Psychology Textbook Chapter 1 Introduction to Exercise Psychology

Chapter Introduction to Exercise Psychology Box , Jonathan North , and Steven Department of Kinesiology and Community Health , University of Illinois , USA Please cite as Box , North , 2021 ) Introduction to exercise psychology . In Jones ( Essentials and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . Attribution 40 International This content is open access and part of Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology An Open Access Textbook . All other content can be accessed at Chapter Overview Within this chapter , you will be introduced to the field of Exercise Psychology and how it differs from Sport Psychology . This chapter attempts to ( a ) differentiate Exercise and Sport Psychology , provide an overview of the themes of Exercise Psychology , introduce the various scientific approaches to studying Exercise Psychology and their unique contributions , and ( emphasize the importance of considering various perspectives in order to fully understand physical activity behavior . For correspondence

Chapter Introduction to Exercise Psychology An Introduction to Exercise Psychology Exercise and Sport Psychology investigates the psychological antecedents and consequences of physical activity behavior . This includes ( a ) understanding factors that predispose individuals to avoid or engage in physical activity ( motivation , individual differences ) understanding how engagement in physical activity influences an general ( mental health ) throughout the lifespan and ( the application of psychological principles to improve athletic and performance ( APA Division 47 ) In such endeavors , the study of Exercise and Sport Psychology concepts , theories , and knowledge across a wide variety of scientific disciplines ( Sport and Exercise Science , Psychology , Sociology , Neuroscience , Physical Science , and Health Science ) Before examining the various perspectives taken by Exercise and Sport Psychology , it is worthwhile to become familiar with some terms related to physical activity . refers to any bodily movement that results in a substantial increase in caloric ( energy ) expenditure beyond resting values ( 2018 ) Therefore , physical activity refers to numerous types of activities , including household ( vacuuming , car washing , doing laundry ) time ( trail walking , kayaking ) transportation ( walking or biking to ) and occupational ( heavy lifting , carrying objects ) physical activities along with exercise ( running , weight lifting ) and sport ( basketball , soccer , boxing ) Even though exercise and activities more readily come to mind when considering types of physical activity , they are simply of physical activity . Exercise and Sport Psychology , while appearing to be a single area of study by title , are actually considered two distinct content areas , namely Exercise Psychology and Sport Psychology . Exercise Psychology is concerned with the antecedents and consequences of physical activity behavior ( including , but not limited to , exercise ) Meanwhile , Sport Psychology is concerned with psychological principles as they relate to athletes and athletic performance . This chapter will focus on the common goals and approaches of Exercise Psychology , while Sport Psychology will be discussed in more detail elsewhere ( see Chapter 19 Hill , 2021 ) While the term exercise will be primarily used throughout the rest of this chapter , it should be made clear that the study of Exercise Psychology is interested in all forms of physical activity ( household , transportation , occupational , exercise , and sport ) not just structured exercise , and is often studied in the context of the general population or specific of the population ( individuals with depression , individuals with autism ) Research and study in Exercise Psychology is generally divided into three , broad themes Exercise Behavior Promotion Here priority is given to the influence of internal and external variables as constraints and facilitators to the initiation of , and lifelong adherence to , physical activity behavior . Dynamic Exercise Psychology This refers to the basic science of psychological phenomena that occur while engaged in physical activity , or the state of the mind and its relation to the body during physical activity . Exercise is defined as planned , structured , and repetitive bodily movements that are carried out to improve and maintain at least one component of health or physical fitness . Sport , on the other hand , generally refers to competitive physical activity engagement , completed alone or with a group that requires physical skills and often provides a means of entertainment .

Box , North , Exercise and Health Psychology Research in this theme considers the effects of physical activity on psychological development and health . Areas of interest include mental disorders , cognitive performance , emotion regulation , social engagement , and other areas including and beyond physical health . Approaches to Studying Exercise Psychology Similar to the parent discipline of Psychology , the field of Exercise Psychology makes use of several perspectives ( affective , biological , cognitive , personality , sociological ) in order to understand the various psychological phenomena of physical activity . These various approaches to the study of Exercise Psychology , while using different and measures , ultimately provide a more inclusive and complete understanding about why and how we engage in physical activity . They also offer the potential to explain why and how physical activity influences our thoughts , feelings , social interactions , and behavior . A general assumption made within Exercise Psychology is that a person feelings and thoughts are intimately intertwined with their physical state . This is referred to as monism , that is , the mind and body are components of a single unit , not separate . Consider the mechanism of a gear train , illustrated in Figure . An interlocked gear train is dependent on the successful movement of all connected gears and impeding or accelerating a single gear will impact the entire system . A single gear within a gear train is analogous to a single mental or physical component within an individual just as one gear can influence an entire gear train , so too can a single mental or physical component influence the entire individual . To illustrate this idea in the context of physical activity , imagine you have just been asked to participate in a race with your classmates from one end of the hallway to the other . Take a moment to really visualize what you are being asked to do . Now consider how you are you nervous , excited , apathetic , or somewhere in between ?

What are you thinking are you rationalizing reasons for why you may not win or even participate ?

Now reflect on your physical state did your heart rate increase ?

Did you feel a sense of energy pulsing through your body ?

Did you produce a smile or a scowl ?

Upon reflection of what occurred , did the feelings and thoughts produce the physical state changes or did the physical state changes produce the feelings and thoughts ?

This is a main , albeit philosophical , question asked by scientists studying the connection . Regardless of which came first , or if they occurred simultaneously , an important takeaway is that mind and body are so intimately intertwined that a change in psychological state will occur with a change in physical state , and vice versa . This is an important concept to understand in Exercise Psychology , as the assumption of the connection is paramount for studying the effects of acute and physical activity . If the assumption ofthe connection between the mind and body were denied ( dualism ) it becomes difficult , for example , to support the notion that individual differences ( personality , sense of autonomy , influence the likelihood of physical activity behavior or to explain changes in psychological factors ( the reduction in depressive symptoms ) resulting from physical activity . Thus , when examining Exercise Psychology from the various perspectives , it is important to keep in mind that a change in a mental or physical component ofthe individual simultaneously alters all other components Whereas monism is the belief that mind and body are inseparable , dualism takes the position that mind and body are separate entities and can be studied independently of one another . Generally referred to as the examination or observation of one own mental ( feeling ) states . The brain representation of all sensations from your internal organs and tissues , which provides one basic feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness and wakefulness . Even without conscious awareness , interoceptive activity is always occurring within the brain , adjusting the body systems appropriately . is required to tap into your own interoceptive activity in order to articulate how you may feel .

Chapter Introduction to Exercise Psychology of the individual , and these changing components subsequently influence the way the individual may interact with their environment . Affective Perspective Affective science is the broad study of feeling states . This perspective often provides philosophical arguments for the connection , investigates feeling states as for and outcomes of behavior , and delves into the intricacies of affective disorders ( depression , anxiety , stress disorders ) Endeavors in the affective perspective in Exercise Psychology are important because , theoretically , humans have an innate tendency to pursue pleasure and avoid displeasure or pain , a school of thought referred to as Hedonics or Psychological Hedonism ( 1999 Young , 1952 ) However , humans are also capable thought and reason to override such innate desires . A person is thus motivated , at least to some degree , to engage ( or not ) in physical activity because of their current and expected feeling states . In addition , accumulated evidence suggests acute and physical activity behavior can reduce anxiety , depressive states , and has a effect in healthy individuals as well as in those diagnosed with Anxiety , Depressive , and Stress disorders ( Landers Arent , 2007 Scully et , 1998 ) As recognition of mental health ( referring to an psychological and emotional ) continues to spread , there is a great need to understand whether particular health behaviors ( physical activity ) can buffer against , improve resilience to , or aid in the treatment of mental health challenges ( et , 2020 ) Given some evidence of the importance of affective states , it should be made clear that feeling states alone do not provide enough information to satisfy the complete understanding of antecedents and consequences of physical activity behavior . Only studying feeling states motivations for behavior and subtly suggests that only feelings can be influenced by physical activity . This could not be further from the truth . As alluded to earlier , feeling states are not only intertwined with physical ( biological ) states and cognition ( thoughts , reason ) but also become a piece of one identity ( personality ) and are prevalent in social interactions . Figure The Human Gear Train

Box , North , A Photo by Andres from Biological Perspective Biological science refers broadly to the study of living organisms , understanding the physiological mechanisms underlying how these organisms function , and adaptations that are made to deal with changing environments ( both internal and external ) The biological perspective considers many areas of study , including ( but not limited to ) biochemistry , endocrinology , neuroscience , and electrophysiology . Those incorporating a biological perspective in the study of Exercise Psychology may take on different titles to more appropriately address how they are studying phenomenon ( Exercise Psychophysiologist , Exercise , Exercise Neuroscientist ) Regardless of the title and which area of study ( and similar to the affective perspective ) the biological perspective attempts to understand the connection ( how physical states relate to mental states ) investigates physical states as facilitators of and barriers to behavior , and explores the complexities of a broad range of psychological phenomena , including mental . As you may have gathered , incorporating a biological perspective in Exercise Psychology encompasses numerous methods of assessing physical states in relation to psychological phenomenon within the context of physical activity . Taking an electrophysiological approach involves the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues . Two prominent organs influenced by electrical properties are the heart and brain . While almost every bodily organ is influenced , or at least , by the nervous system ( to which sensory and motor information is passed via electrical signals ) the heart and brain are primary sources of electrical activity and are often studied in relation to psychological phenomena . Electrical activity of the heart and brain can be assessed via electrocardiography ( and electroencephalography ( EEG ) respectively , through surface ( on the skin ) electrodes . Indeed , evidence from EKG studies have linked more consistent heart beats with negative affect ( depressed , sad ) while evidence from EEG studies has also linked greater relative brain activity in the frontal lobe over At rest , there is usually variability in which consecutive heart beats may be separated by seconds , then seconds , and then seconds . This variability is reflected within Heart Rate Variability ( a psychophysiological measurement of the interval and is considered a valid index of autonomic nervous system innervation ( et , 2012 )

Chapter Introduction to Exercise Psychology the right hemisphere , when compared to the left hemisphere , with negative affect ( 2004 et , 2012 ) In addition , these same heart and brain electrical patterns are associated with less physical activity engagement ( et , 2009 et , 2020 ) Another approach within the biological perspective is endocrinology , the study of the endocrine system and its secretions ( hormones ) Thus , taking an endocrinological approach within Exercise Psychology often involves a primary focus on the relationship between hormones and psychological phenomena . One ofthe phenomena within this context is stress and the influence of physical activity on the stress response as reflected in the release of stress hormones ( cortisol ) Building on this connection , research has demonstrated that regular physical activity behavior ( and often greater fitness as a result of that activity ) evokes favorable adaptations in the biological stress response . More specifically , individuals who are more physically active tend to respond more positively ( or less negatively ) to various types of stressors ( exams , social conflict , 1989 et , 1996 ) This has been demonstrated in terms of stress hormone profiles that are more adaptive ( more , less cortisol ) in the reaction to the stressor and in a faster recovery once the stressor is over . Even though several methods and techniques ( electrophysiology , endocrinology , genetics , neuroscience ) are used to explore relationships between physical and psychological states , the goal remains to develop a better understanding of psychological phenomena . While the biological perspective is interesting and informative , it does not provide a full understanding of the antecedents or consequences of physical activity behavior by itself . For example , studies investigating whether particular genomes are predictive of exercise behavior may dismiss important like social priorities ( taking care of a child or parent ) experienced feelings and thoughtful expectations , and so on . Thus , while the biological perspective adds to understanding Exercise Psychology , it can not and should not stand alone . Cognitive Perspective Cognitive science encompasses a large , field broadly concerned with understanding the mind and its processes . This includes investigating concepts of intelligence , language , memory , perception , and so on . Like the previously discussed perspectives , cognitive science is also interested in the connection and investigates psychological processing that occurs between some stimulus and the response for a given behavior . In addition , cognitive science examines the intricacies of various cognitive disorders ( Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder , Autism , Dementia ) As Exercise Psychology is primarily interested in the antecedents and consequences of physical activity behavior , we will focus on cognition in the context of such behavior . In fact , research has demonstrated physical activity can both influence , and be influenced by , cognitive processes . Cognitive functioning includes several cognitive processes ( or abilities ) that are needed for learning and critical thinking . This includes attention , memory , language , perception , and executive functioning . Within the physical activity context , the focus has been primarily on the cognitive process referred to as executive functioning , which has three primary components updating , inhibiting , and shifting ( 2012 ) The first component , updating , sometimes referred to as working memory , is the ability to maintain and update relevant information . Inhibition , also referred to as cognitive control , is the ability to intentionally constrain unwanted thoughts and behavior impulses . Lastly , is the ability to quickly and accurately switch between mental tasks . It is actually not possible to ( perform multiple mental task at the same time ) Thus , someone who is a good is actually very efficient at shifting or switching between multiple tasks ( 2012 )

Box , North , Some theorists suggest a regulatory process occurs between the components of executive functioning and physical activity behavior such that greater executive functioning leads to more physical activity engagement , and more physical activity engagement improves executive functioning ( Hall Fong , 2007 ) Indeed , executive functioning has been shown to predict planned physical activity behavior ( Hall et , 2008 ) and a large body of evidence suggests regular physical activity behavior improves the components of executive functioning in children , adolescents , and adults ( Kramer , 2003 , 2018 Khan Hillman , 2014 ) Moreover , physical activity behavior has been shown to protect against and slow the progression of memory disorders , such as Dementia and ( et , 2005 ) The cognitive perspective provides invaluable information on human thought and reason in the context of physical activity behavior . This perspective often implicitly assumes humans to be rational decision makers , but humans are not always rational . Thus , like any other perspective , the study of cognitive function only supplies a piece of the puzzle and should be considered alongside various other factors ( feeling states , physical states , social , physical environment ) to more completely understand the dynamic intricacies of human behavior . Personality Perspective The study of Personality involves the exploration of various psychological characteristics and traits with the goal of understanding how these traits relate to behavior . This perspective investigates personality traits as facilitators and inhibitors of cognition , emotion , and behavior and also explores personality disorders ( Bipolar Disorder , Personality Disorder ) An traits and characteristics develop and become relatively stable across the lifespan . The personality perspective in Exercise Psychology seeks to understand whether particular traits are commonly related to physical activity engagement either by facilitating or inhibiting engagement in physical activity or the extent to which physical activity might influence such traits ( consequence ) A quick online search of personality tests results in numerous surveys offering to outline your personality upon completion . Given that is often useful and helpful , these tests may provide information for such thoughtful and personal reflection . However , only a handful have been empirically demonstrated to be reliable and valid within the context of behavior . One such personality model is referred to as The Big Five or the model ( Costa , 1992 , 1990 John et , 1991 ) The Big Five consists of five , personality traits Openness to experience , Conscientiousness , Extraversion , Agreeableness , and Neuroticism ( commonly referred to by its acronym OCEAN John , 1999 ) In brief , the trait Openness to Experience is greatest for those who consistently seek out behaviors that are intellectual or imaginative in nature . Individuals with greater degrees of Conscientiousness are orderly , responsible , and dependable . in contrast to , are talkative , assertive , energetic , and prefer ( or do not mind ) to be the center of attention . Those who exhibit greater degrees of Agreeableness are good natured , dependable , cooperative , and trustful . Lastly , Neuroticism is captured by the tendency to be emotionally reactive , easily upset , and moody . Of these five traits , the constellation of higher extraversion , greater conscientiousness , and less neuroticism ( or more emotional stability ) has been most consistently linked with greater likelihood of physical activity engagement ( Wilson , 2015 ) The personality perspective considers individual variability . As such , it considers how the individual , with their own set of personality characteristics , typically responds to and interacts with the environment . This perspective provides additional insight that may not be considered by other perspectives , but , again , it does not alone adequately explain the antecedents and consequences of physical activity behavior .

Chapter Introduction to Exercise Psychology Social Perspective Social science is broadly devoted to the study of social interaction and societies . Similar to the other perspectives , social science encompasses a broad range of major fields of study . These include , but are not limited to , anthropology , behavioral economics , and sociology . Together , these fields inquire how humans develop , behave , and adapt in response to positive and negative social interactions and social expectations within the context of a given group , institution , culture , or society more broadly . The social perspective in Exercise Psychology is primarily interested in understanding ( a ) how social relationships and interaction promote or hinder the likelihood of physical activity behavior , and ( how social relationships mediate the influence of physical activity on an and quality of life . Compelling evidence suggests social isolation , less social integration , and feelings of loneliness are risk factors for poor health and even early death ( 1995 , 2018 House et , 1988 Smith , 2008 ) From a theoretical perspective , positive social interaction , social support , and feelings of relatedness ( feeling connected to or having things in common with someone ) are believed to promote initiation and adherence to health behaviors . Indeed , evidence supports the notion that social networks and perceptions of support are associated with greater physical activity behavior ( Anderson et , 2006 et , 2009 Watt et , 2014 ) Humans are innately social creatures , and thus understanding social dynamics is a worthy avenue of research . However , like the other perspectives , the social perspective alone fails to provide a full understanding of the natural complexity of human behavior . For example , if we only considered the social perspective , we would potentially lose individual variability within such social dynamics . individuals are more adept in socially complex environments than their more introverted counterparts and thus are more likely to seek out a larger social network . This does not mean an introvert is inherently at greater risk of an early death because of their decision to spend less time engaged in socially stimulating environments . On the contrary , behavior , and the subsequent risk to health , must consider the individual as a whole . Importance of Integration Understanding human behavior , such as engaging ( or not ) in physical activity , is undeniably complex . Because of such complexity , Exercise Psychology is often studied in comprehensible chunks through the various perspectives described in this chapter . However , as the renowned Robert wrote , the boundaries between different perspectives are often arbitrary , but once some arbitrary boundary exists , we forget that it is arbitrary and get way too impressed with its importance ( 2017 , That is , the perspectives used to understand behavior are much like using a telescope to focus on a single star . Just because you are focused on a single star , and uniquely captivated by its impressiveness , does not mean the entire galaxy in which it resides disappears . On the contrary , the galaxy continues to not only exist outside of our scope or perspective , but is also in motion , continuously affected by the properties of stars , planets , gas clouds , debris , black holes , dark matter and so on . Thus , it is imperative in the exploration of the intricacies of human behavior , even within the context of physical activity , to keep in mind each perspective zooms into a single component of a much more complex entity .

Box , North , Learning Exercises How does Exercise Psychology differ from Sport Psychology ?

What are the three main themes typically studied within Exercise Psychology ?

What were the different scientific approaches discussed ?

Briefly explain each . Can physical activity behavior be fully and reliably explained by a single perspective ?

Further Reading , 2006 ) Psychobiology of physical activity Integration at last ! In , Psychobiology activity ( Champaign , IL Human Kinetics . 2001 ) Research methods in sport and exercise psychology Quantitative and qualitative issues . Journal Sciences , 19 ( 10 ) Weiss , Gill , 2005 ) What goes around comes around themes in sport and exercise psychology . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 76 ( References American College of Sports Medicine ( 2018 ) exercise testing and prescription ( 10 ) Anderson , Williams , 2006 ) of physical activity The influence of social support , outcome expectations , and regulation among participants in a health promotion study . Health Psychology , 25 ( APA Division 47 Society for Sport , Exercise , Performance Psychology . Retrieved November 03 , 2020 , from Barrett , 2017 ) How emotions are made The secret life of the brain . 1995 ) The role of social relations in health promotion . Psychosomatic Medicine , 57 ( 2016 ) Physical activity and mental health Evidence is growing . World Psychiatry , 15 ( 2009 ) Heart rate variability is related to physical activity in a healthy adolescent population . European Journal Physiology , 106 ( 2018 ) The growing problem of loneliness . The Lancet , 391 ( 10119 ) 18 ) Kramer , 2003 ) Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults A analytic study . Psychological Science , 14 ( Costa , 1992 ) Revised NEO Personality Inventory ( and NEO Inventory ( manual . Psychological Assessment Resources .

Chapter Introduction to Exercise Psychology , 2004 ) What does the prefrontal cortex do in affect Perspectives on frontal EEG asymmetry research . Biological Psychology , 67 ( A . 1989 ) Arousal and physiological toughness Implications for mental and physical health . Psychological Review , 96 ( 1990 ) Personality structure Emergence of the model . Annual Review of Psychology , 41 , 2014 ) Hedonic theory . In ( Encyclopedia and exercise psychology ( Sage . Hall , Fong , 2007 ) Temporal theory A model for individual health behavior . Health Psychology Review , Hall , Fong , Elias , 2008 ) Executive function moderates the behavior link for physical activity and dietary behavior . Psychology Health , 23 ( Hill , 2021 ) Taking the field An introduction to the field of sport psychology . In Jones ( Essentials of exercise and sport psychology An open access textbook ( Society for Transparency , Openness , and Replication in Kinesiology . 2009 ) Loneliness predicts reduced physical activity longitudinal analyses . Health Psychology , 28 ( House , Landis , 1988 ) Social relationships and health . Science , 241 ( 4865 ) John , Donahue , 1991 ) Big Five Inventory ( APA . John , 1999 ) The Big Five Trait taxonomy History , measurement , and theoretical perspectives . In John ( Handbook Theory and research ( Press . 2008 ) Clinical cardiac electrophysiology techniques and interpretations . Williams Wilkins . Khan , Hillman , 2014 ) The relation of childhood physical activity and aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition A review . Pediatric Exercise Science , 26 ( Kramer , 2018 ) Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults A analytic . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 13 , Landers , Arent , 2007 ) Physical activity and mental health . In ( Handbook psychology ( John Wiley Sons , 2012 ) The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions Four general conclusions . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 21 ( 2005 ) physical activity at midlife and the risk and disease . The Lancet Neurology , 11 ) 05 ) 1999 ) Preadaptation and the puzzles and properties of pleasure . In , Schwarz ( The Foundations Psychology ( Russell Sage Foundation . 10

Box , North , 2017 ) Behave The biology at our best and worst . Penguin . Scully , Meade , Graham , Dudgeon , 1998 ) Physical exercise and psychological well being A critical review . British Journal Medicine , 32 ( Smith , A . 2008 ) Social networks and health . Annual Review 34 , Cox , 1996 ) Exercise training and the adaptation hypothesis . Exercise Sport Sciences Reviews , 24 ( White , Richards , Bennie , A . 2020 ) Do we need physical activity guidelines for mental health What does the evidence tell us ?

Mental Health , 18 , Ill , Wager , 2012 ) A of heart rate variability and studies Implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health . Neuroscience Reviews , 36 ( Wilhelm , MacDonald , Gable , A . 2020 ) Frontal asymmetry A novel for physical activity and sedentary behavior . Psychophysiology , 57 ( 10 ) Watt , Newton , Aida , Marmot , 2014 ) Social relationships and health related behaviors among older US adults . Public Health , 14 ( Wilson , 2015 ) Personality and physical activity A systematic review and analysis . Personality Individual Differences , 72 , Young , 1952 ) The role of hedonic processes in the organization of behavior . Psychological Review , 59 ( 11

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