Psychology Textbook Chapter 13 Perceived Effort and Exertion

Chapter 13 Perceived Effort and Exertion Springfield College , USA Please cite as , 2021 ) Perceived effort and exertion . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview Perceptions of effort and exertion during physical activity provide a subjective estimate ofthe workload and play an important role in and tolerance . Such perceptions depend on a complex array of factors including afferent feedback from the working organs , muscles , and joints subjective perceptions of force , resistance , or strain psychophysiological perceptions of breathlessness and arousal psychological components such as motivation , determination , and , as well as input from the brain central motor command system ( 2019 ) The subjective experience of effort and exertion is unique to an individual and can be influenced by a variety of psychological factors . Psychological skills and strategies can also be used to manage sensations of effort and exertion , leading to improved performance and a more positive psychological experience of exercise . For correspondence

Chapter 13 Perceived Effort and Exertion Defining the Concept The terms effort and exertion are often used interchangeably , although they are different ( but related ) constructs . The term perceived exertion was first introduced by Swedish psychophysicist Gunnar Borg in the 19605 as subjective complement to the objective responses ( heart rate , and force production ) observed during exercise . Borg defined exertion as the degree of heaviness and strain experienced in physical work ( Borg , 1998 , and developed a scale to measure this concept , known as the Rating of Perceived Exertion ( scale . Borg perceived exertion as a configuration of sensations stemming from the peripheral muscles , cardiopulmonary system , and other sensory organs and cues . Included within this conceptualization are psychological constructs such as motivation and affect that are viewed as an integral part ofthe experience of exertion . The notion of discomfort fatigue was also added to later definitions of perceived exertion . Drawing from Borg original definition , Robertson and Noble ( 1997 ) defined perceived exertion as the subjective intensity of effort , strain , discomfort , fatigue that is experienced during physical exercise ( 407 ) Although this definition is widely accepted within the field of exercise science , it is problematic in that it brings together a number of distinct concepts concepts that are rated differently when adequately defined , such as effort and discomfort ( Steele et , 2016 ) or exertion and fatigue ( et , 2017 ) As a result , several authors have stressed the need for greater precision in the study of perceptual responses during physical activity ( 2006 ) Specifically , it is argued that the sense of effort is distinct from other sensations experienced during ( et , 2015 , 2016 , 2012 ) Effort perception ( or the sense of effort ) refers to the cognitive feeling of work associated with voluntary actions ( Preston , 2009 ) In an exercise context , perceived effort has been operationally defined as the amount of mental or physical energy being given to a task ( et , 2015 , 1237 ) In contrast to perceptions of exertion , which rely upon the integration of sensory information transmitted from the body to the brain during exercise , the sense of effort is believed to be centrally generated ( by the brain ) with little to no influence from afferent feedback ( 2009 2010 ) See Figure . To understand this idea , consider that a voluntary action is always carried out with a certain amount of effort , in the sense that each time a motor command is initiated , or even simulated , certain mechanisms in the brain need to determine the strength of this command ( Franck , 2008 ) In essence , how hard one perceives themselves to be trying at a particular task is the subjective experience of effort . Researchers have used anesthesia to block or attenuate sensory feedback during a physical task in order to demonstrate that the sense of effort is independent of afferent feedback ( 2009 ) although this has been a topic of some debate ( 2009 ) 2012 ) has offered a useful example for distinguishing effort from exertion . Imagine a cyclist who , after a tough uphill climb , begins a downhill section and stops pedaling , coasting downhill solely by momentum . This cyclist will still be feeling strong sensations of discomfort associated with the uphill climb ( perceived exertion ) but the effort expended to coast downhill is virtually zero , resulting in low perceived effort . 295

Figure Conceptual Diagram of the Origins of Perceived Effort and Exertion Central Motor Command copy Motor Command Afferent Signal ( feedback Efferent Signal System Note . Voluntary movements are produced by sending motor commands from the brain to the muscles via motor descending pathways , with an copy being concomitantly delivered to sensory brain areas . This neural representation forms the basis of perceived effort . The result of the movement is feedback from sensory receptors in the peripheral nervous system , transmitted via ascending pathways to the brain . The brain then organizes this information and makes sense of this information ( thus distinguishing perception from sensation ) resulting in perceived exertion . Artwork in Figure credited to Medical Art by under a Creative Commons Attribution License ( Figure is adapted from , 2020 ) Diabetes dysfunction of the motor system . Sciences , 21 ( 20 ) 7485 , i under a Creative Commons Attribution License ( 296

Chapter 13 Perceived Effort and Exertion Monitoring Perceptions of Effort and Exertion Measurement Scales The most common instrument used to measure perceived exertion is Borg scale ( Borg 1982 1998 ) This scale ranges from ( no exertion at all ) to 20 ( maximal exertion ) with intermediate points anchored to verbal expressions of effort such as very light , somewhat hard , and very hard . The scale was designed to parallel the heart rate ( range of a normal healthy male ( Initial efforts to validate the scale yielded a correlation between the and ( Borg , 1962 ) However , subsequent studies have produced a wide range of correlation coefficients for a variety of tasks and participants ( Chen et , 2002 ) An alternative to the scale is the ( scale ( Borg , 1982 ) This scale has a primary numerical range of to 10 , although a maximum intensity greater than 10 can be selected using free magnitude estimation ( see Borg , 1998 ) The is a general intensity scale that can be used in a variety of settings to assess other sensory perceptions , including pain , dyspnea , and ergonomic fatigue ( Borg , 1998 ) Alternative scales to those authored by Borg have been developed and may be more appropriate for specific settings or populations . These include an scale based on repetitions in reserve for use during resistance training ( et , 2016 ) the Session Scale used in the calculation of athlete training load ( Foster et , 2001 ) and a variety of pictorial scales designed for use in pediatric populations ( Utter et , 2002 ) Buckley et al . 2000 ) have also validated a braille version of Borg standard scale for individuals with visual impairment . Differentiated scales have been used to distinguish between the central ( cardiopulmonary ) and peripheral ( muscle and joint ) factors contributing to an individual . Knowledge of differentiated allows for greater understanding of the relative influence of central and peripheral signals of exertion to the overall value ( 2019 ) The Task Effort and Awareness ( TEA ) scale ( Swart at , 2012 ) differentiates perceived exertion from task effort , which is defined as the conscious mental ( psychic ) effort required to sustain or increase the current exercise intensity ( Swart at , 2012 , 42 ) Studies using the TEA scale have been able to shed light on the distinct contributions of perceived effort and the physical symptoms induced by exercise ( perceived exertion ) to the regulation of exercise intensity ( et , 2018 ) Scale Administration Just as terminology has been used somewhat loosely and interchangeably , scales have been used to assess both effort and exertion as well as related concepts such as fatigue and discomfort ( 2019 ) It is of critical importance that researchers distinguish between measures aimed at evaluating an internal sense of effort versus a perception of peripheral discomfort or exertion , an integrated sum of all signals ( Christian et , 2014 ) Careful consideration should be given to the specific definitions provided to participants and the nature and precision of the questions asked when implementing an scale . Furthermore , established principles of administration must be carefully followed to ensure the validity and reliability of the measure . These include clear and comprehensive instructions regarding the use of the scale ( see et , 2012 ) and an opportunity for scale users to ask clarifying questions and to practice making perceptual estimates . A familiarization or learning trial is recommended prior to either rating , or prescribing , exercise intensity with ( 2016 ) Estimation and Production Mode In exercise settings , is usually used in one of two modes estimation and production . When used in estimation mode the provides an during a prescribed exercise intensity . For 297

example , when exercising at a given percentage of maximal , or during a graded exercise test . When used in production mode individuals are asked to produce and maintain an exercise intensity corresponding to a target ( moderate intensity exercise is prescribed at on the Borg scale et , 2011 ) The production paradigm provides an alternative method by which to prescribe exercise intensity , instead of relying on a certain percentage of maximal heart rate or oxygen uptake . This is particularly useful in settings such as cardiac rehabilitation where patients may be taking lowering medications such as . In the assessment of cardiorespiratory fitness , maximal oxygen uptake ( max ) can be predicted from the linear relationship between submaximal and oxygen uptake . This method has been found to be valid and reliable across a number of populations and exercise ( et , 2014 ) Psychological of Perceived Effort and Exertion While the experience of effort and exertion depends on task intensity , and is strongly associated with physiological measures ( ventilation rate , oxygen uptake Chen et al . 2002 ) there is also a significant contribution of psychological factors . Indeed , psychological factors are estimated to account for approximately two thirds of the variance in among individuals working at the same relative intensity ( Noble Robertson , 1996 ) can also be altered by experimentally manipulating psychological factors such as ( et , 2008 ) attentional focus ( Connolly , 2008 ) and expected duration of exercise ( et , 2004 ) Dispositional Dispositional factors operate at the trait level , not the state level . A number of dispositional factors have been examined in relation to , perhaps the most common being personality variables . Findings are mixed , but largely it does not appear that ratings of effort or exertion are influenced by personality type . Studies examining a variety of personality factors such as extraversion and neuroticism ( et , 2006 ) personality ( et , 2001 ) and behavioral systems ( Malik et , 2020 ) have all reported no significant relationship with . Preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity are interrelated heritable traits ( et , 2006 ) that have been shown to influence how people feel during exercise ( Box , 2020 Jones et , 2018 ) however there is no evidence yet that these traits might also influence perceptions of effort and exertion ( Bradley et , 2019 et , 2016 ) Individual differences in , or natural circadian patterns , have been found to influence ratings of perceived exertion ( 2017 ) Prior research has identified a significant interaction between and time of day for , wherein higher was observed during evening training for while showed higher values when training in the morning ( et , 2017 ) Recent scientific breakthroughs related to the genome have enabled scientists to study the heritability of subjective responses to exercise . Using identical and nonidentical twin pairs and their singleton siblings , et al . reported that genetic factors explained 29 and 35 of the individual differences in during cycle ergometer and treadmill tests , respectively ( et , 2017 ) A future challenge to researchers is to identify the specific genes underlying the heritability of the perceptual response to exercise , to test their predictive value for the adoption and maintenance of exercise behavior , and their usefulness in personalizing exercise interventions ( et , 2017 ) A promising finding by Bryan and colleagues indicated that variants in the neurotrophic factor ( gene moderate the effect of exercise on . These researchers found that individuals with a specific genotype reported higher in response to exercise than participants with a different variation ( Bryan et , 2007 ) 298

Chapter 13 Perceived Effort and Exertion Factors factors operate at the state level , not the trait level . They can be external ( the social context of exercise ) or internal ( situational motivation ) real or imagined , and conscious or nonconscious . Environmental Both physical and social aspects of the exercise environment can affect . Exercise in an outdoor exercise setting is associated with lower , relative to indoor exercise ( et , 2017 ) This effect is likely due to increased environmental distractions outdoors resulting in a more externally oriented attentional focus ( et , 2013 ) Findings on the presence of others in the exercise environment are mixed and are often difficult to separate from performance enhancing effects . Characteristics of the observer can also cause differential effects , for example among male runners , the introduction of a female observer caused a significant decrease in , whereas the introduction of a male observer caused a significant increase in compared to the control trial ( Winchester et , 2012 ) The presence of mirrors in the exercise environment can create or exacerbate concerns , which may influence . The effect of mirrors has not been assessed on directly , however sedentary women report greater levels of physical exhaustion after exercising in a mirrored ( environment ( Martin et , 2003 ) This effect appears to be exacerbated when in presence of ( Martin et , 2007 ) Performance Expectations An prediction of the expected level of effort or exertion associated with a future bout of exercise is known as predicted . A mismatch occurs when predicted is greater than actual experienced which can lead to negative attitudes regarding exercise initiation and maintenance ( et , 2015 ) Expectations of exercise duration and anticipation of an exercise point can also influence . Specifically , participants have reported a significant increase in consequent to misinformation about the expected exercise duration compared to when they were honestly informed of the correct duration of the run ( et , 2014 ) Participants with experimentally induced positive expectations about exercise reported significantly lower perceived exertion than participants in a no expectation control condition ( et , 2017 ) This effect was moderated by physical , wherein those with a higher physical appeared to benefit more ( in terms of decreased ) from positive outcome expectations . The role of placebos and expectancy has been documented in many fields of research , including exercise science . Collins ( 2007 ) were able to evaluate the relative contributions of expectancy belief and actual pharmacological impact of a performance enhancing substance ( sodium bicarbonate ) using a balanced placebo design . Endurance athletes completing time trials reported lower only when they believed themselves to be running under the influence of the drug , regardless of whether they received the actual intervention or the placebo . This demonstrates that expectancy effects alone can influence perceptions of exertion . In a similar study , and colleagues reported that when runners believed they received an substance their decreased , but when they were told they had received an substance their increased , regardless of the actual intervention , which was a caffeine supplement in both sessions ( et , 2019 ) theory ( 1986 ) posits that the relationship between and subjective psychological responses is reciprocal ( for more discussion on , see Chapter 27 299

et , 2021 ) Prior research has confirmed this in the case of , where individuals high in efficacy reported lower perceived exertion during activity than those with low , and lower perceptions of exertion , in turn , predicted higher efficacy ( Pender et , 2002 Robbins et al . 2004 ) In experimental research designs , for a specific task can be manipulated using false performance feedback . In such experiments , increased led to lower perceptions of effort and exertion ( et , 2008 et , 1999 ) Interestingly the relationship between and daily physical activity has been found to be mediated by for exercise ( Pender et , 2002 ) Managing Sensations of Effort and Exertion Perceived effort and exertion are commonly cited barriers to exercise participation . Physical exertion or feelings of physical discomfort have been reported as the primary barrier to exercise ( exceeding other barriers such as lack of time ) in a variety of populations including female university students ( et , 2010 ) and culturally diverse adolescents and adults ( Bragg et , 2009 ) Moreover , sensations of effort and exertion can lead to aversive affective responses to exercise , which can create a negative association with exercise ( et , 2018 ) and negatively impact exercise participation ( Williams et , 2008 ) For more discussion on the relationship between affective responses to exercise and exercise behavior , see Chapters ( Brand , 2021 ) 11 ( Jones , 2021 ) and 12 ( 2021 ) Consequently , interventions aimed at coping with reducing perceptions of effort and exertion are likely to have a positive impact on exercise behavior . Photo by from Attentional Focus Interventions Exercise interventions aimed at diverting attentional focus away from sensations of effort and exertion have been effective in reducing at fixed ( 2019 ) On the contrary , the removal of distracting external information ( via sensory deprivation ) can increase perception of effort ( et , 2009 ) The underlying premise for attentional focus interventions is that attentional capacity is fixed and limited therefore , distracting stimuli can occupy attentional 300

Chapter 13 Perceived Effort and Exertion bandwidth that is critical for bringing perceptions of effort and exertion into focal awareness . It is important to note that this strategy is most effective during intensity exercise . At very high exercise , attentional processes are dominated by strong afferent feedback that demands attention thus , perceptions of exertion override the distraction capabilities of external stimuli ( et , 2011 ) A variety of attentional focus interventions have been used to draw attention away from internal sensations during exercise . For example , dissociative imagery ( images unrelated to the exercise task related sensory inputs ) has been found to significantly lower when compared to associative ( imagery and control ( no imagery ) conditions during a cycling task ( et , 2014 ) Researchers have also explored the effect of sensory interventions , including taste and smell , on but reported no significant effects ( et , 2011 2013 et al . 2001 Ritchie et , 2016 ) A recent review reported a significant beneficial effect of music listening on ( Terry et , 2020 ) Appropriately selected music appears to lower by approximately 10 during submaximal aerobic exercise ( Priest , 2012 ) and explosive power movements ( et , 2012 ) and by approximately during strength testing ( Silva et , 2020 ) When workload is not fixed , music can have an , or , effect with no associated increase in ( et , 2010 ) The combination of audio and visual stimuli ( music and video ) can lower when compared to control and sensory deprivation conditions ( et , 2019 et , 2015 ) although this combination does not appear to be significantly superior to music alone ( et , 2015 ) The content of the audiovisual stimuli is an important consideration pleasant audiovisual stimuli appears to reduce whereas is actually increased in the presence of unpleasant audiovisual stimuli ( et , 2018 ) See Chapter 23 for more discussion on the effects of music in sport ( et , 2021 ) Advances in technology have facilitated recent interventions in the realm of virtual reality and , which refers to the combination of exercise with a interactive game . Initial investigations show promising effects , for example a sample of college students reported significantly higher during a traditional exercise biking session compared with a exercise biking session ( et , 2017 ) Similarly , among active adults , using XBOX was associated with significantly lower than traditional exercise despite no difference in mean ( Barry et al . 2016 ) Mindfulness represents an alternative attentional approach to coping with reducing perceptions of effort and exertion ( see Chapter 14 for more discussion on mindfulness and exercise Cox , 2021 ) Drawing upon an intentional and awareness of the present moment ( 1990 ) a mindful intervention targets the development of mindful acceptance of internal sensations , as opposed to diverting attention away from such sensations . Salmon et al . 2010 ) proposed several advantages to attention allocation during sustained physical activity , including enhanced awareness , decreased emotional reactivity and improved attentional control . To date , there has been little empirical research on the impact of mindfulness on , although one study indicated a positive effect , where participants felt like they were not working as hard when they were in the mindfulness condition relative to control ( Cox et , 2018 ) In a second study , participants reported more accurate ( better matched physiological indices of exertion ) following a brief mindfulness training intervention ( Chen , 2021 ) supporting the notion of improved awareness as an outcome of mindful attention ( Salmon et , 2010 ) Mental Skills The use of mental skills training ( also called Psychological Skills Training ( PST ) is extensive in sport psychology , but less so in exercise psychology . Mental skills in sport have been broken down 301

into basic skills ( relaxation , and imagery ) and advanced skills , which primarily comprise strategies ( Hardy et , 2010 ) See Chapter 20 for more discussion on psychological skills training ( et , 2021 ) Basic Mental Skills , and in particular motivational , has been shown to influence perceptions of effort and exertion . et al . assessed the effects of motivational ( intervention control ) on and endurance performance in a cycling test . The intervention significantly reduced during the test despite an 18 increase in . Additional studies have reported greater power output with the use of motivational talk with no corresponding change in , which a perceptual benefit of motivational ( Barwood et , 2015 et , 2018 ) Relaxation training is often incorporated as part of interventions in sport , although in exercise settings it is more commonly studied relative to exercise recovery . For example , the use of sedative music during recovery from an exhaustive cycling task was associated with greater decreases in when compared to a control group ( Jing , 2008 ) Interesting research exploring the effects of deliberately adopted facial expressions during exercise has consistently shown increased effort perception when frowning in comparison with consciously relaxing smiling ( Brick et , 2018 et , 2012 ) The role of goal setting in managing sensations of effort and exertion has received limited empirical investigation . However , qualitative research has revealed that goal setting is used by endurance athletes as a way to remain focused on the task in order to cope with painful sensations of exertion ( 2007 ) Mental imagery has also been used to cope with exertive sensations . Both dissociative imagery ( et , 2014 ) and motivational imagery ( et , 2018 ) have been reported to lower during brief exercise tasks . Mental skills are often combined as part of a comprehensive program . In one such example , a program comprising goal setting , arousal regulation , mental imagery , and positive produced improvements in running performance without a corresponding increase in ( Barwood et , 2008 ) Photo by Andres from 302

Chapter 13 Perceived Effort and Exertion Strategies Broadly , strategies describe particular processes that are engaged in order to achieve a goal . Cognitive reappraisal is a strategy which involves reevaluating emotional stimuli to augment or reduce their emotional impact ( Gross , 2007 ) When instructed to utilize cognitive reappraisal , endurance runners reported lower perceived exertion than when provided no instruction ( Giles et , 2018 ) Evaluating an exhaustive exercise task as a challenge rather than a threat was associated with marginally lower perceived exertion in the presence of significantly increased power output on the task ( Wood et , 2018 ) planning , sometimes known as implementation intentions , refers to a strategy for behavior that follows an format ( If Situation occurs , then I will perform Behavior A , but if Situation occurs , then I will perform Behavior ) The feasibility of plans to manage perceptions of effort and pain have been explored with mixed results ( see et , 2020 ) Interestingly , ironic effects were reported by and ( 2018 ) who observed a steeper increase in among participants during a static muscular endurance task and significantly higher in the final 10 of the task relative to control group participants . In this study , the implementation intention instruction prompted participants to ignore sensations of exertion and keep going it is possible that a more proactive plan might yield different results . Nonconscious Interventions A great deal of human functioning is rooted in nonconscious or implicit processes ( Bargh , 2006 ) models of behavior have highlighted the importance of impulsive , sometimes nonconscious , influences on exercise behavior ( see Rebar et , 2016 for review ) An emerging body of evidence indicates that nonconscious processes are amenable to manipulation in an exercise setting ( 2019 ) In particular , priming , which refers to the activation of mental processes through environmental stimuli , can influence a variety of processes and behaviors , including . In a series of experiments , et , assessed the effect of subliminal priming on and effort tolerance during a cycling task . Subliminal primes refer to stimuli that are presented but not perceived consciously . In the first study , participants persisted longer on the task and had significantly lower when they were primed with happy faces compared to sad faces . In the second study , subliminal priming with action words ( energy and go ) facilitated a significantly lower during the same cycling test despite no significant difference in objective performance between conditions . A later study by et al . 2020 ) embedded subliminal affective primes into music video . This condition yielded significantly lower and more positive affective responses when compared to ( no prime ) music , and control conditions . Optical flow patterns play an important role in locomotion and the perception of movement speed . Parry et al . 2012 ) manipulated optic flow in cyclists using projected video footage of a cycling course that either represented their actual cycling speed or was varied by 15 to appear slower or faster ( unknown to the participants ) Both absolute , and normalized for power output , were significantly lower in the slow optic flow condition , which was also associated with a shallower increase in gradient over the trial . Practical Implications From an applied perspective , is widely used as an adjunct to objective physiological measures ( heart rate ) during maximal exercise tests and can be used to predict exercise capacity from responses to submaximal exercise tests . is also used as a method of exercise prescription ( target ) and a way to monitor exercise intensity in individuals participating in endurance and team sports , cardiac rehabilitation , and fitness training programs . The scale can be applied in nonexercise 303

settings as well , for example to evaluate work demands in occupations involving physical effort . As is strongly correlated with a variety of physiological variables , the scale can be an informative tool to assess overall exertion perception and complement objective measures . However , human perceptions are complex and nuanced and a variety of psychological factors can influence ratings and should be taken into consideration . Care must be taken in the correct administration of the scale in particular clarity of terminology ( effort exertion ) is important to the validity of the measure . Conclusion Perceptions of effort and exertion are common in daily life ( climbing a flight of stairs or lifting a heavy object ) Such perceptions are important in the maintenance of homeostasis and play an important role in regulating our physical activity behaviors . These behaviors may range from regulating one pace during endurance competitions to adopting a sedentary lifestyle ( 2010 ) Perceived effort is considered an inverse correlate of physical activity ( et , 2012 ) and a source of displeasure and avoidance ( et , 2018 ) Consequently , interventions that can reduce perceptions of effort and exertion should have a positive impact on exercise behavior . Interventions that draw attention away from exertive sensations , such as music and , appear to be effective , as does a mindful approach . Mental skills which can be taught and developed show promise and evidence from interventions in sport should be translatable to exercise settings . conscious interventions represent a novel ( if controversial ) approach to managing . Learning Exercises can establish a preferred , which corresponds to their preferred training load . How might a preferred intensity ( prescribed intensity ) exercise protocol impact affective and motivational variables ?

Would you expect any effect on exercise adherence ?

Nonconscious interventions , such as priming , can have a positive influence on the exercise experience ( lowered , improved affective valence ) Discuss the ethical implications of using these techniques as a means to promoting exercise engagement . Further Reading , 2020 ) Perceived exertion Dynamic psychobiological model of fatigue . In ( Handbook psychology ( ed , John Wiley Sons . Borg , 1998 ) Borg perceived exertion and pain scales . Human Kinetics . A . 2020 ) Rating of perceived effort Methodological concerns and future directions . Sports Medicine , 50 , 2019 ) Perceived effort and exertion . In , APA handbook and exercise psychology Vol . Exercise psychology ( American Psychological Association . 2010 ) Effort Perception of . In ( Ed . Encyclopedia ( 383 ) Sage . Noble , Robertson , 1996 ) Perceived exertion . Human Kinetics . 2012 ) Effort perception . In , Measurement in sport and exercise psychology ( Human Kinetics . 304

Chapter 13 Perceived Effort and Exertion , 2012 ) Sense of effort and other unpleasant sensations during exercise clarifying concepts and mechanisms . British Journal Medicine , 46 ( Steele , 2020 ) What is ( perception of ) effort ?

Objective and subjective effort during task performance . References , 2015 ) Role of ratings of perceived exertion during exercise What are we actually measuring ?

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