Psychology Textbook Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity Anne Cox and Sarah Washington State University Please cite as Cox , 2021 ) Mindfulness in physical activity . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview Mindfulness refers to being fully present in the moment attending to the sights , sounds , thoughts , and physical sensations as they come and go . In recent years , exercise psychology researchers have become interested in understanding how the particular qualities of mindfulness shape physical activity experiences and outcomes . Research findings show the potential for mindfulness to support more pleasurable exercise experiences and exhibit more positive embodiment . Evidence also shows that engaging in various forms of mindful movement ( walking , yoga ) may support positive mental health outcomes , engagement in healthy behaviors , and the development of trait mindfulness . Mindfulness also fits well with current theories of exercise motivation and is linked with key motivation variables such as need satisfaction and autonomous forms of motivation . interventions even suggest that helping individuals develop mindfulness skills may be an effective strategy for increasing physical activity behavior . Thus , mindfulness has demonstrated its relevance to many of the topics that are of interest to exercise psychology researchers , from motivation to mental health to body image . For correspondence

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity Why Be Mindful While Moving ?

Although research on mindfulness has grown rapidly overjust the last few decades , mindful forms of movement have a long , rich history . Today , this long tradition of mindful movement is merging with research methods to produce new knowledge of the potential benefits of being mindful during physical activity . Current definitions of mindfulness tend to include two key parts . The first part relates to awareness of and attention to experience , rather than thinking about the past or the future ( Bishop et , 2004 Brown Ryan , 2003 ) experiences can include one thoughts , emotions , physical sensations or environment . For example , as you mindfully walk along a beach , various thoughts , the sound of waves crashing , and the feeling of smooth , wet sand giving way beneath your feet might naturally pass in and out of conscious awareness . Alternatively , you may choose to sit on the beach to watch the sunrise focusing all of your attention on that visual stimulus . Both this focusing of attention and open awareness are ways of directing attention mindfully . The second part of the definition relates to attitude or the characteristics of attention . It is not enough to simply be present . One must also be open , accepting , and even curious about the things that are passing in and out of awareness . Without this second part of the definition , one is not truly being mindful . This definition highlights the nature of mindfulness as an experiential state . One can be more or less mindful on a moment to moment basis and this reflects one level of state mindfulness . We can assess mindfulness as a state or we can examine it as is more commonly done , as a trait . Trait mindfulness refers to one tendency or general disposition to be mindful throughout one day or across situations . As one might expect , higher levels of trait mindfulness predict higher state mindfulness , but they have also demonstrated independent effects when predicting certain outcome variables ( Brown Ryan , 2003 ) With these definitions and distinctions in mind , we will first explore examples of mindful movement and why being mindful during physical activity matters for one experiences in the moment as well as longer term outcomes . We will then explore the role that mindfulness might play in motivational processes within contemporary physical activity motivation theory and describe physical activity interventions . Learning Exercise One Check your recall and write down the two key parts of the definition of mindfulness . Next , put mindfulness into action during a walking exercise . You can walk inside your home or outside , for a long time orjust a few moments . While you are walking , see if you can apply mindful attention to all of the sensations of walking . This could include the movement of your arms , the contact between your feet and the ground and how it changes throughout each step , or muscular contraction in your legs , etc . Allow each sensation to arise in your awareness and then allow it to fade away . If it is really challenging to stay present with the sensations of walking , select just one focus of attention ( your feet ) and keep coming back to this target when you become distracted . How did this experience feel ?

What was difficult about it ?

What did you learn about yourself ?

What is Mindful Movement ?

During mindful movement , participants intentionally bring their attention to the experience of moving their body with an attitude of acceptance and that is characteristic of mindfulness more generally ( et , 2012 ) This might include their breath , physical sensations , thoughts , and emotions . Moving mindfully requires deliberate , conscious attention be brought to the experience of 317

Cox moving . Popular forms of mindful movement include walking , tai chi , yoga , qi gong , and pilates . Research on the effects of yoga has grown more rapidly than research on other forms of mindful movement , perhaps due to its rapid acceleration in popularity among the general public . In both 2012 and 2017 , yoga was the most commonly used complementary ( outside of traditional Western medicine ) health approach in adults in the United States ( Clarke et , 2018 ) From 2012 to 2017 , the use of yoga in the last 12 months increased from to in adults . The growing popularity of yoga makes it accessible to both practitioners and researchers alike . Researchers who have studied mindful forms of movement have been largely interested in how it can be used as an adjunct therapy to support mental and physical . More recently , researchers have dived more deeply into the psychological processes that occur when individuals are moving mindfully . Experiences During Mindful Movement One of the questions of most interest to researchers is how being mindful while moving impacts the nature of the movement experience . When moving mindfully , individuals not only direct their attention to their experience but are also open and accepting of whatever emerges in that experience . Alternatively , when individuals engage in physical activity and are not being mindful they might be thinking about the past or the future , judging some aspect of their experience ( pain , ability , performance ) thinking about what they look like while exercising , contemplating their exercise goals , or listening to music . Researchers are interested in how being fully present in one body while engaging in physical activity impacts one experiences while moving . Two areas that have received recent attention are the degree of pleasure experienced and how one experiences or inhabits their body while moving . In the sections that follow , we will explore the research evidence that reveals the way mindfulness can shape the movement experience . Affective and Emotional Experiences Some of the most compelling evidence of the benefits of mindful movement is that people simply feel good doing it . This is often captured by measuring participants affect or distinct emotional states ( content , sad , irritated ) either while they are participating in physical activity or retrospectively ( recalling it after the fact ) Affect refers to how people feel ( good or bad , 2000 ) It is the experiential piece of emotions such as anxiety , but does not have to be derived from a specific emotion per se . In several studies , researchers have observed a relationship between mindful states and affective responses during physical activity . In a study that used experience sampling at random times throughout the day , college students moving , standing , and sitting behaviors as well as their negative affect ( stress , anxiety , and generally feeling bad ) were assessed in the moment over a fourteen day period ( Yang Conroy , 2018 ) Students experienced less negative affect during activities than when sitting or standing . Negative affect was also lower when participants were more mindful than usual while engaging in physical activity . Thus , a synergistic effect was observed where being mindful amplified the positive influence of physical activity on negative affect . In a different approach , Mackenzie et al . 2014 ) assessed participants focus of attention and affect across an yoga class . Throughout the yoga class , simultaneous increases were observed for both an associative focus of attention ( focus on the present moment ) and positive affect . Thus , the more focused they were on moving in the present moment , the better they felt . Finally , in a study testing the effects of mindful walking , participants state mindfulness and positive and negative emotions were assessed multiple times a day using experience sampling methodology ( et , 2016 ) Results showed that state mindfulness and emotions experienced during mindful walking prospectively enhanced each other in an upward spiral . That is , state mindfulness in one moment positively predicted positive emotions in the next moment sampled . Similarly , positive emotions positively predicted state mindfulness in the next moment sampled . Therefore , the more 318

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity participants focused their attention on the here and now throughout the study , the more pleasant their experience became . Overall , being attentive to the experience of moving in a and accepting way appears to support positive affective and emotional experiences . Learning Exercise Two Recall a time when you were engaging in physical activity in a , playful , and just plain fun way . Some of you might have to think way back to when you were a kid at the playground . Close your eyes . Try to recall everything you remember about that experience . What did you see , hear , smell , taste and feel ?

How did the experience make you feel ?

Write down everything you can remember . What aspects of mindfulness were a part of that experience ?

How can you recreate those experiences now ?

Embodied Experiences Mindfulness also plays a key role in how we experience living in our bodies , referred to as embodiment ( 2012 ) Although embodiment can be defined in different ways , broadly speaking , it refers to our connection with our bodies . 2016 ) further discusses how experiences of embodiment can be positive or negative along five different dimensions including body connection and comfort , agency and functionality , attuned , experience and expression of bodily desire , and inhabiting the body as a subjective site . Overall , positive embodiment is described as positive body connection and comfort , embodied agency and passion , and attuned , whereas negative embodiment is defined as disrupted body connection and discomfort , restricted agency and passion , and or harm ( 2016 , 47 ) On the one hand , discusses in her developmental theory of embodiment ( how multiple factors contribute to negative embodiment , such as the way many cultures emphasize the importance of women physical attractiveness and evaluate them based on often unrealistic societal standards . This objectification of women bodies can cause them to dissociate from their physical experiences . On the other hand , she outlines the factors that support positive embodiment , which include immersing oneself in joyful physical activities . Full immersion in the act of moving one body is consistent with the way that mindful movement is described . engaging in mindful forms of movement is associated with positive experiences of embodiment . In the next two sections , we will explore some of the research evidence connecting mindfulness to the dimensions of embodiment that have received more research attention body connection and comfort and inhabiting the body as a subjective site . Body Connection and Comfort . of individuals who participate in various forms of mindful movement highlight how the movement helps them feel more connected to their body or greater integration between mind and body . Many such studies have been conducted with yoga participants across different age groups and special populations ( cancer survivors those with chronic pain ) These participants talk about how yoga increases their awareness of thoughts , feelings , emotions , and sensations ( Cramer et , 2013 et , 2016 ) With this greater awareness , they are able to be more present and decide how best to respond . For example , and Freedman ( 2009 ) interviewed women ages 22 to 72 years who practice yoga regularly . They reported an increased awareness and connection with their body due to practicing yoga . This connection helped them feel more grounded or present in their bodies and they were better able to listen and respond to their bodies needs . Although it may seem simple , responding to one needs like resting when tired or drinking water when thirsty is not as natural when experiencing disconnection from one body . 319

Cox Furthermore , they liked , respected , and appreciated their bodies more which is consistent with quantitative studies linking yoga participation to higher body appreciation ( Cox et , 2019 et , 2019 ) That is , during the course of yoga participation over a period of weeks , increases in the degree of love , respect , and appreciation women have for their bodies have been observed . The breath is a common focus of attention across different forms of mindful movement ( yoga , tai chi , qigong ) and may serve as one vehicle that fosters a close connection and comfort with one body . Other types of physical activity such as dance may also provide an opportunity to feel connected and comfortable in one body . However , this is highly dependent on the type of dance . et al . 2014 ) proposed that belly dance was an embodying activity that promotes connection with one body due to a focus on breathing and the abdominal muscles as well as concentration and emphasis on connecting to the body . To test this proposition , they compared belly dancers to those who had never participated in belly dance on variables . Results showed that belly dancers had significantly higher levels of body appreciation relative to the comparison group . However , it is equally plausible that individuals who are already more comfortable in their bodies choose to participate in belly dancing . Stronger evidence comes from studies that have used dance or dance therapy as an intervention . For example , in one study , researchers interviewed male and female teenagers who participated in a dance movement psychotherapy session which is focused on feeling the body move ( et , 2014 ) The results revealed that participants felt greater body acceptance , less consciousness and more connected to their bodies after the dance therapy . No doubt moving in a mindful way , whether it be through yoga , dance , or sport , provides numerous opportunities to become both aware of sensations in the body that may be reflective of physiological and emotional states and accepting of what one finds , thus contributing to body connection and comfort . Photo by . studio from Inhabiting the Body as a Subjective Site . Inhabiting one body subjectively means experiencing and interacting with the world from a , internal perspective ( 2016 ) It also refers to resisting the pressure to view one body from a perspective , as an object to be judged for its external appearance . This perspective is incompatible with the experience of being 320

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity mindful while moving . For example , imagine dancing or doing in front of mirrors . Perhaps you are completely immersed in the activity , bringing your attention fully to the feeling of the movement and sensation in your body . Then , you become distracted by your image in the mirror and before you know it , you are looking at yourself from an observer perspective . And because we are social creatures , seeing your own reflection likely turned into an evaluation of the image you perceived without you even realizing it . That does sound very mindful does it ?

In an instant , you are no longer aware of your own sensations as your attention is pulled out of experiencing your body and into evaluating an external image of yourself . The phrase dance like nobody watching sums up the value of resisting an external perspective and thejoy that can arise from fully inhabiting your body . We do not even need mirrors to prompt us to think about the way we appear to others from an observer perspective . Body surveillance is something people do all the time , some more than others . It refers to thinking about what you look like from a perspective and it undermines inhabiting your body subjectively ( Roberts , 1997 ) Mindful forms of movement may contribute to resisting this objectifying , perspective by continually drawing attention to internal experiences of physical sensations , thoughts , and emotions . At the very core of mindful movement is inhabiting the body subjectively , from an internal perspective . Research evidence shows that through yoga participation , women start to value and appreciate the functionality of their bodies more and an emphasis on outward physical appearance can decline ( Freedman , 2009 ) This reflects a shift from an objectifying to embodied perspective . In support of such a shift , body surveillance has been found to decline over the course of participation in a yoga class over time ( Cox et , 2017 2019 et , 2006 ) Further , an explanation for these shifts was documented in a study showing that when participants were more mindful during yoga class , they engaged in less body surveillance ( Cox et , 2017 ) And remember those belly dancers ( et , 2014 ) They too reported significantly lower body surveillance compared to those who had not belly danced . Thus , being mindful while moving appears incompatible with an objectifying perspective of the self and may help promote inhabiting the body subjectively over time . Overall , engaging in mindful movement is associated with pleasant physical activity experiences and a positive state of embodiment . Learning Exercise Three Recall a time when you felt quite engaging in physical activity . Maybe you were looking in the mirror frequently or thinking about the other people around you observing you . What did that experience feel like ?

What thoughts were going through your head ?

What do you notice about the way it feels to exercise or move when you are thinking about your outward appearance or others judging you ?

Finally , how could you bring your attention inward to the experience and sensations of moving your body ?

Outcomes of Mindful Movement Mindful forms of movement or physical activity have also been linked to a number of mental and physical health benefits as well as other healthy behaviors . We know that mindful movement , like physical activity more generally , is associated with a wide range of physical health outcomes . In line with an exercise psychology perspective , here we will discuss some of the psychological and behavioral outcomes associated with mindful movement . Trait Mindfulness At a very basic level , participating in mindful movement can be an effective strategy for 321

Cox increasing overall levels of trait mindfulness . Presumably , any activity in which an individual is being mindful is enhancing one ability to be mindful in general . and colleagues ( 2015 ) provided evidence of this from participants in an Stress Reduction Program ( 1990 ) Each week of the program , they assessed participants levels of state mindfulness during a meditation exercise . What they found was that growth in state mindfulness over the eight weeks of the program contributed to growth in trait mindfulness . Similarly , engaging in various forms of mindful movement overtime has been associated with increases in trait mindfulness . In one study of college students , increases in trait mindfulness were observed over the course of 16 weeks of yoga participation ( Cox , 2019 ) In another study , college students participated in , a martial art that originated in China , twice a week for 15 weeks ( Caldwell et , 2011 ) The students who participated in classes , increased significantly in trait mindfulness whereas those in a comparison class that involved similar levels of physical activity did not . The physical sensations that we experience while moving may provide a more tangible , dynamic , and interesting focus of attention relative to sedentary or forms of mindfulness practice . Mindful movement has been shown to be more effective than seated mindfulness practices for supporting the development of trait mindfulness ( Carmody , 2008 ) Thus , mindful may not only provide a more accessible and attractive entry point for engaging in mindfulness practices , but may even be more effective than seated practices for developing trait mindfulness . Mental Health The cultivation of mindfulness while moving may lead to better mental health benefits than either seated forms of mindfulness ( Hunt et , 2018 ) or physical activity that is not mindful ( et , 2012 ) The positive link between physical activity and mental health indicators is ( et , 2019 Rebar et , 2015 ) however , combined with acceptance and detachment from one thoughts , emotions , and other experiences , mindful physical activity may enhance the positive mental health benefits of physical activity alone . There is no shortage of empirical evidence linking mindful forms of movement such as tai chi , yoga , and mindful walking to positive mental health or psychological . For example , older adults in a tai chi program experienced increases in positive affect and and decreases in negative affect , depression , and psychological distress ( Li et , 2001 ) In another study , adults with high psychological distress demonstrated large reductions in stress over the course of a mindful walking program ( et , 2013 ) And in yet a different form of mindful movement , yoga participation , has consistently been linked to the reduction of physiological markers of stress ( cortisol et , 2017 ) and overall psychological in youth ( et , 2012 ) and adults ( et , 2011 ) alike . Thus , there is robust support for the psychological benefit of engaging in a range of mindful movement at all ages . Mindful movement may also be more effective for supporting positive mental health compared to various seated forms of mindfulness practice . 1990 ) is one of the most popular and widely researched mindfulness programs . It includes both seated ( meditation ) and based forms of mindfulness like yoga and walking and is consistently linked to reductions in stress and other indicators of psychological ( Shearer et , 2015 ) However , given the known psychological benefits of mindfulness in general , it is unclear to what degree mindful movement may be responsible for the positive outcomes associated with programs . In one study hoping to disentangle the various elements of , college students were randomly assigned to one of five conditions a ) mindfulness and meditation alone , yoga alone , yoga with mindfulness and meditation training , study break with snacks and therapy dog , or ) no treatment control for four weeks ( Hunt et , 2018 ) At the end of the intervention , only the yoga alone and yoga plus groups had significantly lower anxiety and negative affect compared to the no treatment control group . The results ofthis study provide some initial evidence that there may be a 322

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity synergistic effect when movement is combined with mindfulness . Moving mindfully could provide an optimal combination for supporting positive mental health . However , much more research is needed that provides direct comparisons among different types of physical activities , seated mindfulness practices , and mindful movement practices . Healthy Behaviors Other potential beneficial outcomes of engaging in mindful movement include health behaviors . As with other areas of research on mindful movement , most of this work has been conducted on yoga participants . Individuals who participate in yoga on a regular basis report that it has promoted healthy habits in the areas of eating , physical activity , sleep , and engaging in relaxation ( Watts et , 2018 ) For example , in one study , young adults reported that their yoga practice motivated them to eat healthier and be more mindful of what they are eating they also reported increased healthier cravings and less emotional eating ( Watts et , 2018 ) Furthermore , yoga motivated them to be more active outside of yoga and provided them with the skills to try other forms of physical activity . Other studies have found that yoga participants are able to use what they learn in yoga to engage in stress reduction strategies outside of yoga and better respond to their needs with ( et , 2012 , et , 2016 Rhodes , 2015 ) One of the most frequent examples yoga participants give is using the they learn in yoga to respond to stressful situations in their daily lives . The relationship between mindful movement and healthy behaviors may be due to increases in attunement with the self that occur when being mindful . Through increased awareness of what the mind and body feel like , individuals can better discern how best to respond to and take care of one self . This attuned is also one of ( 2016 ) five dimensions of embodiment . In a study of adults with chronic neck pain , participants talked about how increased body awareness from yoga helped them better see the connection between their behaviors and their ( Cramer et , 2013 ) Therefore , mindful movement activities may support health and directly as well as indirectly by supporting additional healthy behaviors . Mindful Movement Motivating ?

Although mindful movement is not new , we arejust now documenting the many benefits of the practice of mindful movement related to physical activity motivation and behavior . As research is catching up with the practice , we are seeing more and more evidence to support how mindful movement can play a role in motivational processes . As a research topic , mindfulness and motivation is in its infancy . However , there is at least one theoretical model that incorporated mindfulness within a broader description of motivation and more than forty years ago . theory ( Ryan , 2017 ) is one of the most widely used theoretical on motivation and being across many disciplines and domains . is referred to as a , which means that it is a framework that is intended to be applied across all people and domains to holistically describe , explain , and make predictions about human . Below is an overview of key aspects of that are most relevant to mindfulness . Key Details of Theory Explained To understand how mindfulness might play a role in motivational processes , it is helpful to understand how motivation is within ( see Ryan , 2017 Chapter , et , 2021 ) Motivation is described as , reflecting the different ways we regulate our behavior . There are different types of motivation that represent different reasons why people engage in a particular behavior . The focus is on the underlying reasons that energize or regulate behavior and these reasons are presented as falling along a continuum ranging from volitional or autonomous reasons 323

Cox to externally controlling reasons . reflects lacking a reason for doing an activity and represents an absence of autonomy . Theoretically , individuals who are may be acting rather mindlessly given the unintentional nature of their behavior . On the other hand , intrinsic motivation represents the highest degree of autonomy . Intrinsic motivation represents engaging in a behavior , such as exercise , for the rewards gained solely from the act of exercising . These rewards that are inherent to the activity itself can include enjoyment , satisfaction , and challenge , among others . This type of motivation represents the purest form of motivation because it is completely ( autonomous ) and derived from the activity itself for example , I exercise because I enjoy the feeling of the movement . Intrinsic motivation naturally aligns with a mindful state as one is paying attention to the experience itself . In the middle of the continuum , there are four types of motivation regulations that represent engaging in a behavior for reasons that emanate from sources external to the activity . Each of these types of extrinsic motivation represent progressively lower degrees of autonomy . The external and controlling nature of these types of motivation reflect potential barriers to being present and accepting of one experience . The most autonomous ofthe extrinsic regulations is integrated regulation , which represents an integration of the activity as congruent with one sense of self or identity I exercise because I identify as a healthy and active person . Next is identified regulation , which is still autonomous because it represents engaging in a behavior because it is of personal value and importance I value the benefits of exercise . A somewhat more external and more controlling regulation is regulation , which reflects internalized rewards , pressure or guilt I exercise because I feel bad about myself ifl don . Finally , the most controlling form of motivation , external regulation , represents external rewards or punishments I exercise because my physician tells me I have to . The distinctions between the different types of behavioral regulations highlight the varying degrees of autonomy and external control . The process by which a behavior can become internalized or integrated within an sense of self and consistent with one values is where mindfulness may play a role in motivation . There is substantial support linking autonomous motivation , and intrinsic motivation in particular , with physical activity behavior ( et , 2012 ) et al . conducted a systematic review analyzing the results of 66 studies with a consistent trend across studies that supported the important theoretical connection between intrinsic motivation and sustained physical activity behavior . What this evidence shows is that the most effective and consistent ways to sustain physical activity behavior are to internalize the behavior to be consistent with one sense of self and one values and to fully enjoy the experience of being physically active . Conceptually , such experiences are consistent with being mindful . outlines that there are ways to support the internalization process to shift more controlling regulations to become more autonomous . A vast amount of research has addressed the role that social and contextual factors ( coaches , exercise instructors ) play in supporting or undermining autonomous regulations , with an emphasis on ways that basic psychological needs are fulfilled . Feeling competent , autonomous , and socially related are core psychological needs that lead to optimal psychological functioning and serve as a primary mediator between social influences and autonomous motivation and psychological more broadly ( Ryan , 2017 ) We know quite a bit about the types of behaviors of significant others that support or undermine psychological needs and impact physical activity motivation . However , there are other ways that psychological needs , and autonomous motivation are fulfilled . Mindfulness is an factor that may provide a different type of pathway to psychological need fulfillment . Theoretical Explanation for the Role of Mindfulness While there are important influences such as the exercise instructor and environment on these motivational processes , there are also factors involved . 324

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity personal factors are those that are within the individual . Mindfulness represents an understudied , but conceptually supported process to consider in physical activity motivation ( Brown Ryan , 2003 ) In 1980 , and Ryan described how mindfulness may play a key role in the internalization process to support autonomous motivation . Let start with what it looks like to be mindless from a motivation perspective . Mindlessness represents a mode of operating in reactive , compulsive , habitual patterns . This means that there is no space , intention , or thought behind the action , hallmarks of and a state with potentially negative consequences . A few examples demonstrate how an absence of mindfulness is reflected in common behavior patterns . For example , experiencing a state of heightened stress may fuel a habit of scrolling distractedly through one phone rather than following through with a planned workout . Or feeling shame when one evaluates the shape of their body in the mirror may similarly fuel a cycle of overeating rather than showing up to the gym . These patterns of behavior demonstrate a submission to negative psychological and emotional states and may interrupt acting from one core values and needs . Mindful awareness may defend against defensive or states , which are more aligned with controlling forms of motivation that are regulated by internal or external rewards and punishments ( Ryan , 2017 ) Photo by from When acting mindlessly ( compulsive , reactive ) there is a lack between stimulus and response ( feel workout ) and no conscious thought for long term consequences . In this state individuals lack intention and connection with values and goals , which are more representative of or low autonomy ( et , 2015 ) We have all been there before and it is frustrating to know you should exercise , you want to exercise regularly , but you just ca break the pattern of inactivity . The result is that we tend to feel bad about ourselves and we do reap the mental or physical benefits of exercising . The desires , goals , and value of exercising may not be aligned with the behavioral patterns . This is the place where being more mindful may be helpful for facilitating more 325

Cox autonomous motivation . and Ryan ( 1980 ) argued that the qualities of mindfulness create the psychological space for individuals to make decisions that are more in line with their values , needs , and interests . Mindfulness encompasses qualities of open , attentive awareness of thoughts and feelings ( both mental and physical ) providing an important first step towards aligning goals , values , and needs with behavior . Attentiveness to one needs ( competence , autonomy , relatedness ) especially when done with openness , acceptance , and , provides the space to identify , evaluate , and select behavior options more autonomously . awareness can , for example , open the door to constructive feedback to inform competence ( ability ) perceptions and avoid eliciting defensiveness , suppression , or avoidance . Mindfulness qualities can also help to regulate emotional responses by diffusing the reactiveness and compulsiveness that leads to or is fueled by more controlling forms of motivation regulation . In this way , mindfulness creates a pause , a space within which to be more deliberate . The result of this psychological space is that behavioral choices can be made with more clarity and over time can facilitate the internalization process and lead to autonomous motivation and behavior . Moving Beyond Theory What Does the Research Show ?

The conceptual description of the role of mindfulness in motivational processes is clearly outlined within the assumptions of . Being mindful should facilitate the three core psychological needs which will then support autonomous motivation and physical activity behavior . If you go through your day attending to thoughts and sensations with an open attitude and allow each experience to emerge , you are more likely to feel in tune with your needs and volitional in what you are doing . This has been demonstrated in a daily diary study showing that those with higher trait mindfulness tend to have more experiences of state mindfulness during daily life and that these individuals report positive affect and more autonomous regulation for their activities ( Brown Ryan , 2003 ) A key finding of this study was that the state , or moment to moment , experiences of mindfulness had a stronger effect on affect and autonomous motivation and were independent of trait mindfulness . That is , having trait mindfulness tends to lead to more state mindfulness experiences , but trait mindfulness was not necessary for individuals to have state mindfulness experiences . This work provides foundational evidence demonstrating the distinct role of state experiences of mindfulness for predicting more positive affect and more autonomous regulation of behavior . Research evidence illustrates the relationships of both trait and state mindfulness with psychological need satisfaction and autonomous motivation for exercise . Trait mindfulness has been positively associated with autonomous motivation for physical activity and negatively associated with controlling forms of motivation for physical activity ( Kang et , 2017 et , 2016 ) These findings have been based on research and have been of small magnitude . There is some evidence that having high trait mindfulness can strengthen the relationship between intrinsic motivation and physical activity behavior ( et , 2016 ) This supports the conceptualization of mindfulness as a facilitator of internalization processes and alignment of values with behaviors . However , there is very limited exploration into these processes and trait mindfulness appears to have a relatively small impact on behavior . An alternative approach , drawing from Brown and Ryan ( 2003 ) work , is to focus on how the specific experiences of being mindful plays a role in physical activity motivation and behavior . If an individual experiences movement mindfully ( state mindfulness ) then they may feel more connected to their body and the experience of moving which may provide the opportunity to feel more empowered and satisfied with the movement itself . Conceptually , it seems then that state mindfulness is aligned with intrinsic motivation which is derived from the very experience of moving . Greater awareness of one feelings and sensations during movement may increase one ability to meet their needs for competence , autonomy , and relatedness , thus facilitating the internalization 326

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity process toward autonomous regulation . Mindfulness allows attention without judgment that can serve to connect one to their physical experience , which should raise perceptions of competence and foster their sense of autonomy . Imagine a spin class where legs are burning , sweat dripping , and lungs screaming . Paying attention to these sensations without judgement allows one to better respond with what supports one goals . For the hardcore athlete , these cues align with fitness goals and give biofeedback about performance that guides effort . For someone just starting their fitness journey , these sensations may be an indicator of overexertion which may not serve the goal of sticking with a new fitness routine . Mindful attention will aid the athlete to push themselves while directing the inexperienced spinner to pace themselves so they can finish the session and return for another day . When an exercise session is uncomfortable , a mindful approach can allow an individual to view behavioral options with more clarity and be more volitional about how to proceed in a way that also supports feelings of autonomy . There is some evidence to support this pathway . We examined state mindfulness , psychological needs ( perceived competence and autonomy ) and autonomous motivation for physical activity longitudinally across a yoga class ( Cox , Austin , 2020 ) We found that trait mindfulness predicted state mindfulness , but not psychological needs or motivation . Participants who started the yoga class with higher state mindfulness and those that increased in their experiences of state mindfulness across the 16 weeks reported increases in perceived competence and autonomy . In addition , growth in state mindfulness directly and indirectly ( through need satisfaction ) predicted autonomous motivation for physical activity . This study is the first to test a process model of the role of trait and state mindfulness in physical activity motivation . This evidence supports the conceptual links laid out about how mindful movement can serve to facilitate autonomous motivation and suggests that indeed , mindful movement can be motivating . Learning Exercise Four You are in a exercise class that is pushing you to your limit . You have choices . If you value and are motivated to push yourself then your response might be bring it on . If you value overall wellness , and want to survive to return to another class , your response might be how can I modify this so I can complete the class ?

What are the ways that you might respond in this moment ( emotionally and ) Think about what is driving that response . Does the response align with your motivation , goals , and values ?

Does your response help you feel more competent and autonomous ?

Other Important Motivational Factors How Pleasant is Moving ?

Strategies for increasing motivation to exercise need to consider the vital role of how people feel while exercising . The degree to which exercise is experienced as pleasant in the moment , referred to as core affect , is a good predictor of future behavior ( Brand , 2018 see also Chapter , Brand , 2021 ) We are more motivated to repeat pleasant rather than unpleasant activities , right ?

The extent to which exercise has pleasant feelings associated with it , the greater the likelihood of choosing to exercise again in the future and making that choice for intrinsic reasons . State mindfulness has been found to positively associate with positive affect across a range of daily activities ( Brown Ryan , 2003 ) That is , generally things are more pleasant when engaging in them mindfully . Being mindful may allow for a more balanced emotional state , which is a generally pleasant psychological state of equanimity , peacefulness , or contentedness . Someone completing a challenging exercise mindfully may be able to hold the negative physiological sensations in balance with feelings of satisfaction to maintain an adaptive psychological state . 327

Cox In order to develop useful exercise interventions , a growing trend is to focus on how to make exercise experiences more pleasant . Many people exercise with distraction , such as listening to music , as a coping strategy to get through it or so they don feel the pain . Dissociative strategies , such as listening to music during exercise have been touted as a way to make exercise more pleasant . Although music is an effective strategy for making individual exercise sessions more pleasant , we have some evidence to suggest that intentionally manipulating mindfulness while exercising can lead to similarly pleasant exercise experiences as listening to music while exercising ( Cox , Hargreaves , 2020 ) This suggests that paying attention to the physical experience of moving your body can be pleasant and comparable to listening to music . Although dissociation may serve a purpose of reducing awareness of discomfort and is motivating for many people , this can lead to a dissociation with the bodily experience of moving . While a distracted experience tends to be enjoyable , it should be more difficult to develop a strong sense of competence when one is fully experiencing the movement and activity itself . Thus , a dissociative focus during exercise is less likely to lead to the fulfillment of basic psychological needs and the adherence through autonomous motivation . We have a lot to learn still about how to effectively apply mindfulness strategies to lead to optimal exercise experiences . Learning Exercise Five When you exercise to music it makes the time go by , it can be motivating and fun . Think about your experiences exercising with and without music . When you finish a workout while listening to music , how much of the experience to you remember ?

How connected do you feel with the sensations in your body ?

Your feelings of competence or achievement ?

Now , what about when you do listen to music ?

How does the experience differ ?

Moving from Motivation to Behavior Mindfulness and Physical Activity Behavior As discussed previously , mindful forms of movement have been linked to a variety of health behaviors . Similarly , trait mindfulness and physical activity behavior have been connected in several different ways . Those who more physical activity also report higher levels of trait mindfulness ( Gilbert Waltz , 2010 et , 2014 ) and are more likely to engage in mindfulness practices ( et , 2018 ) The type of activity may be important though , as time spent doing intentionally mindful activities such as yoga are associated with higher trait mindfulness while time spent doing exercise has been associated with lower trait mindfulness ( Martin et , 2013 ) This indicates that qualities of the physical activity are relevant to the role of mindfulness . It could be either that those who are generally more mindful gravitate towards mindful movement ( yoga ) or that the mindful movement develops the tendency to be mindful . There is not enough information to know if there is one direction of influence , although both possibilities are likely working together to mutually reinforce one another . An added complication to the puzzle of understanding the role of mindfulness in physical activity behavior is that although there is a consistent positive association between mindfulness and physical activity , this is not the case when physical activity is assessed more objectively ( accelerometer based assessment of movement Kang et , 2017 et , 2015 ) In addition , when mindfulness is context specific , or applied specifically to physical activity , it is more strongly and consistently associated with physical activity compared to trait mindfulness . So , the context matters in several ways . One can be mindful generally , but not in a specific physical activity experience . For example , someone who generally is mindful can have a bad day and be distracted during a workout . 328

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity Or , someone who is generally mindful can show a special interest in a physical activity and have more focus , attention , and connection while doing that activity than in other areas of their life . It is difficult to predict and understand all the factors that influence behavioral choices , but we do know that mindfulness is related to many ofthose factors including more autonomous motivation , positive affect , and other physical activity related perceptions ( psychological needs ) The relationship between mindfulness and physical activity behavior is likely indirect and the more we can uncover about the processes that might link the two , the better we can understand the role of mindfulness in motivation . Mindfulness as an Intervention to Increase Physical Activity Mindfulness interventions often include acceptance and stress reduction approaches that teach and then facilitate the practice of mindfulness strategies . Acceptance , compassion , and mindfulness approaches share the promotion of awareness and toward the self . Such approaches have led to increases in physical activity ( et , 2011 et , 2017 ) In one intervention , college age women were assigned to either an educational condition or an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy ( ACT ) condition aimed to increase physical activity ( et , 2011 ) The educational condition provided information about the benefits of physical activity and ways to safely participate in physical activity . Participants in the ACT condition were taught how to defuse or separate from distressing thoughts about exercise and identify and strengthen values around exercise . and at a , participants in the ACT condition participated in more physical activity compared to participants in the education condition . This study shows how developing mindfulness skills and using strategies to address intrinsic motivation ( aligned with ) were effective at increasing physical activity behavior . Although this intervention targeted physical activity behavior and interventions were physical activity based in content , there was not an explicit movement component that was manipulated . Applications of mindfulness in school interventions also show that physical activity can be increased in children ( at , 2018 ) However , children who started this intervention with higher levels of activity showed a stronger effect of the mindfulness training . Perhaps this means that having experience with physical activity primes individuals or allows them to more easily apply mindfulness in an adaptive way . In a randomized controlled trial with healthy adults that used physical activity as a comparison group , similar amounts of physical activity were found for the and aerobic exercise conditions ( Meyer et , 2018 ) This study concludes that the real benefit may be in combining with physical activity . There is still much to be learned about how to most effectively incorporate mindfulness into physical activity interventions . Conclusion The previous sections have demonstrated how the qualities of mindfulness are relevant to key aspects of the physical activity experience as well as important outcomes . Generally , when individuals are more mindfully engaged in the act of moving , the experience is more pleasant , they inhabit their bodies more fully , and have a more positive connection to their body . More broadly , engaging in mindful movement is linked to better mental health , health behaviors , and the development of trait mindfulness . Cultivating the ability to be mindful also appears to have important implications for physical activity motivation . Specifically , those who are generally more mindful or experience more mindful states during physical activity report greater autonomous physical activity motivation . Physical activity may provide an optimal context for practicing mindfulness skills and experiencing the benefits of being mindful . Engaging in all types of movement provides a sensory activity with clear targets of focus ( breath , physical sensations ) as well as opportunities to resist ( body image ) and thus may be an ideal forum for teaching mindfulness skills ( et , 2002 ) or maintaining mindfulness skills previously taught ( et , 2016 ) Thus , there are a 329

Cox variety of potential practical implications from this work that could inform future interventions targeting physical activity motivation , body image , mental health , or more generally . This area of research within exercise psychology is still quite new and will benefit from continuing to firmly ground investigations in theory , using appropriate control or comparisons groups in experimental designs , and paying close attention to the way that mindfulness is defined and assessed at the state or trait level . So while there is great promise in harnessing the potential for mindfulness to support adaptive physical activity experiences and relevant outcomes , we must move forward carefully and in some cases temper the excitement many of us hold for the promise of mindfulness by acknowledging our own biases . This greater awareness will allow us to move forward with more clarity as we continue to study the intersections between mindfulness and movement . Further Reading Cox , Austin , 2020 ) Testing the role of state mindfulness in facilitating autonomous physical activity motivation . Mindfulness , 11 , Hunt , Russell , Simon , 2018 ) Mindfulness training , yoga , or both ?

Dismantling the active components of a stress reduction intervention . Mindfulness , 2016 ) Mindfulness may moderate the relationship between intrinsic motivation and physical activity A study . Mindfulness , Schneider , Watson , 2019 ) The role of mindfulness in physical activity A systematic review . Obesity Reviews , 20 ( Yang , Conroy , 2018 ) Momentary negative affect is lower during mindful movement than while sitting An experience sampling study . Psychology and Exercise , 37 , References , De , Cardon , 2012 ) Sport participation and stress among women and men . Psychology and Exercise , 13 , Bishop , Lau , Shapiro , Anderson , Carmody , Abbey , 2004 ) Mindfulness A proposed operational definition . Clinical Psychology Science and Practice , 11 , Brand , 2018 ) theory of physical inactivity and exercise . German Journal and Sport Research , 48 , Brand , 2021 ) Exercise behavior change revisited theory . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Brown , Ryan , 2003 ) The benefits of being present Mindfulness and its role in psychological . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 ( Forman , Hoffman , Shaw , A . 2011 ) A pilot study of acceptance and commitment therapy for promotion of physical activity . Journal of Physical Activity and Health , 330

Chapter 14 Mindfulness in Physical Activity Caldwell , Emery , Harrison , Greeson , 2011 ) Changes in mindfulness , and sleep quality in college students through courses A cohort control study . The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine , 17 ( 10 ) Carmody , A . 2008 ) Relationships between mindfulness practice and levels of mindfulness , medical and psychological symptoms , and in a stress reduction program . Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 31 , Clarke , Barnes , Black , 2018 ) Use of yoga , meditation , and chiropractors among US adults aged 18 and over . US Department of Health and Human Services , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , National Center for Health Statistics . Cox , 2019 ) Exploring changes in mindfulness and body appreciation during yoga participation . Body Image , 29 , Cox , Austin , 2020 ) Testing the role of state mindfulness in facilitating autonomous physical activity motivation . Mindfulness , 11 , Cox , Hargreaves , 2020 ) The effects of mindfulness and music on affective responses to treadmill walking . Sport , Exercise , and Performance Psychology , 0000192 Cox , Howe , Cole , A . 2017 ) A pilot yoga physical education curriculum to promote positive body image . Body Image , 23 , Cox , 2019 ) The roles of , body surveillance , and body appreciation in predicting intrinsic motivation for physical activity sectional associations , and prospective changes within a yoga context . Body Image , 29 , Cramer , Berger , 2013 ) more in balance A qualitative study of yoga for patients with chronic neck pain . The Journal and Complementary Medicine , 19 ( Ryan , 1980 ) The empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes . In Berkowitz ( Ed . Advances in experimental social psychology ( Academic Press . Ryan , Schultz , 2015 ) Being aware and functioning fully Mindfulness and within theory . In Brown , Ryan ( Handbook Theory , research , and practice ( 129 ) Freedman , 2009 ) Body awareness , eating attitudes , and spiritual beliefs of women practicing yoga . Eating Disorders , 17 , 2000 ) Analysis ofthe affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology I . Fundamental issues . Psychology and Exercise , 00 ) Roberts , A . 1997 ) Objectification theory Toward understanding women lived experiences and mental health risks . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 21 ( 331

Cox , Greene , Murphy , 2012 ) A qualitative exploration of the impact of yoga on breast cancer survivors with . Explore , Gilbert , Waltz , 2010 ) Mindfulness and health behaviors . Mindfulness , 2016 ) A qualitative study on the practice of yoga for women with . The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine , 22 ( 12 ) De , De Groot , 2016 ) Mindfulness and mood stimulate each other in an upward spiral A mindful walking intervention using experience sampling . Mindfulness , Williams , Bunce , Woodhouse , Davies , 2014 ) Dance and body image Young people experiences of a dance movement psychotherapy session . Qualitative Research in Sport , Exercise and Health , Dawson , 2019 ) A randomized experimental evaluation of a body image intervention . Body Image , 28 , Khalsa , Clarke , A . 2011 ) The effectiveness of yoga for the improvement of and resilience to stress in the workplace . Scandinavian Journal of Work , Environment Health , 37 ( stable 40967889 Hunt , Russell , Simon , 2018 ) Mindfulness training , yoga , or both ?

Dismantling the active components of a stress reduction intervention . Mindfulness , 2006 ) Minding the body Yoga , embodiment , and . Sexuality Research Social Policy , 1990 ) Full catastrophe living using the wisdom of your mind to face stress , pain and illness . Delta . Kang , Falk , 2017 ) Dispositional mindfulness predicts adoptive affective responses to health messages and increased exercise motivation . Mindfulness , 2014 ) Mindfulness skills , psychological flexibility , and psychological symptoms among physically less active and active adults . Mental Health and , 2015 ) Towards a physically more active lifestyle based on one own values The results of a randomized controlled trial among physically inactive adults . Public Health , 15 ( 260 ) Garland , A . 2015 ) From a state to a trait Trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness . Personality and Individual Differences , 81 , 332

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Cox Rhodes , 2015 ) Claiming peaceful embodiment through yoga in the aftermath of trauma . Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice , 21 ( 2016 ) Mindfulness may moderate the relationship between intrinsic motivation and physical activity A study . Mindfulness , Ryan , 2017 ) theory Basic psychological needs in motivation , development , and wellness . Press . Crawford , Bock , 2018 ) Integrating mindfulness training in school health education to promote healthy behaviors in adolescents Feasibility and preliminary effects on exercise and dietary habits . Preventive Medicine Reports , Schneider , Watson , 2019 ) The role of mindfulness in physical activity A systematic review . Obesity Reviews , 20 ( Shearer , Hunt , 2015 ) Effects of a brief mindfulness meditation intervention on student stress and heart rate variability . Management , 23 ( Williams , 2002 ) cognitive depression A new approach to preventing relapse . Press . 2018 ) Mindfulness meditation and physical activity Evidence from 2012 National Health Interview Survey . Health Psychology , 37 , Silva , Ryan , 2012 ) Exercise , physical activity , and theory A systematic review . of Behavioral Nutrition and , 78 ) Ortiz , Reese , Roll , Fischer , 2013 ) Mindful walking in psychologically distressed individuals A randomized controlled trial . Complementary and Alternative Medicine , 2013 , 101155 2013 489856 , Clark , 2014 ) Belly dance as an embodying activity ?

A test of the embodiment model of positive body image . Sex Roles , 71 , Watts , 2018 ) Yoga potential for promoting healthy eating and physical activity behaviors among young adults A study , of Behavioral Nutrition and , 15 ( 42 ) Yang , Conroy , 2018 ) Momentary negative affect is lower during mindful movement than while sitting An experience sampling study . Psychology and Exercise , 37 , 334