teach athletes more about the way their mind and body interact toward the goal of attaining excellence . 552

Chapter 23 Music in Sport Learning Exercises Think of three pieces of music that are associated with sporting endeavor . With reference to the Music Factors box in Figure ( A Theoretical Model of the Antecedents , and Consequences of Music Use in the Exercise and Sport Domain ) consider why these pieces have such an association . Pick three running stride rates for an athlete ( typically , a range of strides per minute is used ) and then select a piece of music for each stride rate that would facilitate synchronization . Consider that one step can be taken on each beat ( with music at ) and that one stride cycle can be taken on each beat ( with music at ) If music is typically used to recreate an athlete ideal mindset , how might we go about some an ideal mindset might be ?

This exercise will require some reading in relation to relationships in sport or individual zones of optimal functioning . A rowing coach wants to improve the training atmosphere for workouts . What advice might you offer the coach in order to assist them in optimizing the application of asynchronous music for their athletes ?

Given the limited scope of research into music to date , can you speculate as to what type of future research might be beneficial in terms of advancing this line of work ?

A sprinter wants to use music as the auditory backdrop for imagery . Can you suggest a few suitable tracks and describe why you think they would be beneficial in this context ?

Using Figure ( Factors Relevant to Optimal Music Selection in Sport ) construct a brief playlist for yourself to be used in the stage or a playlist for an of your choice . Have a look at Table ( A Selection of Music Tracks for Recovery ) and construct a similar playlist , either for yourself or for an athlete of your choice . Select a workout of your choice ( circuit training , pyramid weights session ) and construct a the of each relation to the , various , and phases . You might draw upon the examples in this chapter for inspiration . 553

, Ku an , Further Reading Bishop , 2007 ) A grounded theory of young tennis players use of music to manipulate emotional state . Journal Exercise Psychology , 29 ( 2017 ) The sound Investigating cognitive and behavioral effects of motivational music in sports . Frontiers in Psychology , Article , 2020 ) interventions in sport and exercise . In ( Handbook psychology ( Wiley . 2017 ) Applying music in exercise and sport . Human Kinetics . Kinetics . course , 2017 ) Applying music in exercise and sport Continuing education course . Human . Priest , Bird , 2018 ) A grounded theory of music use in the psychological preparation of academy soccer players . Sport , Exercise , and Performance Psychology , domains . 0000110 . Bird , 2016 ) Under Pressure interventions in In ( Ed . Art in motion ( Peter Lang . domain . Bird , 2017 ) Music in the exercise and sport Conceptual approaches and underlying mechanisms . In , Maes , Leman ( companion to embodied music interaction ( Jones , Farmer , Wilson , Rance , Bailey , 2013 ) Psychological , psychophysical , and effects of music in swimming . Psychology and Exercise , 14 ( Terry , 2011 ) Inside sport psychology . Human Kinetics . Long , 2021 ) Music and sport exploring the intersections . Sport in Society , 24 ( Pain , Anderson , 2011 ) imagery and music The impact on flow and performance in competitive soccer . The Sport Psychologist , 25 ( Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness , Terry , Ka . 2017 ) Effect of music on sports or exercise performance . The Journal of , I . 2011 ) Music in sport and exercise . In Morris Terry ( The new sport and exercise psychology companion ( Fitness Information Technology . Terry , Martin , 2020 ) Effects of music in exercise and sport A review . Psychological Bulletin , 146 ( 554

Chapter 23 Music in Sport Van den , Six , Leman , De , 2021 ) based biofeedback to reduce tibial shock in running a study . Scientific Reports , 11 ( References Bacon , Myers , I . 2012 ) Effect of synchrony on exercise oxygen consumption . The Journal Medicine and Physical Fitness , 52 ( Balk , 2020 ) Recovery in sport Theory , research , and practice . Science Coaching , 15 ( Terry , Lane , 2005 ) Distinctions between emotion and mood . Cognition and Emotion , 19 ( Wright , 2016 ) Cerebral mechanisms underlying the effects of music during a fatiguing isometric task . Psychophysiology , 53 ( 10 ) Wright , 2018 ) Effects of auditory distraction on voluntary movements exploring the underlying mechanisms associated with parallel processing . Psychological Research , 82 , Wright , 2017 ) Effects of auditory stimuli on electrical activity in the brain during cycle . Physiology Behavior , 177 , Bird , Baker , A . 2019 ) Effects of music , video , and degree video on cycle ergometer exercise at the ventilatory threshold . Scandinavian Journal of Medicine Science in Sports , 29 ( Boone , 2009 ) Cardiovascular responses to music tempo during state exercise . Journal of Exercise Physiology Online , 12 ( Bishop , 2010 ) Boom Boom How performance with music . Sport and Exercise Psychology Review , Bishop , 2007 ) A grounded theory of young tennis players use of music to manipulate emotional state . Journal Exercise Psychology , 29 ( se Bood , van der Kamp , 2013 ) The power of synchronization in sports Enhancing running performance by coupling cadence with the right beats . ONE , Article Bray , 2000 ) Athletes perceptions of the home advantage An investigation of perceived causal factors . Journal Behavior , 23 ( Van , Leman , 2016 ) Spontaneous velocity effect of musical expression on walking . ONE , 11 , Article , 2008 ) interactions in the experience of musical performances Physiological correlates . Cognition , 108 ( 555

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Chapter 23 Music in Sport , exercise 35 ( 62 , I . 2013 ) Moderating influence of dominant attentional style and intensity on responses to asynchronous music . Journal Exercise Psychology , Se Jones , Stork , Oliver , 2020 ) Affective responses to interval training with us and respite music . Journal Sciences . Advance online publication . Jones , Tiller , 2017 ) Psychophysiological effects of music on acute recovery from interval training . Physiology Behaviour , 170 , 2013 ) From everyday emotions to aesthetic emotions Towards a unified theory of musical emotions . Physics ofLife Reviews , 10 ( 2016 ) The scientific application of music in exercise and sport Towards a new theoretical model . In Lane ( Ed . Sport and exercise psychology ( Taylor , Francis . 2017 ) Applying music in exercise and sport . Human Kinetics . 2020 ) interventions in sport and exercise . In ( Handbook psychology ( Wiley . Priest , Bird , 2018 ) A grounded theory of music use in the psychological preparation of academy soccer players . Sport , Exercise , and Performance Psychology , 0000110 . Bruce , Stevens , 2018 ) and psychophysiological effects of recuperative music . Medicine Science in Sports Exercise , 50 ( Cheek , Simpson , 2018 ) Interactive effects of music tempi and on grip strength and subjective affect . Scandinavian Journal Science in Sports , 28 ( domain Leman , Bird , 2017 ) Music in the exercise and sport Conceptual approaches and underlying mechanisms . In , Maes . companion to embodied music interaction ( sprint pe 14 ( 73 , music in . Watson , Perry , 2019 ) Effects of synchronization on an applied study . Science and Coaching , Jones , Farmer , Wilson , Rance , Bailey , 2013 ) Psychological , psychophysical , and effects of swimming . Psychology and Exercise , 14 ( Jones , 2014 ) On the stability and applicability of the exercise heart tempo preference relationship . Psychology and Exercise , 15 ( Jones , Howard , Thomas , 2021 ) When it , you feel no pain psychological and psychophysiological effects of music in interval training . Journal Exercise Psychology , 43 , 557

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Journal Sciences , 28 ( 2017 ) Effect of music on sports or exercise performance . The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness , Stork , Martin , A . 2019 ) Let Go Psychological , psychophysical , and physiological effects of music during sprint interval exercise . Psychology and Exercise , 45 , Article Stork , Kwan , Martin , A . 2015 ) Music enhances performance and perceived enjoyment of sprint interval exercise . Medicine Science in Sports Exercise , 47 ( 2001 ) A perspective of perceived exertion and exertion tolerance . In Singer , Janelle ( Handbook psychology ( 820 ) Wiley . Terry , I . 2006 ) Psychophysical effects of music in sport and exercise An update on theory , research and application . In Proceedings ofthe 2006 Joint Conference ofthe Australian Psychological Society and New Zealand Psychological Society ( Australian Psychological Society . Terry , I . 2011 ) Music in sport and exercise . In Morris Terry ( The new sport and exercise psychology companion ( Fitness Information Technology . Terry , Martin , 2020 ) Effects of music in exercise and sport A review . Psychological Bulletin , 146 ( Terry , 2012 ) Effects of synchronous music on treadmill running among elite . Journal and Medicine in Sport , 15 ( 2008 ) Rhythm , music , and the brain Scientific foundations and clinical applications . Van , Leman , 2016 ) effect of music during running performance . Annals of Sports Medicine and Research , 2018 ) The psychophysiological regulation of pacing behaviour and performance fatigability during running with locomotor muscle fatigue and muscle damage in highly trained runners . Sports Medicine Open , Article , Hudson , Edwards , 2010 ) Effects of music tempo upon submaximal cycling performance . Scandinavian Journal of Medicine Science in Sports , 20 ( Will , Berg , 2007 ) Brain wave synchronization and entrainment to periodic acoustic stimuli . Neuroscience Letters , 424 ( 560

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