Psychology Textbook Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching Promoting Adaptive Psychological Outcomes

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching Promoting Adaptive Psychological Outcomes , Dan , and Brendan Open University , UK of South Wales , UK Please cite as Kingston , 2021 ) Motivation in coaching Promoting adaptive psychological outcomes . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview The purpose of this chapter is to identify theoretically driven , practical strategies that can be used to support promotion of an adaptive psychological environment for athletes . Given the influence that coaches in sport can have upon the motivational outcomes and of an individual ( Allen , 2015 2018 et , 2014 ) the strategies are focused on the actions and interactions of the coaching practitioner . We begin the chapter by providing a brief overview of some ofthe dominant theoretical that that have underpinned research into psychological environments . Having described the theoretical foundations to the research , we will review that work , and then , based on the implications , discuss strategies that could support the promotion of adaptive psychological environments . For correspondence

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching Introduction Competition lies at the very heart of many sporting endeavours , with its specific nature often dictating that there will be winners and losers as an outcome . While it is clear that these absolutes are less relevant to some ( as many engage at least partly to compete against themselves to extend their skills , conditioning , and knowledge , for example ) it is the role of the leader , often the coach , to calibrate a positive and healthy definition of success for their athletes , one that will see them enjoy and thrive within the performance arena . An athlete motivation sits at the core of their sporting experience , driving them towards their goals while being simultaneously moderated by the environments they act within ( Ames , 1992 ) The specifics of the environment can be a powerful influencer of the athletes behaviour , and when effectively structured , organised , and with appropriate personal support , can promote positive experiences that have meaningful psychological , cognitive , and affective benefits for the individual ( 1988 ) Psychological Environments in Sport According to theories of motivation , in any sport setting , the personal tendencies of an athlete will interact with the situational cues they experience ( the coach , peers , activities , opposition ) to prompt a range of both ( potentially ) positive and negative psychological outcomes ( 1983 ) Indeed , it is how these cues are subjectively perceived by the athlete that will , in turn , prompt their cognitive and affective responses ( Ames , 1992 , 1983 Roberts , 2012 ) Coaches positively influence an athletes perceptions of the achievement environment through using language and behaviours that instil a pattern of adaptive cognitive responses ( Ames , 1992 , Roberts , 2012 ) More broadly , and to increase the likelihood of desirable cognitive and affective outcomes , the coach can aim to create an adaptive psychological climate for their athletes . Psychological climate is a term used to describe the motivational features of an achievement setting and the subjective meaning given to those features from the individual participants who experience it ( 1986 ) This general term will be used throughout this chapter to describe the psychological environment within an achievement setting it is a phrase that will also serve to highlight many of the overlapping principles between theories and provide a coherent summary of knowledge to date . We now turn to address the two dominant theories associated with research into psychological climates within sport achievement goal theory ( 1984 ) and determination theory ( Ryan , 1985 2002 ) Each theory has established efficacy in describing and explaining achievement environments , and thus represent appropriate theoretical anchors ( 1998 ) to help support coaches in the development of adaptive psychological environments . Achievement Goal Theory ( 1984 ) is one of the most established theories of motivation within the sport and exercise psychology literature ( Roberts , 2012 ) As a theory , is grounded through the basic assumption that we , as human beings , are intentional , rational directed organisms , and that achievement goals reflect and guide beliefs and in achievement ( Roberts , 2012 ) According to theory , it is an individual perception of what competence means that drives behaviours . For example , those individuals who are primarily concerned with mastering tasks and who construe competence through criteria can be regarded as , whereas those whose competence judgements are based on how they perform relative to others are described as ( et , 2016 Roberts , 2012 ) At any given moment in an achievement context ( after conceding a try in a rugby game , taking a throw shot in basketball ) an individual state of involvement ( or why ) drives their thoughts , feelings , 480

Kingston , and behaviours . This is a dynamic state , and these motives sit on a continuum that extends from a strong to a strong ( et , 2004 ) A person goal involvement is based on their perception of the environment interacting with their predisposed goal involvement the latter being referred to as a goal orientation ( 1984 1989 ) As dispositions , goal are more stable than their ( Whitehead , 1998 ) Within , there are two orthogonal goal and orientation ( Kingston et , 2020 Roberts , 2012 ) The orthogonality of means that , as independent structures , a person can be simultaneously high or low in one or both ( Roberts , 2012 ) Research into these goal orientation profiles has indicated that the combination of a high , low are associated with a range of positive outcomes , whilst the reverse ( low , high ) is linked to more outcomes ( Thrower , 2020 ) In contrast , a high , high profile has been proposed to be the most beneficial combination , with the greatest motivational outcomes when associated with high levels of perceived competence ( see Roberts , 2012 ) Though dispositional goal orientation ( are relatively stable , they are moderated by situational cues if these are particularly salient , then the environment may override the dispositional goal of that individual ( Roberts , 2012 Roberts et , 1997 ) Consequently , it is possible for coaches to effectively influence and even manipulate goal perspectives through the psychological environment they facilitate . Situational cues are influenced by key social agents , and these impact how competence perceptions are derived within an achievement setting to subsequently create what is known as the motivational climate ( Ames , 1992 et , 2009 ) Recognised as one of the most powerful elements of , the motivational climate refers to the features of an achievement environment that influence how an individual competence is defined ( Ames , 1992 , Roberts , 2012 ) As such , there are two types of motivational climate that can be fostered , a mastery ( task ) climate , or an ego ( performance ) climate , distinguishable by how competence is perceived to be demonstrated ( 1988 ) A mastery climate will promote learning , effort , persistence , and focus upon with participants demonstrating competence through individual and progress ( Roberts , 2012 ) Studies within sport have reported favourable outcomes from the fostering of mastery climates , for example increased dedication increased enjoyment ( et , 1999 et , 2016 ) improved cohesion ( Eys et , 2013 ) greater ( et , 2005 ) enhanced mental toughness ( et , 2016 ) reduced anxiety ( Smith et , 2007 ) and improved learning strategies ( Treasure Roberts , 2001 ) In contrast , an ego climate ( or performance climate ) promotes competence as being referenced , and thus reflects a judgement based on comparison of standing to other participants ( Ames , 1992 , 1988 ) Ego climates are characterised by the public comparison of ability , minimal participant authority , a focus upon a select few ( often the more talented ) athletes , and the use of disciplinary mechanisms following mistakes ( Hassan Morgan , 2015 ) Such environments have been found to have negative implications for participants , for example , in terms of reduced cohesion ( Eys et , 2013 ) or cheating ( et , 2012 ) Although it has been recognised that ego climates can be of value to sport environment ( et , 1998 Roberts , 2012 ) researchers have espoused that the creation of mastery climates should be the priority for sport organisations and the coaching practitioner ( Gill et , 2017 et , 2010 ) Theory theory ( Ryan , 1985 ) is the second of the two dominant theoretical that have helped to guide research and subsequently the development of adaptive psychological climates within sport settings ( see et , 2014 ) For more on , see Chapter ( et , 2021 ) 481

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching ( Ryan , 1985 ) is a of motivation concerned with the development and functioning of personality within social , and specifically the mechanisms through which determined behaviour is nurtured or impeded ( Kingston et , 2006 ) According to ( Ryan , 1985 ) the social context , in which the coach is a key agent , is paramount to supporting an individual basic psychological needs ( Extending their premise , and Ryan ( 2000 ) suggested that the satisfaction of a person innate psychological needs will provide the necessary conditions for effective motivational functioning and enhanced of that individual the needs are autonomy , competence , and relatedness . These fundamental psychological needs are the psychological mediators of the relationship between factors and behavioural and affective responses they are described within basic psychological needs theory ( Ryan , 2000 ) a of the broader . Specifically , an individual need for autonomy is met when they feel authentically responsible for their actions , while competence is promoted through a feeling of effectiveness when interacting with the environment , and relatedness refers to the extent that a person feels a sense of closeness , connectedness , and being cared for within a given social environment ( et , 2011 Ryan , 2020 ) As a consequence ofthe ease of application across , attention has turned to the promotion of these three within sport settings ( Sarrazin et , 2002 ) with a burgeoning amount of research seeking to address the coaching behaviours that can influence them ( et , 2016 et , 2004 et , 2015 ) Researchers have robustly supported the central tenet of that environmental factors that can promote or thwart the development of the ( et , 2011 et , 2016 ) An environment that has been found to support the of an individual is termed an supportive environment , while an environment antagonistic toward developing positive developmental tendencies is commonly known as a environment ( et , 2008 Ryan , 1985 , 2012 ) and ( outlined seven key features of an supportive coaching environment , these included provision of choice , providing a rationale for decisions , acknowledgment of feelings and perspectives , opportunities for problem solving , giving controlling feedback , avoiding controlling behaviours , and focusing on rather than referenced criteria . These pedagogical behaviours are also supported by providing structure and an empathetic and caring attitude towards athletes as people ( 2003 ) Reflecting on the consequences of such environments , et al . 2014 ) argued that a coach who can foster an environment can ( a ) satisfy participant psychological needs ( maintain intrinsic motivation ( promote engagement in sport and ( enhance individual performance . More recently , and Allen ( 2018 ) suggested that the creation of supportive climates is also positively associated with the promotion of life skill development in sport . The transfer of life skills is recognised as a crucial element of positive youth development , whereby young athletes will learn life skills and psychological that will facilitate success in both sport and life ( et , 2018 ) In contrast , a environment is fostered when coaches use tangible rewards , controlling feedback , employ excessive control , engage in intimidating behaviours , encourage , and have conditional regard for individuals ( et , 2011 ) Similar to the widespread endorsement of mastery motivational climate through ( 1984 ) the promotion of climates ( along with the of controlling behaviours ) has been widely endorsed and thus appears an important objective ( et , 2015 ) From a perspective , methods to guide the creation of such adaptive psychological climates are of critical value to coaches and their athletes . 482

Kingston , Used to Support Adaptive Psychological Climates For the last few decades , researchers have provided guiding principles and to support the coaching practitioner in promoting adaptive psychological climates . With a variation of theoretical approaches taken ( 1984 , Ryan , 1985 or a composition of both ) different have been espoused . Indeed , a growing recognition of the overlapping and complimentary features of and has led to an understanding that the theories are not mutually exclusive ( 2013 et , 2018 et , 2009 , 2001 ) For example , using regression analysis , 2001 ) indicated that the task orientation of university athletes positively predicted their motivation , which in turn was positively associated to their competence ( of competence ) This section of the chapter will consider strategies that are informed by overlapping and sometime analogous principles of both theoretical to influence the psychological climate of sport environments , drawing attention to the most salient themes . Three will be reviewed TARGET ( Ames , 1992 Epstein , 1989 ) MAC ( Smith , 2009 ) and Empowering Coaching ( 2013 ) theoretical and practical implications discussed for each framework . TARGET Initially conceived by Epstein ( 1989 ) and then later developed by Ames ( 1992 ) TARGET is an acronym used to identify salient features of teaching environments task , authority , recognition , grouping , evaluation , and time . Underpinned by ( 1984 ) TARGET has been used successfully within classroom , physical education , and more recently in sport settings as a framework to understand the development of mastery motivational climates ( Kingston et , 2020 ) Each of the TARGET structures can be influenced by the leader of that given achievement environment to promote an adaptive psychological climate for the participants within it . Briefly , task refers to the design of activities ( organisation of tasks ) with the coach ensuring that they are varied , challenging , promote goals , and differentiated for all participants ( Ames , 1992 Morgan , 2017 ) Authority pertains to participants being active agents in their own development , with the coach creating the opportunity for them to make meaningful decisions within the environment ( Roberts , 2001 ) Recognition relates to the focus of feedback in a mastery climate , a coach would provide equitable feedback for individual progress , effort , and persistence ( Morgan , 2017 ) The grouping structure refers to the sorting of participants into heterogenous groups , where overt perceptions of competence may diminish ( Ames , 1992 ) Linked closely to recognition is evaluation , which refers to the manner in which feedback is provided . In a evaluation structure , a coach would provide meaningful , positive , and one to one feedback to players ( Morgan , 2017 ) Finally , affording players flexibility to master the task at hand , catering for all levels of abilities in managing time are encapsulated within the time structure ( Ames , 1992 ) It is important to note , converse behaviours ( to those identified ) may promote an ego climate ( see Morgan Kingston , 2010 Morgan et , 2005 ) Within sport settings , et al . 2014 ) conducted a intervention study with , examining the impact that the manipulation of the motivational climate could have upon their motivation , behaviours , and the social and psychological of this relationship . The intervention programme , which was based upon the TARGET framework , was executed by trained coaches . Participants engaged in 20 hours training , and 10 hours of practical training . As part of the training , one coaching session was video recorded each week with feedback being given to the coaches during the next training seminar . Their findings showed TARGET to be a useful mechanism to manipulate the motivational climate and to promote adaptive outcomes amongst their sport participants , for example performance improvement , decision making , competence , autonomy , motivation , social relations , persistence , effort , cooperative learning , and reduced 483

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching boredom . Where and colleagues explored the psychosocial impact upon participants , Hassan and Morgan ( 2015 ) shifted focus to the coaches in evaluating if a mastery climate coach education programme ( based upon the TARGET structures ) would modify coach behaviours and this be perceived by their athletes . Through guided video , Hassan and Morgan ( 2015 ) found that overtime , not only did coaches increase their behaviours across each of the TARGET structures , but that their athletes also perceived an increase in mastery and decrease in features of the motivational climate . Applying the TARGET framework into elite youth sport , Kingston et al . 2020 ) conducted a longitudinal observational study with a Premier League soccer academy . Observing elite youth soccer coaches over a period they found that mastery climates dominated within the youth development phase of the academy ( under years ) but ego climates were still prevalent . Kingston et al . suggested that features of the motivational climate demonstrated additive characteristics and surmised that some TARGET features ( task , authority , recognition , and evaluation ) could compensate for features aligned with promotion of social comparison ( grouping and time elements ) Although this assertion was also made by Ames ( 1992 ) more research is required to confirm compensatory effects as this could have significant practical implications . For example , in competitive situations ( games ) the coach could emphasise mastery criteria ( cooperation , and providing opportunities for meaningful input by players ) Given the challenge that some coaches have in promoting mastery or autonomy supportive climates during competition , knowledge of features that can compensate for components may help them to effectively manage the climate even during the most heated of competitions ( et , 2017 Smith et , 2017 ) Mastery Approach to Coaching ( MAC ) Originating from coaching effectiveness training ( CET Smith et , 1979 ) MAC ( Smith , 2009 ) is a program that incorporates the mastery principles of ( 1984 ) MAC places an emphasis on two key themes coaching behaviours and maximal effort as the key criteria for defining success ( Smith et , 2007 Smith , 2020 ) Firstly , MAC distinguishes between positive and aversive coaching behaviours , and provides a list of coaching dos and don to guide practitioners . Positive behaviours ( the dos ) include positive reinforcement , encouragement , corrective instruction delivered in an encouraging fashion , and technical instruction . Conversely , aversive coach behaviours ( the don ) include a lack of reinforcement of positive behaviours , punishing mistakes , and punitive technical instructions ( Smith , 2012 Smith et , 2007 Smith , 2020 ) The second key theme is the emphasis placed upon defining success around employing maximal effort . This theme is consistent with Epstein ( 1989 ) and Ames ( 1992 ) guidance within the TARGET framework ( recognition ) whereby the coach will recognise and reward athletes for high effort rather than their ability ( Morgan , 2017 ) Therefore , both models promote competence as reflective of individual effort ( Ames , 1992 ) highlighting the shared philosophies of each framework . The MAC ( Smith , 2009 ) and CET ( Smith et , 1979 ) programmes have been successfully employed within different sport settings ( basketball , soccer , swimming ) reportedly enhancing the psychological climate and promoting adaptive motivational outcomes of participating athletes ( Mclaren et , 2015 et , 2007 ) McLaren et al . 2015 ) used the MAC programme as a coaching intervention with the aim of exploring how a mastery climate would impact perceptions of task and social cohesion within their youth soccer teams . Twenty youth coaches were educated on the principles of MAC , while a further six coaches were spoken to about optimizing the athletic experience ( but not about MAC ) Players who participated under the coaches reported elevated perceptions of team cohesion by the end of the season in comparison to those who had participated under the MAC trained coaches , whose perceptions of cohesion declined significantly . In a similar study with 484

Kingston , basketball coaches , Smith et al . 2007 ) explored the effects of MAC on players somatic and cognitive anxiety . Twenty participating coaches received the MAC training whilst the remaining seventeen did not ( control condition ) Basketball players of the coaches reported a reduction in both dimensions of anxiety and perceived higher levels of mastery climates than the control group . Although MAC and TARGET are both grounded within ( 1984 ) and indeed MAC was designed with Ames ( 1992 ) TARGET principles in mind ( Smith et , 2007 ) MAC differs in its aim to distinguish between positive and aversive coach behaviours ( see Smith , 2012 ) and thus arguably helps coaches to better calibrate their mastery actions . Moreover , the emphasis placed upon knowing aversive behaviours draws parallels to researchers of who have examined the coach behaviours that thwart individual satisfaction of their basic psychological needs ( et , 2011 ) Despite the qualities of the MAC programme it is not readily available to coaches outside of research projects ( Smith et , 2007 et , 2007 ) Participants were given a manual entitled Coaches Who Never Lose ( Smith , 2005 ) to support their employment of mastery approaches to coaching . This situation is by no means unique , and the availability of sport psychology resources for coaches has been raised previously ( et , 2020 Pope et , 2015 ) Indeed , Empowering Coaching , to which the section will shortly turn to , shares similar issues to the MAC programme in this sense . Limited access to resources carries practical implications with coaches unable to acquire or apply knowledge a situation that broadens the theory to practice gap and risks the topic of psychological climates becoming more esoteric . Empowering Coaching Empowering Coaching is a programme designed to enrich the experiences of participants and maintain their participation in sport through the creation of adaptive motivational climates ( 2013 Larsen et , 2015 ) Utilising analogous concepts across and ( see , 2013 ) designed the programme to help coach practitioners create empowering climates and discourage behaviours that disempower . An empowering climate is characterised as high in autonomy support , relatedness support , and , whereas a climate is recognised as controlling , relatedness compromising , and containing coach behaviours ( 2013 et , 2013 ) In their sample of Finnish athletes , Into et al . 2020 ) found that coaching environments were positively associated with burnout , supporting previous research by and ( 2016 ) They also examined the implications of coaching climates on school burnout amongst their participants their findings indicated that who experienced climates also suffered burnout in school . Given the drive towards early specialisation in some sports ( association football in the UK see et , 2021 ) and the low odds that specialising early will lead to a professional career ( 2010 ) the risk of a young adolescent suffering from burnout in both their sport and studies is a major concern as both have potentially serious ramifications for their and future endeavours . A key premise of the Empowering Coaching programme is that the psychological climate can be empowering and . This has been demonstrated in recent research ( Into et , 2020 Smith et , 2016 ) highlighting that features of the motivational climate may be neutral in their empowering or effect . Indeed , Into et ( 2020 ) study found that climates possessing both empowering and features were experienced by 42 of participants . Given that adaptive motivational and psychosocial outcomes are assumed to evolve as a result of empowering environments , the intermediate climates identified in Into et ( 2020 ) and Smith et ( 2016 ) studies highlight the importance of coaches possessing the knowledge and 485

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching capabilities to effectively promote strong features of an empowering climate in order to positively influence the overall psychological climate . 2013 ) distinguishes the Empowering Coaching programme from other in its intention to educate coaches and increase their awareness of the what , why , and how of motivation , motivational processes , and their consequences with respect to the psychological climate they foster . This is important when considering the dynamic nature of the psychological climate ( training versus competition et , 2017 Smith et , 2017 ) and the premise that the extent to which an environment is or depends on the salient ( yet changeable ) features of that environment ( 2013 ) The Empowering Coaching program was used by Larsen et al . 2015 ) to explore how grassroots coaches from France and Norway reflected upon their coaching practices . Eighteen participant coaches were led through a workshop that focused on being an empowering coach . The workshop provided strategies for creating an empowering environment structured around the acronym CLIMATE ( cooperative contribution , learning emphasised , intrinsic focus , mastery orientated , authority with autonomy , taking others perspective , evaluation of effort and improvement ) Participant interviews revealed positive perceptions of the Empowering Coaching programme and its role in supporting them foster empowering environments for their players . The merits of the creating such empowering environments does not just stop with the players . For example , et al . 2018 ) found that coaches who promoted higher levels of empowering climates had higher levels of at the end of the season than the coaches . This suggests that creating empowering environments is mutually beneficial for both the players and the coaches . The discussed in this section have several overlapping features . Firstly , they all place an emphasis on recognising effort as a key mechanism for improving TARGET and MAC are underpinned by where effort is inextricably linked to learning in conceiving of ability in achievement setting ( 1984 Ames , 1992 ) Although competence is described as a basic human need in ( 2001 ) the importance of effort still features as a characteristic of autonomy supportive coaching ( Conroy , 2007 ) and is utilised within the CLIMATE framework , which is a component of the Empowering Coaching programme ( see Larsen et , 2015 ) Second , and aligned closely to the promotion of effort , is the intention to shift participants view of how competence is defined from ( social ) to . To help do this , TARGET , MAC , and Empowering Coaching all advocate the employment of coach behaviours . Third , all prioritise athlete autonomy , with each providing similar means to enable athletes to have a sense of ownership and capital within their development . Fourth , Empowering Coaching and MAC present both adaptive and aversive coach behaviours illustrating the acknowledgement that an environment can be empowering based upon the coach actions ( 2013 , Into et , 2020 ) Although not presented originally by Ames ( 1992 ) more recent TARGET literature has provided for ego involving features ( Morgan Kingston , 2010 Morgan et , 2005 ) information that can help coaches to better predict the implications of their behaviours . Fifth , the interpersonal style of the coach was recognised as a key moderator of fostering autonomy supportive and mastery climates , a feature that was more recently suggested by Morgan ( 2017 ) as an important component that was missing from the TARGET framework . Finally , each approach gives a perspective on the content and manner of feedback with the recommending the use of positive and instructional feedback , and where possible , in a situation . Further Considerations When Creating Adaptive Psychological Climates These each provide parameters for creating adaptive psychological climates . There are , however , several moderating factors that may need to be considered when trying to foster 486

Kingston , desirable climates and thus their athlete motivational outcomes . Emerging from the literature to date , a number have evolved , each of which should be considered and these include coach capabilities , athlete level of participation , incongruence between coach and player perceptions , intervention approaches , and the role of reflective practice . Coach Capabilities to Foster Adaptive Psychological Climates Coaches are to significantly impact changes to an athlete motivation through their influence on the psychological environment . Pritchard and ( 2015 ) suggested that the motivational climate is remarkably controllable ( 210 ) and research indicates that across sports , through their organisation and behaviours , many coaches are already acting to foster positive psychological climates for their players ( Smith et et , 2013 ) Within soccer , et al . 2013 ) analysed the psychological climates created during training by coaches ( 57 ) from England , Greece , and France they noted that coaches fostered more autonomy supportive climates than controlling ones . However , despite the positive evidence , and Pritchard and ( 2015 ) optimistic assertions , many coaches have described difficulties in managing the psychological climate during competition , where there is a tendency to promote ( sometimes inadvertently ) more controlling environments ( et , 2017 Smith et , 2017 ) For example , Smith and colleagues analysed the coaching climates of 17 grassroot soccer coaches across both training and competition environments . Their analysis suggested that the coaches engaged in greater than behaviours during competition . et al . 2017 ) focusing on variations in autonomy support and coaching behaviours , identified substantial differences across games indicating that coaches may promote both and thwarting behaviours the latter leading to antisocial behaviours amongst the participants . In addition to supporting previous research ( Hodge , 2015 ) that portrayed the psychological climate as dynamic , et al . reasoned that this variation could be due to personal ( coach need satisfaction ) or situational factors ( opponents ) This emphasises some of the challenges to maintaining an climate within competition settings when there are often more significant consequences to the outcome . av . Photo by from 487

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching Level of Participation Although winning is often no less important in sport , additional pressures ( financial gain , media , rewards , career longevity ) within the elite echelons creates a natural necessity to be the best . However , given the motivational outcomes of criterion ( Thrower , 2020 ) which may occur readily ( given the competitive nature of elite sport ) it is important that the psychological climate of these environments are carefully considered . Within some elite youth sport settings ( academies and other professional development organizations ) the sole aim might be to produce professional athletes ( elite youth soccer , Adams Carr , 2019 ) However , it is important to note that settings where individuals engage in focused training in a single sport from a young age ( Baker et , 2009 ) has been associated with reduced levels of intrinsic motivation and enjoyment , and a reduced likelihood of ongoing participation in sport ( Russell , 2015 ) Therefore , the psychological climates of early specialisation settings need be carefully considered and designed . Within some organisations there is a belief that experience of climates are necessary to increase the likelihood of progressing to elite adult sport ( et , 1998 Roberts , 1999 ) Despite this perceived need to expose young players to , controlling , or structures ( soccer , see Cushion Jones , 2006 et , 2012 ) research within professional sport has maintained that mastery climates and autonomy supportive coaching are favoured ( by athletes ) and result in positive motivational and behavioural outcomes ( et , 2008 et , 2014 Roberts , 2002 ) et al . 2014 ) interviewed 28 elite athletes to discuss the behaviours from significant social agents that were regarded as being relevant . They found that all social agents ( coaches , peers , and parents ) provided feedback and motivating behaviours , whilst coaches and peers provided relationships and social interactions . et participants also reported that their respective coaches further influenced motivation through coaching , task design , equal treatment , selection ( processes ) and the criteria through which they were evaluated . Despite these findings , the authors highlighted that motivational outcomes are likely to be moderated by both contextual and interpersonal factors . It is , therefore , of considerable importance for the coach to know their athletes when determining the value and efficacy of exposure to arguably less constructive motivational climates ( Becker , 2013 et , 2014 ) The value of positive relationships , and transparency in appears a similarly influential factor within elite sport settings . In one of the most successful international sport teams in recent history ( the New Zealand All Blacks ) an autonomy supportive environment was credited as being a central to their success in the lead up to their 2011 rugby union World Cup victory ( Hodge et , 2014 ) Hodge et al . 2014 ) examined the motivational climate ofthe All Blacks following a critical turning point ( an incident at a social event ) which led to players and coaches agreeing upon a management leadership model players were given more accountability , ownership , and became greater stakeholders in management responsibilities . Drawing parallels between their model and the principles of ( Ryan , 2020 ) Hodge et al . 2014 ) suggested that the offering of choice , encouraging of initiative , and empowering performance feedback supported the transformation of the team and its culture , while simultaneously supporting of the player . Despite the necessity to win , the research endorses the integration of autonomy supportive features within competitive elite sport settings ( Hodges et , 2014 et , 2014 ) Incongruence Between Coach and Athlete Perceptions of the Psychological Environment One key tenet of is that the subjective perceptions of the participants will determine their motivational outcomes ( Ames , 1992 ) a premise that has been supported recently in literature ( et , 2018 et , 2017 ) Incongruence between coach and athlete perceptions 488

Kingston , can have a deleterious impact on motivational outcomes ( et , 2018 ) highlighting the value of congruence between the intended climate ofthe coach and how the climate is perceived by athletes . et al . 2017 ) for example , found that soccer players ( from 17 different teams in Norway ) regarded the motivational climates they experienced to be more ego orientated and less mastery orientated than their respective coaches . Similarly , et al . 2018 ) examined the disparity in coach and soccer players perceptions of the climate , enjoyment , goal , and anxiety and found that when perceptual agreement existed for mastery climates there was positive correlation to enjoyment and task goal orientation , whilst perceptual agreement on ego climates demonstrated a positive relationship with ego goal orientation and anxiety and negatively correlated with enjoyment . Crucially , et al . 2018 ) reported that when the coach perceived the climate to be more mastery involved than their players , it also led to deleterious psychological effects for the participants . Given that incongruence appears common ( et , 2017 ) and that there are potentially consequences for such ( et , 2018 ) it is imperative that the coach not only employs mastery involving behaviours , but also reflects upon the strength of these features ( Ames , 1992 ) ensuring that task involving features of the environment are not undermined by ego involving discourse ( see Kingston et , 2020 ) Intervention Approaches It has been argued that approaches to ongoing support following education on creating adaptive motivational climates is crucial to promote change within coaching practices ( Cushion , 2019 ) and should , therefore , be integral to education around the psychological climate within sport settings . Traditional coaching ( soccer , see Champ et , 2020 ) may , however , create some inertia to change , with coaches potentially opting for the safer and more tested methods of coaching ( Cushion et , 2012 ) As alluded to previously , coaches have a primary influence upon the psychological climate , and the consequential cognitive , affective , and behavioural outcomes for athletes . Consequently , for acquired knowledge to be applied effectively , coaches should be fully supported through this process . Most commonly , interventions in motivational climate are based around educational workshops these communicate to coaches the principles and strategies for creating adaptive psychological climates . For example , the studies using the MAC ( Smith , 2009 ) utilised a workshop that lasted for 75 minutes with a supporting piece of literature designed specifically to reinforce the workshop and encourage coaches to apply their knowledge to practice ( Coaches Who Never Lose , Smith , 2005 ) Research evaluating this approach reported successful outcomes from the intervention , indicating the efficacy of including educational workshops ( McLaren et , 2015 Smith et , 2007 ) In contrast , Langdon et al . 2015 ) reported that the participating coaches in their study were not able to significantly modify their autonomy supportive behaviours . In this case , their approach was to conduct a workshop to youth soccer coaches on the principles of creating a mastery climate , supplemented by weekly online modules for the coaches to complete . Reflecting on their lack of impact , the authors suggested a number of potential reasons for this ( coaches demonstrated moderate autonomy supportive behaviours anyway , data collection during competitive time of the season ) but primarily they felt that the intervention was too . Langdon et al . 2015 ) suggested that an intervention over an extended period may have further supported the volunteer coaches to modify their behaviours , echoing sentiments from Thompson and Pascal ( 2012 ) who suggested prolonged interaction helps to embed changes within practice . Video analysis of coaching sessions has also been widely , and successfully , employed in conjunction with educational workshops to support coaches and help embed principles in fostering adaptive psychological climates ( et , 2009 ) et al . 2015 ) advocated the use of 489

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching video feedback after their longitudinal study with five coaches in an English Premier League soccer academy . Their systematic analysis of video footage using the coach analysis and intervention system ( Cushion et , 2012 ) was not only by the coaches , but also lead to positive changes in coaching practices ( use of questioning , decrease in concurrent instructing ) In their intervention study , et al . 2014 ) also used video analysis as part of a combination of intervention strategies ( workshops , sessions , and video analysis ) to successfully train the coaches on the principles and application of TARGET structures . The of video analysis aligns well with the experiences of many coaches , and hence is likely to be an appealing approach . Regardless of the specific training model adopted , it appears that prolonged engagement , reviewing coaching in action , and ongoing support are important to embed the integration of behaviours into a coaching environment . Reflective Practice Reflective practice is an examination of self which transforms experiences into learning ( Knowles et , 2014 ) It can be defined temporally as ( reflecting during live coaching episodes ) the critical consideration of prior learning and future targets to effectively plan for action ) reflections that occur after a time the situation can be affected ) and retrospective ( reflections on a specific period of multiple incidents such as a sporting season see et , 2018 ) As highlighted in the previous section on incongruence , when reflecting on the impact they have , coaches need to be aware that the climate they intend to foster may not transfer to the reality of the climate once they are in it ( the map is not the territory , 2006 ) Therefore , given the dynamic nature of psychological climates , coaches should be active ( and reactive , see Smith , 2012 ) to the evolving environment , and willing to shape the climate that they have agency to change ( see et , 2018 ) To support a readiness to adapt the psychological climate during training or competition , coaches can consider developing their reflective practice capabilities . For example , although challenging ( et , 2016 ) is a valuable mechanism for a coach to be able to utilise and is integral to the and application of knowledge in action , which may help to bridge the theory to practice gap . A mechanism to support that has received recent attention is the Think Aloud protocol ( for a more extensive overview , see Whitehead et , 2016 ) Think Aloud is a method that promotes reflection whilst coaches are within live coaching sessions and will be discussed , briefly , later in the chapter . or can be supported through a range that occur outside of the performance environment , and methods may include journals , visual cues , recordings , critical friends , or use of online blogs ( Knowles et , 2014 ) According to et al . 2004 ) if a coach has a positive attitude towards engaging in reflective practice ( commitment to engage in a formal process of experiential learning ) they will in turn develop as a reflective practitioner . Further , this ability to utilise reflection as a mode of practice will undoubtedly assist the coach in fostering the desired psychological climates for their athletes ( et , 2018 ) Strategies to Develop Adaptive Psychological Climates The coach has significant influence over an athlete motivational outcomes ( Allen , 2018 ) and thus it is imperative that they can create adaptive psychological climates for individuals to thrive . This chapter has considered two theories that have underpinned much of our knowledge on psychological climates to date ( and ) and in doing so examined the application of three espoused designed to support the promotion of adaptive psychological environments ( TARGET , MAC , and Empowering ) Although they adopt different approaches , several 490

Kingston , common themes became evident , and it is these that we will scrutinise . They include ( a ) features of the environment ( promoting autonomy for participants ( a focus upon effort ( coach behaviours and ( interpersonal coaching style . Moreover , based upon research to date , it was deemed important for coaches to be aware of the factors that can moderate their ability to foster a desired psychological climate ( coach capabilities , elite level of participation , incongruence of perceptions , intervention approaches , and reflective practice ) These considerations , along with the overlapping concepts , will help to inform the strategies presented in Table , with each being described in further detail to support their application to practice . Strategies have been organised around three general themes design interactions and monitoring . The strategies and guiding principles are informed by the most salient , and overlapping implications resulting from an interrogation ofthe literature . Our objective is to provide informed guidance on how to promote psychological climates that are associated with positive motivational outcomes for participants at any level of sport . One key feature of Table is the inclusion of associated aversive behaviours ( controlling coach behaviours , behaviours , criteria ) These characteristics are highlighted to increase awareness and facilitate understanding of the behaviours that may create a climate , such that coaches can more effectively gauge and recalibrate their psychological climate if required . Within the MAC ( Smith , 2006 ) and Empowering Coaching ( 2013 ) programmes , emphasis is placed upon the coaches being , but also as et al . 2011 , highlighted , such aversive coach behaviours are not necessarily the opposite side of the same coin but rather they can alongside criteria . Further , knowledge of the potentially aversive behaviours alongside the associated strategies to promote autonomy supportive environments may help coaches in more competitive environments ( elite youth sport ) manage the psychological climate effectively . Photo by from 491

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching Design When designing the psychological climate , coaches need to have a clear destination in mind ( what I am seeking to achieve for these athletes ?

The coach can start by considering what some of the key features that they believe , over time , will be most effective for development of their athletes and achievement of this goal ( how is success represented ?

what key skills are we working on ?

This can consider level of participation , stage of development ( see , et , 2004 ) and type of talent pathway ( early specialisation ) In planning individual sessions , coaches can then reflect on where their athletes are , what they currently require , and how the individual session fits into their overall curriculum . These steps may combat an approach to designing psychological climates , with the coach able to provide a structure that consistently promotes patterns of adaptive behaviours ( Ames , 1992 ) Embedded within the design of individual sessions should be a consideration for the personal goals of participants , and how to provide each athlete with the opportunity to develop towards or achieving their personal goals . While their goals may not be explicit within the session , as part of their development plans , players should be made aware of how they may facilitate goal achievement through session content and aims . Personal goals accompanied by a rationale from the coach ( demonstrating greater involvement from the coach ) may serve to enhance the relatedness for an athlete and give them a sense of belonging ( 2017 et , 2004 ) It is , therefore , important to consider athlete goals at the design stage , rather than them in after by only including the players as an afterthought . One final consideration for design relates to the structure of tasks or activities . Given their nuanced motivational impact , it is important that coaches reflect on the tasks they intend to prescribe to their athletes , ensuring activities are as far as practicable , challenging , varied , differentiated , and promote problem solving . 492

Kingston , Table Strategies to Support the Development of Adaptive Psychological Climates Within Sport Guiding Principles Associated Aversive Coach Literature Informing Supportive Behaviours Espoused strategy Strategies Design Planning Consider the stage ofthe athletes development , structures et al . 2017 ) Into et personalities , personal goals , and the experiences they emphasised al . 2019 ) Kingston et al . require A ( default ) Map the intended psychological environments that environment Roberts ( 1999 ) Smith athletes will experience over time ( 2012 ) Decide which features are going to be emphasised to support the intended climate Provision of stable and consistent autonomy supportive climates Plan how will be satisfied Goals Task objectives and rationale ( for learning ) Goals are Ames ( 1992 ) Kingston et al . communicated , notably when tasks promote social Focus solely on the outcome ( comparison . No goals ( 2003 ) Emphasis on individual skills roles , with ongoing guidance relative to personal goals . Reflective thinking re goals and skill development is encouraged and supported through monitoring of goals . Structure and cooperative should be Monotonous activities with Ames ( 1992 ) Kingston et al . varied and challenging , promoting Instructions clear , with expectations of learning included . Defined progressions with creativity encouraged where possible . little challenge Coach has dominant presence during activity Learning or progress is not communicated or clear ( 2003 ) 493

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching Table ( continued ) Interactions Relationships Feedback Empowerment Get to know your athletes Afford time to communicate equitably with all athletes Use of humour Be empathetic General encouragement and support throughout group Recognition given for effort , persistence and effective . Focused on task requirements , with links made to individual roles and personal goals . Feedback should be unconditionally positive , and meaningful . Rationale provided for tasks , with opportunity for player input . Authentic opportunities for player , timing or nature of progressions . Acknowledgment and value attached to player perspectives . Use of sarcasm without prior knowledge that it will be positively received by athlete Conditional regard Intimidation Making athletes feel isolated Public and negative , verbal and , feedback Players recognised for others Select few athletes receive praise Draw attention to mistakes with public and punitive consequences No opportunity for players to their learning opportunities for athlete input Exerting excessive control et al . 2010 ) Becker ( 2013 ) Ryan ( 2002 ) et al . 2014 ) Morgan ( 2017 ) 2003 ) Ames ( 1992 ) et al . 2010 ) Ryan ( 2002 ) 2013 ) 2003 ) Smith ( 1996 ) Smith ( Smith ( 2020 ) Ames ( 1992 ) et al . 2010 ) and Ryan ( 2002 ) Into et , 2020 ) Kingston et al . 2020 ) 2003 ) 494

Kingston , Table ( continued ) Monitoring Reflect upon the climate created against the desired outcomes , and note any changes to ( Knowles et al . action make for the next session ( 2014 ) Use of video footage to analyse climate created Cushion ( 2019 ) Utilise other coaches or sport psychologists to provide feedback et al . 2015 ) Reflect on individual psychological development of athletes Smith ( 2012 ) Whitehead et al . 2016 ) Consider the design of the curriculum and how knew knowledge can be integrated into that action plan Apply what has been learnt from Interpret the status of the climate and salient features action Continually review ways to emphasise features ofthe climate Remain active and aware of evolving ego climate 495

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching Interactions Given that motivational outcomes are idiosyncratic ( et , 2014 ) knowing your athlete becomes an important part of creating an adaptive psychological climate ( Becker , 2013 Morgan , 2017 ) Coaches are advised to work on building and maintaining high quality relationships , communicating equitably with each individual participant . Specifically , 2017 ) has highlighted that high quality relationships are founded on closeness ( depth of emotional attachment ) commitment ( dedication to maintaining the relationship overtime ) cooperative and effective interaction ) and ( shared principles for goal striving ) Where possible , coaches should strive to afford time and space to get to know their athletes and to build relationships . For example , humour could facilitate the building of relationships potentially playing a crucial role in making the more serious of sport environments more palatable for performers to commit to ( Morgan , 2017 , 2013 , 2014 ) However , despite good intentions , coaches should be aware that humour at someone ( 2014 ) may be counterproductive . Indeed , and ( 2016 ) found that elite youth soccer coaches used banter as the primary method of developing a players mental toughness a behaviour that the authors suggested to be more aligned to a form of emotional abuse . It is important to recognise that such banter or other forms of ridicule may have deleterious effects , undermining the sense of relatedness an athlete may have towards a group or their coach ( 2013 ) A more general principle is that coaches should seek to provide opportunities for individual and positive feedback , while understanding that positive feedback also includes instructional guidance ( Becker , 2013 ) Public feedback relating to mastery behaviours ( high effort levels , ability to overcome mistakes , and ) can help develop an athlete perceptions of competence ( et , 2004 ) In contrast , coaches are discouraged from drawing public attention to mistakes or employing punitive measures ( verbal abuse or physical punishments ) as a form of feedback such as these have been reported to undermine ( thwart ) basic psychological needs with resultant negative psychological outcomes ( et , 2011 ) When interacting with their athletes , coaches are encouraged to facilitate a sense of empowerment within every athlete this translates to the athlete having a feeling ownership over their own development and choice within the specific achievement environment ( Morgan , 2017 ) Empowerment is a characteristic described in both ( 1984 ) and ( Ryan , 1985 2000 Ryan , 2020 ) literature and represented under the authority structure within the TARGET framework . To help empower , coaches can provide space for athletes to share their thoughts while they actively listen , value , and act ( authentically ) upon the athlete opinions ( 2013 Morgan , 2017 ) Such opportunities may arise during interactions with athletes , for example during feedback or general conversations , or during team discussions such as water breaks , performance analysis sessions , or team talks ( see , 2017 ) Coaches can also adapt their session design to provide opportunities for athlete ownership . This may come in the form of giving time for athletes to work on a skill of their choice , providing options regarding how to progress the practice , giving opportunity for athletes to feedback to the coach during sessions , or overtly employing suggestions made by athletes . As much as focusing on empowerment , coaches should be aware of the climates that competition environments can elicit ( et , 2018 Smith et , 2017 ) They should readily employ mastery coaching behaviours that can go some way to buffering against the motivational impact of a situation that naturally focuses upon competence ( winning ) In these instances , coaches may wish to orchestrate opportunities to interact individually with athletes ( before competition , during breaks , or post competition ) to provide positive and instructional information or feedback . If available , assistant coaches can be deployed to maximise interactions with individual athletes . When opportunities for communication are minimal , given the public 496

Kingston , nature of competition , coaches are encouraged to only provide positive and general public feedback during events . Considering the challenges of interacting with athletes during competition , interactions become an important feature of the team sport environment . Coaches may want to work with athletes ( in training at first ) on how to effectively communicate with one another during competition , asking athletes to recognise adaptive behaviours in one another ( effort and overcoming of mistakes ) and to give each other and positive feedback . Monitoring The motivational climate is a dynamic component of an achievement environment and therefore requires constant monitoring , appraising , and ( Smith et , 2015 ) Coaches should try to be active agents within the achievement environment , acting as a bridge between the physical environment they set up ( the drills ) and the perceived motivational climate of athletes ( how success is perceived to be determined ) To further support their management of the climate it is recommended that coaches develop their ability to reflect ( Schon , 1984 ) The employment of the Think Aloud protocol ( Whitehead et , 2016 ) may be a useful process to undertake to enhance reflective practice and support the management of the psychological climate . In short , Think Aloud requires coaches to concurrently talk through what they are thinking during a practice ( for a full overview of the programme we refer readers to Whitehead et , 2016 ) Coaches wishing to monitor their psychological climate might narrate to a microphone , or if unavailable , to an assistant coach or to themselves . might include the key of the psychological climate , for example What are athletes being recognised for ?

How are the players being evaluated ?

What autonomy do the athletes currently have ?

Coaches can then review their own action plan , and how they may combat any potential or thwarting features that are present . Indeed , the programme itself may help prevent autonomy or need thwarting coach behaviours . Indeed , participants in Whitehead et ( 2016 ) study reported that the explicit commentary made them pause before they delivered harsh feedback to athletes . Following it is suggested coaches engage in , a retrospective type of reflective practice which occurs outside of a situation that can no longer be influenced ( Knowles et , 2014 Whitehead et , 2016 ) In relation to the topic of the current chapter , a coach can reflect upon their design , interactions , and monitoring of the psychological climate , considering the extent to which the climate they fostered supported the intended aims ( see et , 2013 ) The principles outlined in Table might serve as a useful starting point , Was my feedback positive throughout that session ?

Were there any individuals who I gave negative and public feedback to ?

The medium that coaches reflect through is their prerogative , examples include pen and paper notes , journals , social networks , photographs , or recordings ( et , 2018 ) Having gone through this process , coaches can then systematically consider how to action what they have learnt in practice , a process of . This may require coaches to reflect upon their curriculum ( perhaps with peers ) and appraise how they may integrate what knowledge they have acquired from into future psychological climates . Ultimately , just like planning and implementing strategies to support the psychological climate , the development of the climate itself will therefore become an iterative process , it evolving as the coach develops as a reflective practitioner . Conclusion The coach has a considerable influence over the psychological environment experienced by athletes , and therefore has significant responsibility to promote adaptive environments that promote positive cognitive , behavioural , and affective outcomes for those involved . This chapter has sought to 497

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching provide an overview of the central theories that have underpinned much of the research regarding psychological climates to date , along with a description of the , and as discussion of their efficacy in promoting adaptive environments . Further considerations were also discussed to provide the coach practitioner with a more rounded view to better support their application of acquired knowledge . The chapter culminated in advocating several strategies , each with guiding principles , to support the creation of environments . These strategies were also aligned to coach behaviours to prompt greater amongst coaches , which , it is anticipated , will assist coaches to calibrate and manage their impact on psychological climates . Coaches are the gatekeepers to the positive psychological outcomes that sport participation can bring to individuals . We would encourage coaches at all level to consider how they might apply the principles outlined in this chapter , not just for the benefit of their players motivation , performance and psychological , but also for their own . Learning Exercises How has research , underpinned by and , informed our knowledge of psychological environments to date ?

What are the commonalities in terms of strategies advocated according to the and approaches to promoting effective coaching environments ?

What strategies can coaches employ to support their development of an adaptive psychological environment ?

Within your own coaching practice , which strategies are you going to prioritise to support the promotion of an adaptive psychological environment in training ?

Which strategies will you aim to emphasise within competition to help foster an adaptive psychological climate for athletes ?

Further Reading , Spray , 2009 ) A qualitative investigation exploring the motivational climate in early career sports participants Coach , parent and peer influences on sport motivation . Psychology and Exercise , 10 ( Kingston , Morgan , 2020 ) Monitoring the climate Exploring the psychological environment in an elite soccer academy . Journal Sport Psychology , 32 ( Morgan , 2017 ) motivational climate in physical education and sport coaching An perspective . Quest , 69 ( Roberts , 2012 ) Motivation in sport and exercise from an achievement goal perspective After 30 years , where are we ?

In Roberts Treasure ( Advances in motivation in sport and exercise ( Leeds , UK Human Kinetics . 498 Kingston , Smith , Cumming , 2007 ) Effects of a motivational climate intervention for coaches on changes in young athletes achievement goal . Journal Sport Psychology , References Adams , Carr , 2017 ) Football friends Adolescent boys friendships inside an English professional football ( soccer ) academy . Soccer Society , 20 ( 2008 ) Autonomy support , basic need satisfaction , and the optimal functioning of adult male and female sport participants A test of Basic Needs Theory . Motivation and Emotion , 32 ( Ames , 1992 ) Achievement goals , motivational climate , and motivational processes . In . Roberts ( Ed . Advances in motivation in sport and exercise ( Human Kinetics . 2006 ) What it like out there ?

Making the terra incognita more firma . The Sport and Exercise Scientist , Anderson , Knowles , 2004 ) Reflective practice for applied sport psychologists A review of concepts , models , practical implications and thoughts on dissemination . The Sport Psychologist , 18 ( 2016 ) Examining the interactive effects of empowering climate dimensions on athletes health and functioning . Psychology and Exercise , 26 , Baker , 2009 ) What do we know about early sport specialization ?

Not much ! High Ability Studies , 20 ( 1999 ) Motivational climate and goal as of perceptions of improvement , satisfaction and coach ratings among tennis players . Scandinavian Journal Science in Sport , 101111 , Ryan , Bosch , A . 2011 ) determination theory and diminished functioning The role of interpersonal control and psychological need thwarting . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 37 ( 11 ) Becker , 2013 ) Quality coaching behaviours . In , Gilbert , handbook coaching ( 2020 ) Determining the role of sport coaches in promoting athlete mental health A narrative review and approach . Open Sport and Exercise Medicine , Neil , Mitchell , I . 2018 ) A life skills development programme for youth football coaches Programme development and preliminary evaluation . Sport and Exercise Psychology Review , 14 ( 2010 ) The early specialization of youth in sports . Athletic Training and Sport Health Care The Journal of the Practicing Clinician , Martins , 2014 ) Epstein TARGET framework and motivational climate in sport Effects of a , intervention program . Science and Coaching , 499

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching Champ , Tod , A . 2020 ) An exploration of the experiences of elite youth footballers The impact organizational culture . Journal Sport Psychology , 32 , Conroy , 2009 ) The effects of coaching need satisfaction and on initiative and identity in youth swimmers . Developmental Psychology , 45 ( Castillo , 2009 ) Intervention and evaluation of the motivational climate transmitted by a basketball coach . de del , 18 ( supplement ) Conroy , 2007 ) Assessing coaching strategies in youth sport . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , Allen , 2015 ) Developmental experiences and in sport The importance of the coaching climate . Sport Psychologist , 29 ( Allen , 2018 ) Examining the relationships among the coaching climate , life skills development and in sport . Science and Coaching , 13 ( Miles , Knowles , 2018 ) Making reflective practice beneficial . In Dicks ( Professional advances in sports coaching Research and practice ( Miles , Nichols , 2015 ) Learning to learn The coach as a reflective practitioner . In Wallace Lambert ( Becoming a sports coach ( Hill , Hall , 2015 ) Relationships between the motivational climate and athlete engagement in youth sport . Journal and Exercise Psychology , 37 ( Cushion , Ford , Williams , 2012 ) Coach behaviours and practice structures in youth soccer Implications for talent development . Journal Sciences , 30 ( 15 ) Cushion , Harvey , Muir , Nelson , 2012 ) Developing the coach analysis and intervention system ( Establishing validity and reliability of a computerised systematic observation instrument . Journal Sciences , 30 ( Cushion , Jones , 2006 ) Power , discourse , and symbolic violence in professional youth soccer The case of football club . Sociology Journal , 23 ( A . 1998 ) The perceived effectiveness of interactions between expert French judo coaches and elite female athletes . The Sport Psychologist , 12 ( Ryan , 1985 ) Intrinsic motivation and in human behaviour . Plenum . Ryan , 2000 ) The what and why of goal pursuits Human needs and the determination of behaviour . Psychological , 11 ( 2017 ) A investigation of the relation between and coaching and moral behaviour in soccer . Psychology and Exercise , 31 , 2013 ) The conceptual and empirical foundations of Empowering Coaching Setting the stage for the PAPA project . international Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 11 ( 500

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Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching , 2020 ) Relationship between coaching climates and symptoms of burnout in school and sports . Sport , Exercise , and Performance Psychology , 0000180 , Spray , 2009 ) A qualitative investigation exploring the motivational climate in early career sports participants Coach , parent and peer influences on sport motivation . Psychology and Exercise , 10 ( Spray , 2010 ) From motivational climate to motivational atmosphere A review of research examining the social and environmental influences on athlete motivation in sport . In . Ed . Sport psychology Sports and athletics , preparation , performance , and psychology ( Nova Science Publishers . Spray , 2014 ) A qualitative investigation of the motivational climate in elite sport . Psychology and Exercise , 15 ( Spray , 2006 ) Contemporary approaches to motivation in sport . In , Literature reviews in sport psychology ( Nova Science Publisher . Morgan , 2020 ) Monitoring the climate Exploring the psychological environment in an elite soccer academy . Journal Sport Psychology , 32 ( 2014 ) Reflecting on reflection and journeys . In Knowles , Reflective practice in the sport and exercise sciences ( Anderson , 2007 ) Reflections on the application of reflective practice for supervision in applied sport psychology . The Sport Psychologist , 21 ( Harris , 2015 ) Effects of a training program to enhance autonomy supportive behaviours among youth soccer coaches . Journal ofHuman Sport and Exercise , 10 ( Van , Wold , Sarrazin , 2015 ) Creating a supportive environment among youth football players A qualitative study of French and Norwegian youth grassroots football coaches . Health Education , 115 ( 1998 ) Sociological practice Linking theory and social research . London Sage . 1983 ) On doing well in science Why Johnny no longer excels why Sarah never did . In Paris , Learning and motivation in the classroom ( Lawrence and Associates . A . 1986 ) The A theory investment . Lexington Books . 2003 ) The relationship A motivational model . Journal of Sports Sciences , 21 ( 11 ) Palmer , Roderick , 2012 ) Disciplinary power , the and rhizomatic surveillance in elite sports academies . Surveillance and Sport , 10 ( 2016 ) Antecedents of need supportive and controlling interpersonal styles from a theory perspective A review and implications for sport psychology research . In , Sport and exercise psychology research From theory to practice ( 502

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Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching , Roberts , 2002 ) Elite athletes experiences ofthe motivational climate The coach matters . Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports , 12 ( Pope , Stewart , Law , Hall , Gregg , Robertson , 2015 ) Knowledge translation of sport psychology to coaches Coaches use of online resources . International Journal Science and Coaching , 10 ( Jones , Armour , 2002 ) It all about getting respect The coaching behaviours of an expert English soccer coach . Sport , Education and Society , Pritchard , 2015 ) The effects of motivational climate on youth sport participants . The Physical Educator , 72 ( 2021 ) Promoting determined motivation for physical activity From theory to intervention work . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . 2004 ) Dimensions of coaching behaviour , need satisfaction , and the psychological and physical welfare of young athletes . Motivation and Emotion , 28 ( Roberts , 2001 ) Understanding the dynamics of motivation in physical activity The influence of achievement goals on motivational processes . In Roberts ( Ed . Advances in motivation in sport and exercise ( Human Kinetics . Roberts , 2012 ) Motivation in sport and exercise from an achievement goal perspective After 30 years , where are we ?

In Roberts Treasure ( Advances in motivation in sport and exercise ( Human Kinetics . Roberts , 2012 ) Goal setting to enhance motivation in sport . In Roberts Treasure ( Advances in motivation in sport and exercise ( Human Kinetics . Roberts , Treasure , 1997 ) Motivation in physical activity An achievement goal perspective . In . Advances in motivation and achievement ( JAI Press . 2013 ) Humour and sports coaching . In , Gilbert , handbook coaching ( 2014 ) Humour helps Elite sports coaching as a balancing act . Sports Coaching Review , Russell , 2015 ) A retrospective examination of youth athletes sport motivation and motivational climate across specialization status . Athletic Insight , Ryan , 2002 ) An overview of theory An organismic dialectical perspective . In Ryan ( Handbook research ( 33 ) University of Rochester . Ryan , 2020 ) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a theory perspective Definitions , theory , practices , and future directions . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 61 , Sarrazin , 2002 ) Motivation and dropout in female A prospective study . European Journal Psychology , 32 ( Schon , 1987 ) Educating the reflective practitioner . 504

Kingston , Smith , 2006 ) Goal orientation profile differences on perceived motivational climate , perceived peer relationships , and responses of youth athletes . Journal of sports sciences , 24 ( 12 ) Smith , 2017 ) Observing the motivational environment across training and competition in youth sport . Journal Sciences , 35 ) Smith , 2012 ) Sport youth coaches Developing champions in sports . Smith , Cumming , 2007 ) Effects of a motivational climate intervention for coaches on young athletes sport performance anxiety . Journal and Exercise Psychology , 29 ( Smith , Curtis , 1979 ) Coach effectiveness training A cognitive behavioural approach to enhance relationship skills in youth sport coaches . Journal Psychology , Smith , 2005 ) Coaches who never lose Making sure athletes win , no matter what the score . Publishing , Smith , 2009 ) Mastery approach to coaching A leadership guide for youth sports . Youth Enrichment in Sports . Smith , Cumming , 2007 ) Effects of a motivational climate intervention for coaches on changes in young athletes achievement goal . Journal Sport Psychology , Smith , 2020 ) A approach to conducting evidence based training programs . In Williams and ( Applied sport psychology Personal growth to peak performance ( 2018 ) Youth sport coaches across the season The psychological costs and benefits of giving empowering and sports coaching to athletes . international Sport Coaching Journal , Taylor , Spray , 2015 ) The relationship between psychological and , and perceived autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles A longitudinal study of sport coaches . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 19 , Cushion , 2019 ) the impact of coaches learning Changes in coaching knowledge and practice over time . Journal Sciences , 37 ( 18 ) Smith , Sarrazin , 2013 ) Comparing the objective motivational climate created by grassroots soccer coaches in England , Greece and France . International Journal and Exercise Psychology , 11 ( Thompson , Pascal , 2012 ) Developing critically reflective practice . Reflective Practice International and perspectives . 13 ( Treasure , Roberts , 2001 ) Students perceptions of the motivational climate , achievement beliefs , and satisfaction in physical education . Research Exercise and Sport , 72 ( Whitehead , Miles , Quayle , Knowles , 2016 ) Think aloud Toward a framework to facilitate reflective practice amongst rugby league coaches . International Sport Coaching Journal , 505

Chapter 21 Motivation in Coaching , Kingston , 2021 ) Case studies from elite youth soccer Reflections on talent development practices . International Sport Coaching Journal , 2004 ) Career transitions in sport European perspectives . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 506