Psychology Textbook Chapter 2 Theories of Physical Activity

Chapter Theories of Physical Activity Motivation Amanda , and Benjamin of Health Behaviours Lab School of Health , Medical , and Applied Sciences Central University , Australia of Psychology , Institute of Psychiatry , Psychology , and Neuroscience , King College London , UK Please cite as Rebar , Gardner , 2021 ) Theories of physical activity motivation . In Jones ( Essentials and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview This chapter describes four types of behavior theories and presents discrete examples of each type of theory as applied to physical activity . Social cognitive theories assume that we are motivated to behave based on intentions , and that intentions are based on our and values about the behavior . Social cognitive theories presented within are the health action process approach and temporal theory , which consider not only the of intentions , but also factors that influence whether intentions are likely to translate into physical activity . Humanistic theories , such as theory , share the notion that humans have a common drive to pursue fulfillment . theory proposes that we have a set of basic psychological needs that , when met , lead to internal reward . theories describe two different influences on behavior reflective processes that are slow , reasoned , and deliberate and automatic processes that are spontaneous , sometimes irrational , and uncontrollable . The two theories described here , hedonic motivation theory and theory of effort minimization in physical activity , describe the outcomes of competition between automatic processes ( a dread of physical activity ) and reasoned processes ( a desire to be more physically active ) Maintenance theories consider why we are physically active , as well as how continuing physical activity regularly in the same context can lead to habit formation . This chapter provides a snapshot of physical activity motivation theories which are continually changing over time to account for new scientific findings as well as innovations in measurement and analytics . For correspondence

Chapter Theories of Physical Activity Motivation Physical Activity Motivation Theories The abundant physical and mental health benefits of physical activity provide ample reason why people should be physically active , but seldomly do these explain why people are physically active . Think about the people in your life that are regularly active . What motivates them on a basis ?

And those people you know who have started being active but quit what moved them to start being active ?

Why did they quit ?

Theories provide general or structures to describe , predict , or understand physical activity behavior or behavior change ( Bem de Jong , 1997 Rebar Rhodes , 2020 ) There are many behavior change theories available one review documented more than 80 theories that are available to organize thinking about which factors impact behavior change and through which pathways ( et , 2014 ) Practically , theories can inform our efforts to change people behavior and to understand why certain behavior change efforts may work and others may not ( Abraham , 2004 ) Throughout this chapter , we consider different types of theories , and provide illustrative applications of these to physical activity motivation . Historically , theories of physical activity motivation have been adapted from sports and performance psychology ( Rebar Rhodes , 2020 Rhodes , 2011 ) the aim of which is to achieve ( win , improve ) Hence , many theories of physical activity motivation focus on the processes of setting and achieving goals to change physical activity . Influences from public health , developmental psychology , social psychology , evolutionary psychology , and neurobiology have led to in the conceptualization of physical activity motivation . Now , nonconscious influences like habits and urges are considered in physical activity motivation theories as well as evolutionary tendencies for humans to exert as little effort as possible when moving ( Cheval et , 2016 et , 2016 ) Additionally , innovations in measurement and analysis have transformed theory from accounts of motivation and behavior on single occasions , towards a portrayal of motivation and behavior as dynamic , changing on a basis , and acknowledging the process of maintenance ( et , 2019 Rebar Rhodes , 2020 ) This chapter is not a comprehensive inventory of physical activity motivation theories . Rather , it showcases different types of theories , and provides illustrative examples of how theories of each type have been applied to physical activity motivation science . Table depicts the categories of theories and physical activity motivation theories covered in this chapter . Notably , these categories are not mutually exclusive many theories could fit within multiple categories . The organizational structure offers a heuristic framework for thinking about the different ways in which physical activity motivation has been theorized . Photo by from 16

Rebar , Gardner Table Overview of the Categories of Theories and Examples of Specific Theories as Applied to Physical Activity Motivation Category and Assumptions Example Theories Social cognitive theories Behavior is motivated by , which are based on and values about the behavior . Health Action Process Approach ( 1992 , 2008 , 2016 ) Temporal Theory ( Hall Fong , 2007 , 2010 , 2015 ) Humanistic theories Behavior is motivated by the common human pursuit of fulfillment . Theory ( Ryan , 1980 , 2002 ) theories Behavior is motivated by two different types of processes reflective processes that are deliberate and reasoned , and automatic processes that are spontaneous and uncontrollable . Hedonic Motivation Theory ( Williams , 2018 Williams , 2019 ) Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity ( in press ) Theory ( see Chapter Brand , 2021 ) Maintenance theories Motivation to initiate a change in behavior is distinct from motivation to Theoretical Explanations for Maintenance of Behavior Change maintain behavior change . Theories of Physical Activity Motivation Social Cognitive Theories The main premise of social cognitive theories is that behavior is driven by our goals or intentions , which are informed based on our values and expectations about that behavior . Social cognitive theories take on an view ( 2001 ) meaning that people are seen as the active and main drivers guiding our own behavior . Due to the assumption that our behavior is the result of acting on deliberative reasoning , social cognitive theories are described as a reasoned action approach ( 1977 Head , 2014 ) The main predictor of behavior within social cognitive theories is our goal or intention about the behavior . Goals are targets or purposes aimed at achievement ( Locke et , 1981 ) and set the standard for satisfaction of performance ( Locke , 2006 ) Intentions are defined as our perception of the probability that we will do the behavior ( 1991 , 1977 ) Intentions can be deconstructed into two components direction and strength ( Rhodes Rebar , 2017 ) As applied to physical activity , intention direction represents the decision of whether or not to do physical activity ( or how much , how often , or which activity to do ) Intention strength is defined as the intensity of the commitment to enact the behavior or not . Early social cognitive approaches focused primarily on predicting intentions or goals with the implicit assumption that behavior will follow . However , a multitude of evidence revealed a phenomenon referred to as the gap , describing the reality that goals and intentions often do not lead to behavior and behavior can not be reliably predicted only by goals or intentions ( Rhodes de , 2013 Webb , 2016 ) For example , evidence from physical activity research suggests that if 100 people make intentions to engage in physical activity , 54 of them will likely fall short of enacting their intended physical activity ( Rhodes de , 2013 ) Goal theories have evolved to propose that translation of goals into behavior is dependent on 17

Chapter Theories of Physical Activity Motivation characteristics about the goal such as how difficult or specific it is ( et , 2020 Swann et , 2020 ) theories have evolved to consider action control , a term that encapsulates the factors that impact whether intentions translate into behavior or not ( 1984 Rhodes , 2017 ) Action control factors oftentimes consist of cognitive or regulatory processes that aide in implementing intentions such as planning or ( 1999 Rhodes , 2017 ) The two social cognitive models we will be describing further are contemporary of traditional social cognitive theories , which incorporate action control . Health Action Process Approach The health action process approach ( 1992 , 2008 , 2016 Table see specifically , 2008 , Figure ) describes physical activity motivation as two separate processes with different cognitive , behavioral , and situational The first phase is the motivation phase , which culminates in the formation of physical activity intentions . The second phase is the volition phase which leads to actually doing the intended physical activity . The health action process approach that we experience a shift in mindset when transitioning between motivation to volition phases . A variety of cognitive , behavioral , and situational factors can either help or hinder physical activity intention strength and the translation of intentions into physical activity . Photo by Cliff Booth from 18

Rebar , Gardner Table Health Action Process Approach Applied to Physical Activity Phases Motivation Developing physical activity Volition Acting on physical activity intentions intentions Stages Physical activity intention is Intentional Physical activity intention is formed absent but no change in physical activity has occurred Physical activity intention is Actional Intended physical activity is being being developed engaged in Constructs Task the perceived capability to Action plans detailed plans for implementing start physical activity , given current intentions that include when , where and how circumstances decisions Coping plans detailed anticipated barriers with specific contingency plans alternative to initial action plans Outcome the expected balance of Action control the ongoing regulatory positive and negative outcomes of engaging in processes of evaluating behavior in regard to the intended physical activity the intention Risk perceptions perceived health threat of not Coping the perceived capability to changing physical activity behavior maintain the intended physical activity behavior even in the face of barriers Recovery the perceived capability to recover an intended behavior if it has been stopped The motivation phase involves making physical activity intentions . This phase describes behavioral intentions in different stages of formulation , incorporating stages of ( the absence of any intention ) and ( the early emergence of intention ) Factors theorized as influencing intentions are task , outcome , and risk perception . Task efficacy is our own perception of our capability to do physical activity , and the theory proposes that stronger will lead to stronger physical activity intentions ( 1997 ) Outcome are perceptions of the likely outcomes of physical activity . Outcome incorporate both of good and bad outcomes of physical activity , and the weighted benefit balance of them ( 1997 ) The health action process approach proposes that the more favorable the anticipated outcomes , the stronger the physical activity intentions will be . Risk perception is the perception of risks associated with changing physical activity behavior , relative to the perceived risks of not changing physical activity ( 2011 ) Typically , this is conceived in physical activity research as the perceived health risks of not engaging in regular physical activity , and the theoretical expectation is that a high risk of poor health consequences of inactivity will lead to the initial decision to make a strong physical activity intention . The volition phase of the health action process approach consists of the enactment and maintenance of intentions . There are two stages of the volition phase we are in the stage of intention when the intention has been made but not acted on , and we are in the action phase once the intended physical activity has been initiated . Progression through these volitional phases of health 19

Chapter Theories of Physical Activity Motivation action process approach is proposed to be implemented initially through action plans and coping plans then followed through with action control . Action plans are detailed plans describing when , where , and how intentions will be implemented and are expected to regulate the implementation of intentions . Coping plans are set in place as alternatives to the initial action plans with specific anticipated barriers and plans to overcome them , such that potential implementation problems are foreseen and so the enactment of intentions is not derailed ( 2008 ) Whereas the plans are intended to be made prior to behavioral engagement , the regulatory process of action control is defined within the health action process approach as the continual regulatory process of behavior , reflecting on intentions , and making effortful regulatory action to align behavior with intentions ( 2008 et , 2006 ) When we shift from the volition to the action phase , continues to be integral , but behavior relies less on for engaging in physical activity . Instead , it relies more on coping , our certainty that we can maintain the intended physical activity even when barriers are faced , and recovery , our belief about to what extent we can recover physical activity if we stop for a while ( 2000 ) Photo from Temporal Theory Temporal theory ( Hall Fong , 2007 , 2010 , 2015 Table see specifically Hall Fong , 2007 , 14 , Figure ) is an evolution of social cognitive theories that present and phases of motivation and accounts for potential factors that may influence whether we act on our intentions or not . Unique to temporal theory is the premise that the impact of social , cognitive , and biological influences on behaviors depends on the perceived timing between the anticipated costs and benefits of engaging in the behavior . Temporal theory proposes that physical activity behavior is predicted by intention strength , capacity , and behavioral prepotency . Physical activity intention strength is hypothesized to depend on our connectedness beliefs and temporal valuations ( Hall Fong , 2007 ) Connectedness beliefs are our perceptions about the impact of behavior for later outcomes ( belief that physical activity will reduce risk of future chronic disease ) and it is expected that the more 20

Rebar , Gardner we believe that physical activity will lead to an outcome , the stronger our intentions for physical activity will be . Temporal valuations are perceptions of the value of behavioral outcomes ( how important it is to reduce the risk of chronic disease ) and it is hypothesized that the more valuable the perceived outcome , the more likely it is that we will strongly intend to engage in physical activity . Table Temporal Theory Applied to Physical Activity Phases Motivational The impacts on the development The impacts on the and strength of intentions likelihood of enacting intentions into behavior Constructs Intention strength the degree of commitment to engage in physical activity behavior capacity ability to Connectedness beliefs the perceived link regulate behavior , accounting for both between behavior and anticipated outcomes of cognitive capacity and physiological energy the behavior Behavioral prepotency the impact of the frequency of past behavior the presence of triggering cues to action in the environment Temporal valuations the perceived value of the anticipated outcomes of the behavior Ambient temporal contingencies the perceived disparity in timing of the anticipated costs benefits of the behavior capacity ( or executive control resources ) refers to an ability to regulate behavior and accounts for both cognitive capacity and physiological energy . Considered also within capacity is the ability to compensate or overcome the need for high amounts of when it is not available ( Hall Fong , 2010 ) It is expected that more capacity will enhance the likelihood of acting on physical activity intentions . Behavioral prepotency captures the impact of the frequency of past behavior and the presence of environmental cues to action . Behavioral prepotency is thought to be driven by internal urges like hunger or thirst , as well as automatic behavioral tendencies like habits . It is expected that behavioral prepotency that is more supportive of physical activity will lead to more physical activity and make it more likely that physical activity intentions are enacted . The impact of capacity and behavioral prepotency on the likelihood that we will enact our intentions is theorized as depending on ambient temporal contingencies , the balance between the perceived timing of the anticipated costs and benefits of engaging in the behavior ( Hall Fong , 2015 ) Reward is devalued by time for example , if it is difficult to engage in physical activity in the current environment and the perceived benefits feel a long way away , the likelihood that we will enact our intentions for physical activity relies more heavily on our capacity and behavioral prepotency than when the environment is more supportive of physical activity . Notably , temporal regulation theory describes ambient temporal contingencies as possibly deriving from both social ( support from friends ) and physical environmental factors ( neighborhood safety ) Additionally , this theory postulates that there is a feedback loop , such that behavior impacts the of future behavior . Specifically , it is theorized that experiences while engaging in physical activity will impact connectedness beliefs and temporal valuations to engage in physical activity in the future . 21

Chapter Theories of Physical Activity Motivation Humanistic Theories Humanistic theories emphasize the belief that people are innately driven towards personal growth and strive toward achievement of full potential ( 1995 , 1943 Rogers , 1961 ) Humanistic theories frame behavior as motivated by our intentional pursuit to achieve . humanistic theories promote the idea that humans have freedom to act and control their own behavior . It is proposed that people have a common tendency to behave in ways that are adaptive , and . We achieve through learning the acquisition of new knowledge , behaviors , skills , and values through study , practice , or experience ( Wilson , 2012 ) Humanism postulates that behavior is directly controlled via learning ( Knowles et , 2014 ) The learner is an active part of this process by making active decisions about what is gained from experiences and what experiences are sought . Another major tenet of humanistic theories is that humans can not be reduced to distinct , quantifiable components . A humanistic perspective suggests that behavior is not driven separately by our values , goals , and circumstances , but rather that these factors influence our learning about what is and is not fulfilling , and the main predictor of behavior is the internal drive towards fulfillment . In accordance with the humanistic perspective , learning is most effective through positive and negative lived experiences ( Rogers , 1961 ) For example , successful achievement of a behavior elicits a sense of accomplishment , inherent growth , and ( Ryan , 2002 ) These positive inherent effects of mastery are why humans continue to perform behaviors and strive to perform better than previous attempts ( et , 2009 ) While the mastery of a behavior can be seen to provide a sense of , the enjoyment of performing a behavior may be equally fulfilling . For example , we do not necessarily need to be expert swimmers to enjoy the experience of swimming . As humanistic theories posit that people are innately driven to actions that promote personal growth and fulfillment , it is reasonable to suggest that behaviors that satisfy such fulfillment and reward are naturally motivating ( et , 1999 et , 2012 ) Theory theory ( Ryan , 1980 , 2002 Table see specifically Howard et , 2017 , 1347 , Figure ) arguably the most popular humanistic theory applied to physical activity behavior , suggests that behavior is motivated by different types of motivation autonomous and controlled motivation . Autonomous and controlled motivation capture our reasons for engaging in physical activity . Autonomous motivation for physical activity leads toward either through enjoyment , achievement of goals , or consistency with how we want to be . Controlled motivation for physical activity is dependent on external pressures , such as a desire to gain external rewards or avoid externally imposed punishments . For example , people who are motivated to be physically active by enjoyment of engaging in activity are autonomously motivated , whereas those influenced by guilt or obligation to others are directed by controlled motivation . While both autonomous and controlled motivation can prompt physical activity , when external pressures are no longer present , physical activity directed by controlled motivation will likely be discontinued . However , physical activity motivated by autonomous motivation will more likely be reliably engaged in because we are doing it for ourselves it is ( Ryan , 2002 ) motivation can be further broken down into degrees of controlled or autonomous motivation ( Ryan , 2002 ) is the complete absence of motivation . Extrinsic motivation is a controlled form of motivation exerted by external pressure or anticipated external reward for engaging in physical activity , such as anticipation of a certificate or trophy . Intrinsic motivation arises from the anticipation of accomplishment , enjoyment , and innate reward from doing the physical activity . 22

Rebar , Gardner theory provides perspective on the types of behavioral regulation that result in differing degrees of controlled and autonomous motivation . External regulation captures motivation to act out of desires for external reward or the dread of future punishment . regulation captures motivation of partially internalized ideas and values such as to avoid guilt , seek approval , or protect our sense of self . Identified regulation captures influences of more internalized motivation based on our own values and priorities . Integrated regulation captures the influence of and the motivation to act in line with how we define ourselves . Intrinsic regulation represents the influence of purely motivation , driven by satisfaction and enjoyment from engaging in the behavior . Initially , these forms of regulation were portrayed on a continuum , with certain types of regulation leading to more autonomous motivation at one end and those leading to more controlled motivation at the other . However , more recent evidence has shown that we can have motivational influence from more than one type of regulation and that their alignment with autonomous controlled motivation is not straightforwardly represented on a continuum ( Howard et , 2020 ) We can likely be motivated by more than one type of regulation and the regulation types do not necessarily dictate whether our motivation for physical activity is more autonomous or controlled . is theorized as being achieved through three universal and basic psychological needs that , when satisfied , are important components in establishing intrinsic motivation for behaviors such as physical activity ( Ryan , 2002 ) Specifically , relatedness refers to the need to be socially connected and accepted by others . Autonomy speaks to the need for and the freedom to make decisions about behavior in line with our personal beliefs and values . Competence encompasses our belief that we can enact chosen physical activities ( Brooks et , 2018 Ryan , 2002 ) Table Theory Applied to Motivations No motivation or Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation Motivated intention to engage in physical Motivated by external factors by internal rewards , personal activity . not related to the physical growth and enjoyment of activity or self . physical activity . Regulations External regulation Motivated by external reward or punishment . regulation Motivated by gains of social approval or avoidance of social disapproval . Identified regulation Motivated by personal values and . Integrated regulation Motivated by acceptance of physical activity into one life . Basic Psychological Needs Relatedness Enjoyment , and accountability through social connections and support . Autonomy Empowerment through sense of control , freedom of choice and . Competence Confidence in one ability to successfully engage in and perform the activity . Theories Some theories propose that behavior is dictated , at least in part , by automatic desires and biases . These theories are considered dual process because they propose that behavior is influenced by two types of processes reflective processes , which are the deliberate , effortful processes that translate into reasoned action , and automatic processes , which are rapid , sometimes nonconscious , and not 23

Chapter Theories of Physical Activity Motivation dependent on cognitive resources . Common to most models is the postulate of interventionist architecture an expectation that people will , by default , be influenced by automatic processes , unless they have sufficient motivation , opportunity , and capacity to inhibit them ( Brand , 2018 Evans , 2013 ) Also common to most theories is the notion that reflective processes are slower to engage and enact than automatic processes , because reflective processes involve effortful such as making intentions to engage in a behavior or not , and such as planning and problem solving to enact intentions . Most automatic influences referred to in theories are considered as manifestations of mental associations between a behavior and cues or attributes ( Evans Frankish , Rebar , 2017 ) Such models describe working memory as a network of connected concepts with varying degrees of strength of associations linking concepts . For example , the automatic influence of habit on physical activity behavior is conceived as the mentally held link between physical activity and a triggering cue ( Gardner , 2015 ) Similarly , tendencies to approach or avoid opportunities to be physically active can be experienced as a result of learned associations between the notion of physical activity and the of good or bad ( Conroy Berry , 2017 Rebar , Rebar ( 2017 ) postulates that there are multiple automatic influences on physical activity behavior which are distinct but related , because they all form a network of overlapping associations of the notion of physical activity with a variety of other concepts or attributes . Although not covered in this chapter , a full overview of an additional theory , the theory of physical inactivity and exercise ( Brand , 2018 ) is presented in Chapter ( Brand , 2021 ) Theory of Hedonic Motivation The theory of hedonic motivation ( Williams , 2018 Williams , 2019 Table see specifically Williams , 2019 , 133 , Figure ) proposes that environmental cues trigger dual motivational processes that influence behavior reflective motivation and hedonic motivation . Reflective motivation is influence from the desire to engage in physical activity or not , based on expectations and values of physical activity . Hedonic motivation is influence from the immediate , uncontrollable feeling or urge of wanting to do physical activity or wanting to avoid physical activity . Whereas reflective motivation is based on about past experiences of physical activity and values and about physical activity , hedonic motivation originates from genetic predispositions and psychological hedonism . is our human tendency to pursue pleasure and avoid displeasure ( Williams , 2018 ) Based on our past experiences of physical activity as being pleasant or unpleasant , we will be automatically drawn to approach or avoid physical activity opportunities , respectively . The theory of hedonic motivation proposes that the dual processes of reflective and hedonic motivation might have the same direction of influence on behavior , in which case behavior would follow the added influences of reflective and hedonic motivation . For example , if you have intentions to engage in more gym workouts and have hedonic motivation of wanting to at the gym , you will out at the gym more . But sometimes hedonic and reflective motivation can compete , leading to opposing influential forces on behavior . For example , you may want to be more physically active due to your knowledge of the health benefits ( reflective motivation ) but have to overcome a sense of dread of physical activity before starting ( hedonic motivation Williams , 2019 ) In such circumstances , when reflective and hedonic motivation conflict , the theory of hedonic motivation proposes that a decision is made as to whether to act in line with hedonic or reflective motivation . The decision is dependent on the relative strength of hedonic and reflective motivation , resources , and the situational context ( et , 2009 ) If your reflective motivation is strong , is high , and there are few barriers , your reflective desire to engage in physical activity can overcome your hedonic dread to avoid it . However , if your hedonic dread is strong , there are contextual barriers , and your 24

Rebar , Gardner control is depleted , it is more likely the hedonic dread will win out and you will not do physical activity . In accordance with the theory of hedonic motivation , whether the decision translates into physical activity behavior or not depends on access the opportunity to engage in physical activity or not , such as access to gym equipment . Table Theory of Hedonic Motivation Applied to Physical Activity Cue Stimulus contextual triggers of the concept of physical activity that initiate the motivational processes underpinning movement Psychological Processes Controlled processing about Automatic association mentally held expectation of future consequences of physical association between physical activity and activity behavior based on past experiences and pleasant or unpleasant , acquired through past values responses to physical activity Reflective motivation influences from the Hedonic motivation influence from the desire to engage in physical activity or not , immediate , uncontrollable feeling or urge of based on deliberated expectations of the wanting to do physical activity or wanting to pleasantness or unpleasantness of physical avoid physical activity activity Influential Variables Situational context factors in the surrounding context that might inhibit or facilitate physical activity behavior situation the circumstance in which hedonic and reflective motivation are opposing , and people may elicit to act in line with reflective motivation , overcoming hedonic motivation Decision the determination of the winning influence of doing physical activity not doing physical activity when hedonic motivation and reflective motivation are opposing Access opportunity or lack of opportunity to perform physical activity Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity The theory of effort minimization in physical activity ( Cheval , in press ) centers around the evolutionary perspective that people have evolved to have automatic attractions toward effort minimization . Effort minimization is the process of acting in ways that require the least perceived amount of effort or energy expenditure . Notably , this perception of effort might occur automatically , reflectively , or both . The theory of effort minimization in physical activity puts forth that humans have evolved to avoid unnecessary physical effort , to conserve energetic resources for reproductive activity and somatic maintenance . The theory thus assumes that physical effort is a perceived cost to be avoided and that this leads to a general human tendency to avoid physical activity . The influence on behavior of this automatic draw towards inactivity varies depending on factors of the person , behavior , and context . The proposed process of the theory of effort minimization in physical activity is that related cues elicit both automatic and controlled evaluations , which in turn lead to controlled or automatic precursors to behavior that direct the decision and plan to produce movement ( physical activity ) cues are contextual triggers of the concept of physical activity that initiate the motivational processes underpinning movement . Automatic evaluations are the spontaneous pleasant or unpleasant reactions to movement or sedentary related cues ( Conroy Berry , 2017 ) 25

Chapter Theories of Physical Activity Motivation Controlled evaluations are the pleasant or unpleasant reflective judgments about enjoyment and anticipated feelings about physical activity ( Rhodes et , 2009 ) Perceived effort is the perceived experience and of the of physical activity . For example , you may be cued by your rowdy dog with their lead in their mouth . This may elicit unfavorable automatic evaluations of physical activity for you , which elicits your tendency to avoid physical activity . However , the cue may also elicit your values and beliefs about walking being good for both you and your dog , so now you are faced with the decision to act in line with your automatic physical impulse by not going on the walk or your controlled intention to go on the walk . Table Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity Cue cues contextual triggers of the concept of behaviors including sitting , standing , and different of physical activity that initiate the motivational processes underpinning movement Physiological state levels of energy and activation Evaluation Controlled evaluation reflective judgments Automatic evaluation the pleasant or about the overall , unpleasant experiences that arise rapidly and enjoyment , and feelings expected from physical involuntarily when the concept of physical activity , as well as reflective knowledge about activity is activated in a person mind the benefits of physical activity Perceived effort the subjective of the of the physical activity Planning specifications about the place , timing , and specific actions of the physical activity Maintenance Theories If you decided to do some physical activity next week , you could probably muster up the necessary motivation to get it done . The call to be active every day for the rest of your life , though , may seem daunting . We can better anticipate likely barriers and plan in the coming days than we can over the rest of our lives . Even with the strongest commitment and best made plans , there will be things that pop up to throw you off . What happens if you get sick or do feel like being active some days ?

What happens if you get a , have kids , or develop chronic illness or pain ?

Leading a physically active lifestyle is not as simple as getting really motivated one day and deciding to change your behavior . Maintenance theories differentiate between behavioral initiation factors and behavioral maintenance factors ( et , 2013 et , 2009 ) Behavioral capture motivational influences needed to instigate changes in behavior . Behavioral are the motivational influences needed for continuation of the behavior change . Maintenance theories of behavior change describe how at any point in time , we have multiple behavioral options , only one of which may be physical activity . Decisions about whether to do physical activity or not can occur on a daily or even momentary basis ( 2009 ) The likelihood that we will choose a given behavioral option at a given moment in a certain context is described as behavioral potential ( et , 2016 Rotter , 1960 ) In accordance with this line of reasoning , behavior will be determined by the option with the highest potential in each moment . If the same behavior tends to have occurred in the same occasion , under similar circumstances in the past , then that behavioral option will likely have the highest behavioral potential , making behavior change quite 26

Rebar , Gardner difficult . That past behavior is thought to influence future behavior through changes in motivation is a concept referred to as dynamic reciprocity ( et , 2016 ) For example , your past experiences with physical activity may influence your attitudes about how future activity will make you feel , thereby influencing the behavioral potential of you to engage in physical activity , relative to other behavioral options . Theoretical Explanations for Maintenance of Behavior Change Multiple maintenance theories are available . Here , however , we present common themes shared across those theories , as extracted in a systematic review of maintenance theories ( et , 2016 Table Figure ) While these factors do not represent a theory in the same way as theories cited above , they capture a broad range of inputs on behavior maintenance . Figure Relationships Between Themes from Maintenance Theories by et al . 2016 ) New New habits ST ) Behaviour alter change has My been enacted ( ew Behaviour ) ST ) Resources ST Stress . Tiredness of substances Emotions , Ego depletion motives ST ) ST ! enjoyment Skill . need . and process The new but ' Satisfaction ith outcomes Lapse . relapse and coping . Identity with behavioural barriers me , me and Prior behaviour 51 . Old habits , Behaviour change ) ST has been enacted ' Environment costs . Choice . Note . Reproduced from , White , 2016 ) Theoretical explanations for maintenance of behaviour change A systematic review of behaviour theories . Health Psychology Review , 10 ( under a Creative Commons Attribution License BY . et al . 2016 ) identified five important theoretical considerations for behavioral maintenance maintenance motives , resources , habit , and environmental and social influences . Maintenance motives are the deliberate reasons we have for wanting to maintain physical activity based on views of ourselves , our values , or our beliefs . leads to behavioral maintenance through our diligent and adjusting of behavior , and implementation of effective strategies to adjust behavior when it does not align with our goals or intentions . Resources are 27

Chapter Theories of Physical Activity Motivation important for maintenance in that psychological and physical resources such as and energy are necessary for behavioral maintenance . the processes by which your behavior is influenced from a cue to act based on associations between cues and behaviors ( Gardner , Rebar et , 2020 ) essential for maintaining behavior without relying on . Environmental and social influences are essential for behavioral maintenance because we tend to maintain behavior which is in line with our social influences and accessible in your physical context . It is theorized that we need at least a single maintenance motive , or reason , to maintain physical activity behavior . Typically , initial behavior change will occur when motivation is high and there is ample opportunity . As motivation wanes and priorities and opportunities change , becomes more relevant for physical activity maintenance . The more often we engage in physical activity within the same context , the more likely it will form into a habit , which means the decision to continue to maintain physical activity will require less deliberation and . Importantly , whether we maintain physical activity will also be dependent on the environmental and social context that surrounds you . The theory is that more stable are more likely to lead to habits because it allows for repeated experiences of behavior in the same context such that the associations that underpin habits will be developed and strengthened . Table Theoretical Explanations for Maintenance of Behavior Change Applied to Physical Activity Themes Maintenance motives the reasons people do physical activity effort applied to actively control behavior by overcoming temptations for inactivity acting on physical activity intentions Resources psychological and physical factors that support physical activity Habits the processes by which your behavior is influenced from a cue to act based on learned associations between cues and behaviors Environmental and social influences access to and support of physical activity opportunities Conclusion There is no single , optimal way to think about physical activity motivation or behavior change . We have covered only a few of the many available theories of physical activity motivation and behavior ( see et , 2014 ) and notably , those that we have presented are psychological in nature , so assume that the individual is the most appropriate unit . Indeed , all theories make assumptions about humans and behavior that are important to keep in mind when attempting to apply them to settings . Social cognitive theories propose that behavior is driven by intent and reasoning based on and values . Humanistic theories propose that humans are driven toward fulfillment , and motivation is heavily influenced by learning . theories posit that there are both reasoned and automatic processes that influence behavior . Maintenance theories postulate that the reasons someone starts physical activity will likely not sustain their maintenance in physical activity over the . Based on these premises , a set of theories have been put forth to help describe and potentially target physical activity behavior change from a motivation perspective . People are unique , situations are unique , and moments in time are unique . As a result , the factors that impact whether we engage in physical activity are many and complex . Theories represent attempts to organize these factors into coherent structures , but in so doing , may the motivational processes involved in physical activity . By identifying and organizing into a coherent structure , theories can help us to 28

Rebar , Gardner develop physical activity interventions by identifying discrete psychological targets for change , potential pathways by which change may be brought about , and specific techniques that may be most likely to bring about change via those targets and pathways ( 2010 ) Continued development of theory is needed to help us to continue to refine our physical activity intervention approaches . Theories currently in use , and those that will continue to emerge in the future , can help provide for understanding and potentially enhancing physical activity behavior . Learning Exercises Why are motivation theories important for physical activity and sport domains ?

Which two theories within this chapter posit that behavior motivation is derived from intentions and goals , expectations , and values about the behavior ?

Which theory presented in this chapter suggests that motivation is driven by external and internal regulations ?

What two types of processes are said to be involved in theories ?

What is the difference between behavior initiation and behavior maintenance ?

What does it mean if a behavior is described as having high behavioral potential ?

Our previous experiences with the behavior will influence the level of behavioral potential . What is this concept known as ?

Further Reading , 2000 ) Theories of exercise behavior . Psychology . 31 ( Hagger , Cameron , Hamilton , 2020 ) The handbook of behavior change . Cambridge University Press . West , Campbell , Brown , 2014 ) ABC change theories . Silverback Publishing . Rebar , Rhodes , 2020 ) Progression of motivation models in exercise science Where we have been and where we are heading . In ( Handbook psychology ( Vol . John Wiley Sons , Rhodes , Rebar , 2019 ) Theories of physical activity behaviour change A history and synthesis of approaches . Psychology and Exercise , 42 , Rhodes , 2011 ) Advancing physical activity theory A review and future directions . Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews , 39 ( 29

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