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TABLE OF CONTENTS Physical Geography PREFACE Unit Introduction to Geography as a Discipline Scientific Geographic Inquiry The Scientific Method 10 Geographic Grid System 14 Technology 18 21 Unit Earth Place within the Cosmos 22 Introduction to the Universe 23 Expanding Universe 23 Formation of the Universe 25 Star Systems Galaxies 28 The Milky Way Galaxy 31 Star Energy Nuclear Fusion 33 Star Classification 34 38 Unit Introduction to Geology Geologic Time 39 What Is Geology ?
40 Geological Time 41 Geologic Dating 46 Unit Summary 50 Unit Mapping Earth Surface 51 What Is Cartography ?
52 Projection Mechanics 57 Public Land Survey 64 Unit Summary 65 Unit Relationships Reasons for the Seasons 66 The Sun and the Earth System . 67 GEOGRAPHY Earth Seasons 70 Unit Summary 75 Unit Earth Atmosphere 76 The Significance of the Atmosphere 77 Atmospheric Gasses 77 Layers of the Atmosphere 79 Atmospheric Heat , Energy Motion 83 Global Atmospheric 90 Unit Summary 94 Unit Elements of Weather Climate 95 Weather Atmospheric Moisture 96 Air Masses 101 Types of Extreme Weather 105 Weather Versus Climate 110 Unit Summary 114 Unit Basic Mineral Development 115 Materials of Earth Crust 116 Basic Mineral Identification 117 Unit Summary 124 Unit Igneous Rocks 125 The Rock Cycle 126 Composition 131 Unit Summary 133 Unit 10 Sedimentary Rocks 134 What are Sedimentary Rocks ?
135 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 141 Sedimentary Structures 144 Fossils 147 Unit 10 Summary 150 Unit 11 Metamorphism Metamorphic Rocks 151 What is Metamorphism ?
152 GEOGRAPHY Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 154 Plate Tectonics Metamorphism 159 Unit 11 Summary 163 Unit 12 Weathering Soils 164 What is Weathering ?
165 Formation of Soil 174 Unit 12 Summary 178 Unit 13 Earths Dynamic Surface Plate Tectonics 179 Seeing Earth Interior 180 The Composition Structure of Earth 182 Theory of Continental Drift 185 Seafloor Spreading 189 Earth Tectonic Plates 191 Unit 13 Summary 198 Unit 14 Earths Dynamic Surface Tectonics Force 199 Causes Types of Tectonic Stress 200 Geologic Structures 201 Earthquakes Zones 203 Unit 14 Summary 211 Unit 15 Earths Dynamic Surface Volcanoes 212 volcanism 213 Types of Volcanoes 217 Volcanic Hazards 222 Unit 15 Summary 225 Unit 16 Shaped by Coastal Processes 226 Shorelines 227 of Coastal Erosion Deposition 232 Change 236 Human Interference with Shorelines 238 Unit 16 Summary 241 Unit 17 Shaped by Rivers Running Water 242 GEOGRAPHY
Rivers 243 Streams Rivers 244 Stream Erosion Deposition 248 Water Storage Unit 17 Summary Unit 18 Shaped by Wind as a Geomorphic Agent 260 Processes 261 Erosional Features 261 Depositional Features Dune Types 263 Other Geomorphic Arid Features 270 Unit 18 Summary 273 Unit 19 Shaped by Glaciers 274 Glaciers 275 How Glaciers Work 280 Unit 19 Summary 293 GEOGRAPHY