Perspectives An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology Political Anthropology A Cross-Cultural Comparison

POLITICAL ANTHROPOLOGY A COMPARISON Paul , Santa Barbara City College Learning Objectives Identify the four levels of integration ( band , tribe , chiefdom , and state ) and describe their characteristics . Compare systems of leadership in egalitarian and societies . Describe systems used in tribes and to achieve social integration and encourage connections between people . Assess the benefits and problems associated with political organizations . Evaluate the extent to which the Islamic State meets the formal criteria for a political organization . All cultures have one element in common they somehow exercise social control over their own . Even small foraging societies such as the or ! Kung , the ( or Eskimo ) of the Arctic north , and aboriginal Australians experience disputes that must be contained if are to be reduced or eliminated . As societies become more complex , means of control increase . The study of these means of control are the subject of political anthropology . BASIC CONCEPTS IN POLITICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

149 Like the invisible hand of the market to which Adam Smith refers in analyzing the workings of , two forces govern the workings of politics ability to induce behavior of others in specified ways by means of coercion or use or threat of physical ability to induce behavior of others by Extreme examples of the exercise of power are the ( prison camps ) in Stalinist Russia , the death camps in Germany and Eastern Europe , and Supermax prisons such as Pelican Bay in California and the prison for enemy combatants in Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , by the United States . In all of these settings , prisoners comply or are punished or executed . At the other extreme are most forager societies , which typically exercise authority more often than power . Groups in those societies comply with the wishes of their most persuasive members . In actuality , power and authority are points on a continuum and both are present in every society to some degree . Even Hitler , who exercised absolute power in many ways , had to hold the lies to generate popular support for his regime and persuade the German population that his leadership was the way to national salvation . In the Soviet Union , leaders had a great deal of coercive and physical power but still felt the need to hold parades and mass rallies on May Day every year to persuade ple to remain attached to their vision of a communal society . At the other end of the political spectrum , societies that tend to use persuasion through authority also have some forms of coercive power . Among the , for example , individuals who violated group norms could be punished , including by A related concept in both politics and law is legitimacy the perception that an individual has a valid right to leadership . Legitimacy is particularly applicable to complex societies that require centralized . Historically , the right to rule has been based on various principles . In agricultural states such as ancient Mesopotamia , the Aztec , and the Inca , justification for the rule of particular was based on hereditary succession and typically granted to the eldest son of the ruler . Even this principle could be uncertain at times , as was the case when the Inca emperor had just defeated his rival and brother when the Spaniards arrived in Peru in In many cases , supernatural beliefs were invoked to establish legitimacy and justify rule by an elite . Incan emperors derived their right to rule from the Sun God and Aztec rulers from ( European monarchs invoked a divine right to rule that was reinforced by the Church of England in Britain and by the Roman Catholic Church in other countries prior to the Reformation . In India , the dominance of the elite over the other castes is justified by karma , cumulative forces created by good and evil deeds in past lives . Secular equivalents also serve to justify rule by elites examples include the promise of a worker paradise in the former Soviet Union and racial purity of Aryans in Nazi Germany . In the United States and other democratic forms of government , legitimacy rests on the consent of the governed in periodic elections ( though in the United States , the incoming president is sworn in using a Christian Bible despite alleged separation of church and state ) In some societies , dominance by an individual or group is viewed as unacceptable . Christopher ( 1999 ) developed the concept of reverse dominance to describe societies in which people rejected attempts by any individual to exercise They achieved this aim using ridicule , criticism , disobedience , and strong disapproval and could banish extreme offenders . Richard Lee encountered this phenomenon when he presented the ! Kung with whom he had worked over the preceding year with a fattened Rather than praising or thanking him , his hosts ridiculed the beast as scrawny , ill fed , and probably sick . This behavior is consistent with reverse dominance . Even in societies that emphasize equality between people , decisions still have to be made . Sometimes particularly persuasive figures such as make them , but persuasive figures who lack formal power are not free to make decisions without coming to a consensus with their fellows . To reach such

PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY consensus , there must be general agreement . Essentially , then , even if in a backhanded way , legitimacy characterizes societies that lack institutionalized leadership . Another set of concepts refers to the reinforcements or consequences for compliance with the tive and laws of a society . Positive reinforcements are the rewards for compliance examples include medals , financial incentives , and other forms of public recognition . Negative reinforcements punish noncompliance through fines , imprisonment , and death sentences . These reinforcements can be in every human society , even among or others who have no written system of law . Reverse dominance is one form of negative reinforcement . LEVELS OF INTEGRATION If cultures of various sizes and configurations are to be compared , there must be some common basis for defining political organization . In many small communities , the family functions as a political unit . As Julian Steward wrote about the Shoshone , a Native American group in the Nevada basin , all of the relatively simple culture were integrated and functioned on a family level . The family was the reproductive , economic , educational , political , and religious In larger more complex , however , the functions of the family are taken over by larger social institutions . The resources of the economy , for example , are managed by authority figures outside the family who demand taxes or other tribute . The educational function of the family may be taken over by schools constituted under the authority of a government , and the authority structure in the family is likely to be subsumed under the greater power of the state . Therefore , anthropologists need methods for assessing political that can be applied to many different kinds of communities . This concept is called levels of integration . Service ( 1975 ) developed an scheme for categorizing the political character of that recognized four levels of integration band , tribe , chiefdom , and A band is the smallest unit of political organization , consisting of only a few families and no formal leadership positions . Tribes have larger populations but are organized around family ties and have or shifting systems of temporary leadership . are large political units in which the chief , who usually is determined by heredity , holds a formal position of power . States are the most complex form of political organization and are characterized by a central government that has a monopoly over legitimate uses of physical force , a sizeable bureaucracy , a system of formal laws , and a standing military force . Each type of political integration can be further categorized as egalitarian , ranked , or stratified . Band societies and tribal societies generally are considered is no great difference in status or power between individuals and there are as many valued status positions in the societies as there are persons able to fill them . are ranked societies there are substantial differences in the wealth and social status of individuals based on how closely related they are to the chief . In ranked societies , there are a limited number of positions of power or status , and only a few can occupy them . State societies are stratified . There are large differences in the wealth , status , and power of individuals based on unequal access to resources and positions of power . classes , for instance , are forms of stratification in many state EGALITARIAN SOCIETIES

We humans are not equal in all things . The status of women is low relative to the status of men in many , if not most , societies as we will see . There is also the matter of age . In some societies , the aged enjoy greater prestige than the young in others , the aged are subjected to discrimination in ment and other areas . Even in Japan , which has traditionally been known for its respect for elders , the prestige of the aged is in decline . And we vary in terms of our abilities . Some are more eloquent or skilled technically than others some are expert craft persons while others are not some excel at thought , whereas for the rest of us , there is always the For Dummies book series to manage our computers , software , and other parts of our daily lives such as wine and sex . In a complex society , it may seem that social in wealth and , like death and taxes , inevitable that one is born into wealth , poverty , or somewhere in between and has no say in the matter , at least at the start of life , and that social class is an involuntary position in society . However , is social class universal ?

As they say , lets look at the record , in this case . We find that among , there is no advantage to hoarding food in most climates , it will rot before one eyes . Nor is there much personal property , and leadership , where it exists , is informal . In forager societies , the basic ingredients for social class do not exist . such as the ! Kung , and aboriginal , are egalitarian societies in which there are few differences between members in wealth , status , and power . Highly skilled and less skilled hunters do not belong to different strata in the way that the captains of industry do from you and me . The less skilled hunters in egalitarian societies receive a share of the meat and have the right to be heard on important decisions . Egalitarian societies also lack a or centralized leadership . Their leaders , known as or big men , emerge by consensus of the group . Foraging societies are always egalitarian , but so are many societies that practice ture or pastoralism . In terms of political organization , egalitarian societies can be either bands or tribes . POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Societies organized as a band typically comprise who rely on hunting and gathering and are therefore nomadic , are few in number ( rarely exceeding 100 persons ) and form small groups consisting of a few families and a shifting population . Bands lack formal leadership . Richard Lee went so far as to say that the Kung had no leaders . To quote one of his informants , Of course we have . Each one of us is headman over most , a band leader is primus inter pure or first among equals assuming anyone is first at all . Modesty is a valued trait arrogance and competitiveness are not acceptable in societies characterized by reverse dominance . What leadership there is in band societies tends to be transient and subject to shifting circumstances . For example , among the in North America , rabbit bosses coordinated rabbit drives during the hunting season but played no leadership role otherwise . Some leaders are excellent mediators who are called on when individuals are involved in disputes while others are perceived as skilled shamans or who are consulted cally . There are no formal offices or rules of Bands were probably the first political unit to come into existence outside the family itself . There is some debate in anthropology about how the earliest bands were organized . Service argued that patrilocal bands organized around groups of related men served as the prototype , reasoning that groups centered on male family relationships made sense because male cooperation was essential to Kay Martin and Barbara pointed out in rebuttal that gathering vegetable foods , which typically was viewed as women work , actually contributed a greater number of calories in most

PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL cultures and thus that matrilocal bands organized around groups of related women would be closer to the Indeed , in societies in which hunting is the primary source of food , such as the , women tend to be subordinate to men while men and women tend to have roughly equal status in that mainly gather plants for food . Law in Band Societies Within bands of people , disputes are typically resolved informally . There are no formal mediators or any organizational equivalent of a court of law . A good mediator may may not . In some cultures , duels are employed . Among the , for example , engage in a duel using songs in which , drum in hand , they chant insults at each other before an audience . The audience selects the ter chanter and thereby the winner in the The of the African Congo use ridicule even children berate adults for laziness , quarreling , or selfishness . If ridicule fails , the elders evaluate the dispute carefully , determine the cause , and , in extreme cases , walk to the center of the camp and criticize the individuals by name , using humor to soften their group , after all , must get Warfare in Band Societies Nevertheless , conflict does sometimes break out into war between bands and , sometimes , Within them . Such Warfare is usually sporadic and since bands do not have formal leadership or enough warriors to sustain for long . Most of the arises from interpersonal arguments . Among the of Australia , for example , failure of one band to reciprocate another band with one of its own female relative led to abduction of Women by the aggrieved band , a war that involved some ( many did not shoot straight and even some of the onlookers were wounded ) but mostly violent talk and verbal For the Dobe ! Kung , Lee found 22 cases of homicide by males and other periodic episodes of violence , mostly in disputes over quite the gentle souls Elizabeth Marshall Thomas depicted in her Harmless People ( TRIBAL POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Whereas bands involve small populations Without structure , tribal societies involve at least two defined groups linked together in some way and range in population from about 100 to as many as people . Though their social institutions can be fairly complex , there are no centralized political structures or offices in the strict sense of those terms . There may be , but there are no rules of succession and sons do not necessarily succeed their fathers as is the case with . Tribal leadership roles are open to practice , usually men , especially elder men who acquire ship positions because of their personal abilities and qualities . Leaders in tribes do not have a means of coercing others or formal powers associated with their positions . Instead , they must persuade others to take actions they feel are needed . A headsman , for instance , said that he would never issue an order unless he knew it would be obeyed . The headman exercised by example and by making suggestions and warning of consequences of taking or not taking an Like bands , tribes are egalitarian societies . Some individuals in a tribe do sometimes accumulate

property but not to the extent that other tribe members are deprived . And every ( almost always male ) person has the opportunity to become a headman or leader and , like bands , one leadership tion can be situational . One man may be a good mediator , another an exemplary warrior , and a third capable of leading a hunt or finding a more ideal area for cultivation or grazing herds . An example this kind of leadership is the big man of New Guinea the term is derived from the languages of New tribes ( literally meaning man of influence ) The big man is one who has acquired followers by doing favors they can not possibly repay , such as settling their debts or providing wealth . He might also acquire as many wives as possible to create alliances with his wives families . His wives could work to care for as many pigs as possible , for example , and in due course , he could sor a pig feast that would serve to put more tribe members in his debt and shame his rivals . It is worth noting that the followers , incapable of repaying the Big Man gifts , stand metaphorically as beggars to Still , a big man does not have the power of a monarch . His role is not hereditary . His son must his worth and acquire his own must become a big man in his own right . more , there usually are other big men in the village who are his potential rivals . Another man who proves himself capable of acquiring a following can displace the existing big man . The big man also has no power to army or police force . He can not prevent a follower from joining another big man , nor can he force the follower to pay any debt owed . There is no New equivalent of a marshal . Therefore , he can have his way only by diplomacy and do not always Tribal Systems of Social Integration Tribal societies have much larger populations than bands and thus must have mechanisms for and maintaining connections between tribe members . The family ties that unite members of a band are not sufficient to maintain solidarity and cohesion in the larger population of a tribe . Some of the systems that knit tribes together are based on family ( kin ) relationships , including various kinds of marriage and family lineage systems , but there are also ways to foster tribal solidarity outside of family arrangements through systems that unite members of a tribe by age or gender . Integration through Age Grades and Age Sets Tribes use various systems to encourage solidarity or feelings of connectedness between people who are not related by family ties . These systems , sometimes known as , unite people across ily groups . In one sense , all societies are divided into age categories . In the educational system , for instance , children are matched to grades in school according to their in first grade and in eighth grade . Other cultures , however , have established complex social structures . Many in East Africa , for example , have age grades and age sets . Age sets are named categories to which men of a certain age are assigned at birth . Age grades are groups of men who are close to one another in age and share similar duties or responsibilities . All men cycle through each age grade over the course of their lifetimes . As the age sets advance , the men assume the duties associated with each age grade . An example of this kind of tribal society is the of Kenya . From birth to about fifteen years of age , boys become members of one of seven named age sets . When the last boy is recruited , that age

PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY set closes and a new one opens . For example , young and adult males who belonged to the juma age set in 1939 became warriors by 1954 . The were already warriors in 1939 and became elder warriors during that period . In times , men of the warrior age grade defended the herds of the and conducted raids on other tribes while the elder warriors acquired cattle and houses and took on wives . There were recurring reports of husbands who were much older than their wives , who had married early in life , often as young as fifteen or sixteen . As solid citizens of the , the elder warriors also handled functions of the tribe as a whole their legislation affected the entire village while also representing their own kin groups . The other age sets also moved up through age grades in the period . The elder warriors in 1939 , became the judicial elders by 1954 . Their function was to resolve disputes that arose between individuals , families , and kin groups , of which some elders were a part . The , judicial elders in 1939 , became ritual elders in 1954 , handling supernatural functions that involved the entire community . During this period , the open age set was prior members had all grown old or died by 1939 and new boys joined it between 1939 and 1954 . Thus , the age sets moved in continuous cycles . This age grade and age set system encourages bonds between men of similar ages . Their loyalty to their families is by their responsibilities to their fellows of the same Traditional Duties of Age Sets Age Sets Age Sets Age Sets Age Grade Retired or Deceased Ritual Elders Judicial Elders Juma Elder Warriors juma Warriors I Initiated and Uninitiated Youths juma Small Boys Figure Grades and age sets among the . Reprinted with permission of Kendall Hunt Publishing Company . Integration through and Men Houses Among most , if not all , tribes of New Guinea , the existence of men houses serves to cut across family lineage groups in a village . Perhaps the most fastidious case of male association in New Guinea is the bachelor association of the , who live in the northern highlands . In their culture , a boy becomes conscious of the distance between males and females before he leaves home at age five to live in the mens house . Women are regarded as potentially unclean , and strict codes that minimize female relations are enforced . festivals reinforce this division . During the festival , every youth of age 15 or 16 goes into seclusion in the forest and observes additional restrictions , such as avoiding pigs ( which are cared for by women ) and avoiding gazing at the ground lest he see female footprints or pig One can see , therefore , that every boy commits his loyalty to the mens house early in life even though he remains a member of his birth family . Men houses are the center of male activities . There , they draw up strategies for warfare , conduct ritual activities involving magic and honoring of ancestral spirits , and plan and rehearse periodic pig feasts .

Integration through Gifts and Feasting Exchanges and the informal obligations associated with them are primary devices by which bands and tribes maintain a degree of order and forestall armed conflict , which was viewed as the state of nature for tribal societies by Locke and Hobbes , in the absence of exercises of force by police or an army . Marcel , nephew and student of eminent French sociologist Emile , attempted in 1925 to explain gift giving and its attendant obligations in his book , The Gift Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies . He started with the assumption that two groups have an imperative to establish a relationship of some kind . There are three options when they meet for the first time . They could pass each other by and never see each other again . They may resort to arms with an uncertain outcome . One could wipe the other out or , more likely , win at great cost of men and property or fight to a draw . The third option is to come to terms with each other by establishing a more or less permanent Exchanging gifts is one way for groups to establish this relationship . These gift exchanges are quite different from Western ideas about gifts . In societies that lack a central government , formal law enforcement powers , and collection agents , the gift exchanges are obligatory and have the force of law in the absence of law . referred to them as total Though no Dun and agents would come to collect , the potential for conflict that could break out at any time reinforced the According to , the first obligation is to give it must be met if a group is to extend social ties to others . The second obligation is to receive refusal of a gift constitutes rejection of the offer of friendship as Well . Conflicts can arise from the perceived insult of a rejected offer . The third obligation is to repay . One who fails to make a gift in return will be seen as in essence , a beggar . offered several ethnographic cases that illustrated these obligations . Every gift conferred power to the giver , expressed by the Polynesian terms ( an intangible supernatural force ) and hair ( among the , the spirit of the gift , which must be returned to its owner ) Marriage and its associated obligations also can be viewed as a form of as one family gives a bride or groom to the other . Basics of Marriage , Family , and Kinship Understanding social solidarity in tribal societies requires knowledge of family structures , which are also known as kinship systems . The romantic view of marriage in today mass media is largely a product of Hollywood movies and romance novels from publishers such as Harlequin . In most cultures around the world , marriage is largely a device that links two families together this is why arranged marriage is so common from a perspective . And , as Voltaire admonished , if we are to discuss anything , we need to define our terms . Marriage is defined in numerous ways , usually ( but not always ) involving a tie between a woman and a man . marriage is also mon in many cultures . Nuclear families consist of parents and their children . Extended families consist of three generations or more of relatives connected by marriage and descent . In the diagrams below , triangles represent males and circles represent females . Vertical lines represent a generational link connecting , say , a man with his father . Horizontal lines above two figures are sibling links thus , a triangle connected to a circle represents a brother and sister . Equal signs connect husbands and wives . Sometimes a diagram may render use of an equal sign unrealistic in those cases , a horizontal line drawn two figures shows a marriage link . Most rules of descent generally fall into one of two categories . Bilateral descent ( commonly used in the United States ) recognizes both the mother and the father sides of the family while descent recognizes only one side of the family . descent can be patrilineal , recognizing only relatives through a line of male ancestors , or matrilineal , recognizing only relatives through a line of female ancestors . Groups made up of two or more extended families can be connected as larger groups linked by kinship ties . A lineage consists of individuals who can trace or demonstrate their descent through a line of males or females to the founding ancestor . For further discussion of this topic , consult the Family and Marriage chapter .

156 PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Integration through Marriage Most tribal societies political organizations involve marriage , which is a logical vehicle for creating alliances between groups . One of the most types of marriage alliance is bilateral marriage in which a man marries his he is related to through two links , his fathers sister and his mother brother . These marriages have been documented among the , an indigenous group living in Venezuela and Brazil . villages are typically by two or more extended family groups also known as lineages . Disputes and disagreements are bound to occur , and these tensions can potentially escalate to open or even physical . Bilateral marriage provides a means of linking lineage groups together over time through the exchange of brides . Because marriage links people together by both marriage and blood ties ( kinship ) these unions can reduce tension between the groups or at least provide an incentive for members of rival lineages to work together . To get a more detailed picture of how marriages integrate family groups , consider the following ily diagrams . In these diagrams , triangles represent males and circles represent females . Vertical lines represent a generational link connecting , say , a man to his father . Horizontal lines above two figures are sibling links thus , a triangle connected to a circle by a horizontal line represents a brother and sister . Equal signs connect husbands and wives . In some diagrams in which use of an equal sign is not realistic , a horizontal line drawn below the two figures shows their marriage link . Lineage Lineage Figure Bilateral marriage Reprinted with permission of Kendall Hunt Publishing Company

Figure depicts the alliance created by the bilateral marriage system . In this figure , letters represent males and lowercase letters represent females , Thus , refers to all of the males of Lineage and refers to all of the males of Lineage likewise , refers to all of the females of Lineage and refers to all of the females of Lineage . Consider the third generation in the diagram . has married ( the horizontal line below the ) creating an affinal link . Trace the relationship between and through their links between a mother and her brother . You can see from the diagram that mother is and her brother is and his daughter is . Therefore , is brother daughter . Now trace the links of this links between a father and his sister . father is and sister is , who married , which makes her daughter sister daughter . Work your way through the description and diagram until you are comfortable understanding the . Now do the same thing with by tracing his ties with his wife . His mother is and her brother is , which makes his brother daughter . On the , his father is , and sister is , who is married to Therefore , their daughter is . This eXample represents the ideal bilateral marriage a man marries a woman who is both his mother brother daughter and his fathers daughter . The man cousin and are the same woman ! Thus , the two lineages have discharged their obligations to one another in the same generation . Lineage provides a daughter to lineage and with a daughter . Each of the lineages therefore retains its potential to reproduce in the next generation . The obligation incurred by lineage from taking lineage daughter in marriage has been repaid by giving a daughter in marriage to lineage . This type of marriage is what Robin Fox , following Claude , called restricted Notice that only two extended families can engage in this exchange . Society remains simple because it can expand only by splitting off . And , as we will see later , when daughter villages split off , the two lineages move together . Not all marriages can conform to this type of exchange . Often , the is not the same person there may be two or more persons . Furthermore , in some situations , a man can marry either a or a but not both . The example of the ideal type of cousin marriage is used to demonstrate the logical outcome of such unions . Integration Through a Segmentary Lineage Another type of integrative mechanism is a segmentary lineage . As previously noted , a is a group of people who can trace or demonstrate their descent from a founding ancestor through a line of males or a line of females . A segmentary lineage is a hierarchy of lineages that contains both close and relatively distant family members . At the base are several minimal lineages whose members trace their descent from their founder back two or three generations . At the top is the founder of all of the lineages , and two or more maximal lineages can derive from the founders lineage . Between the maximal and the minimal lineages are several intermediate lineages . For purposes of simplicity , we will discuss only the maximal and minimal lineages . One characteristic of segmentary lineages is complementary opposition . To illustrate , consider the chart in Figure , which presents two maximal lineages , A and , each having two minimal lineages Al and for A and and for .

PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Lineage Founder Figure Segmentary lineage model . Note connection of each lineage , regardless of relative size , to its territory . Reprinted with permission of Kendall Hunt Publishing Company . Suppose starts a feud with over cattle theft . Since A and are of the same maximal lineage , their feud is likely to be contained within that lineage , and and are likely to ignore the since it is no concern of theirs . Now suppose attacks for cattle theft . In that case , might unite with to feud with , who join in to defend . Thus , the feud would involve everyone in maximal lineage A against everyone in maximal lineage . Finally , consider an attack by an outside tribe against . In response , both maximal lineages might rise up and defend .

159 The classic examples of segmentary lineages were described by ( 1940 ) in his discussion of the , who lived in southern Paul ( 1989 ) also described this system among the , who were West African , and Robert Murphy and Leonard ( 1959 ) analyzed the importance of these lineages among the Bedouin of the Middle Segmentary lineages often develop in environments in which a tribal society is surrounded by several other tribal societies . Hostility between the tribes induces their members to retain ties with their kin and to mobilize them when external arise . An example of this is ties maintained between the and the Dinka . Once a is over , segmentary lineages typically dissolve into their units . Another attribute of segmentary lineages is local genealogical segmentation , meaning close lineages dwell near each other , providing a physical reminder of their A Bedouin proverb summarizes the philosophy behind segmentary lineages I against my brother I and my brother against my cousin I , my brother , and my cousin against the world Segmentary lineages regulate both warfare and inheritance and property rights . As noted by ( 1961 ) in studies of the , tribes in which such lineages occur typically have relatively large of close to Law in Tribal Societies Tribal societies generally lack systems of codified law whereby damages , crimes , remedies , and are specified . Only political systems can determine , usually by writing formal laws , which behaviors are permissible and which are not ( discussed later in this chapter ) In tribes , there are no systems of law enforcement whereby an agency such as the police , the sheriff , or an army can enforce laws enacted by an appropriate authority . And , as already noted , headman and big men can not force their will on others . In tribal societies , as in all societies , arise between individuals . Sometimes the issues are equivalent to of property or commitment of are not considered mate in a given society . Other issues are civil of ownership , damage to , an accidental death . In tribal societies , the aim is not so much to determine guilt or innocence or to assign criminal or civil responsibility as it is to resolve , which can be accomplished in ous ways . The parties might choose to avoid each other . Bands , tribes , and kin groups often move away from each other geographically , which is much easier for them to do than for people living in complex societies . One issue in tribal societies , as in all societies , is guilt or innocence . When no one witnesses an offense or an account is deemed unreliable , tribal societies sometimes rely on the supernatural . Oaths , for example , involve calling on a deity to bear witness to the truth of what one says the oath given in court is a holdover from this practice . An ordeal is used to determine guilt or innocence by submitting the accused to dangerous , painful , or risky tests believed to be controlled by supernatural forces . The son oracle used by the of the and the Congo is an ordeal based on their belief that most misfortunes are induced by witchcraft ( in this case , witchcraft refers to ill feeling of one person toward another ) A chicken is force fed a strychnine concoction known as just as the name of the suspect

PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY is called out . If the chicken dies , the suspect is deemed guilty and is punished or goes through A more commonly exercised option is to find ways to resolve the dispute . In small groups , an solved question can quickly escalate to violence and disrupt the group . The first step is often tion the parties attempt to resolve the by direct discussion in hope of arriving at an agreement . Offenders sometimes make a ritual apology , particularly if they are sensitive to community opinion . In , for example , offenders make ceremonial apologies called i , one of the meanings of which is I An intermediary speaks , offers a token gift to the offended party , and asks for forgiveness , and the request is rarely When negotiation or a ritual apology fails , often the next step is to recruit a third party to mediate a settlement as there is no official who has the power to enforce a settlement . A classic example in the anthropological literature is the Leopard Skin Chief among the , who is identified by a leopard skin wrap around his shoulders . He is not a chief but is a mediator . The position is hereditary , has overtones , and is responsible for the social of the tribal segment . He typically is called on for serious matters such as murder . The culprit immediately goes to the residence of the Leopard Skin Chief , who cuts the culprit arm until blood . If the culprit fears vengeance by the dead man family , he remains at the residence , which is considered a sanctuary , and the Leopard Skin Chief then acts as a for the families of the perpetrator and the dead man . The Leopard Skin Chief can not force the parties to settle and can not enforce any settlement they reach . The source of his is the desire for the parties to avoid a feud that could escalate into an involving kin descended from different ancestors . He urges the aggrieved ily to accept compensation , usually in the form of cattle . When such an agreement is reached , the chief collects the 40 to 50 head of cattle and takes them to the dead man home , where he performs various sacrifices of cleansing and This discussion demonstrates the preference most tribal societies have for mediation given the serious consequences of a feud . Even in societies organized as states , mediation is often preferred . In the agrarian town of , Mexico , for example , even serious crimes are mediated in the interest of preserving a degree of local harmony . The national authorities often tolerate local if they maintain the Warfare in Tribal Societies What happens if mediation fails and the Leopard Skin Chief can not convince the aggrieved clan to accept cattle in place of their loved one ?

War . In tribal societies , wars vary in cause , intensity , and tion , but they tend to be less deadly than those run by states because of tribes relatively small and limited technologies . Tribes engage in Warfare more often than bands , both internally and externally . Among , both successful and attempted thefts of cattle frequently spark . Among societies , have a reputation for being the most prone to warfare . However , also engage in warfare , as the film Dead Birds , which describes Warfare among the highland Dani of west New Guinea ( aya ) attests . Among anthropologists , there is a protein debate regarding causes of fare . Marvin Harris in a 1974 study of the claimed that warfare arose there because of a protein deficiency associated with a scarcity of game , and Kenneth Good supported that thesis in ing that the game a villager brought in barely supported the He could not link this variable to warfare , however . In rebuttal , Napoleon linked Warfare among the with

161 abduction of women rather than disagreements over hunting territory , and findings from other have tended to agree with Tribal wars vary in duration . Raids are uses of physical force that are organized and planned to achieve a limited objective such as acquisition of cattle ( or other forms of wealth and , often , abduction of women , usually from neighboring Feuds are longer in tion and represent a state of recurring hostilities between families , lineages , or other kin groups . In a feud , the responsibility to avenge rests with the entire group , and the murder of any kin member is appropriate because the kin group as a whole is considered responsible for the transgression . Among the Dani , for example , vengeance is an obligation spirits are said to dog the victim clan until its members murder someone from the perpetrators RANKED SOCIETIES AND Unlike egalitarian societies , ranked societies ( sometimes called rank societies ) involve greater between individuals and the kin groups to which they belong . These differences can be , and often are , inherited , but there are no significant restrictions in these societies on access to basic resources . All individuals can meet their basic needs . The most important differences between people of different ranks are based on sumptuary that permit persons of higher rank to enjoy greater social status by wearing distinctive clothing , jewelry , or decorations denied those of lower rank . Every family group or lineage in the community is ranked in a hierarchy of prestige and power . Furthermore , within families , siblings are ranked by birth order and villages can also be ranked . The concept of a ranked society leads us directly to the characteristics of . Unlike the tion of headman in a band , the position of chief is an permanent political status that demands a successor when the current chief dies . There are , therefore , two concepts of chief the man ( women rarely , if ever , occupy these posts ) and the office . Thus the expression The king is dead , long live the With the New big man , there is no formal succession . Other big men will be recognized and eventually take the place of one who dies , but there is no rule stipulating that his eldest son or any son must succeed him . For chiefs , there must be a successor and there are rules of succession . Political usually are accompanied by an economic exchange system known as tion in which goods and services from the population at large to the central authority represented by the chief . It then becomes the task of the chief to return the flow of goods in another form . The ter on economics provides additional information about redistribution economies . These political and economic principles are exemplified by the potlatch custom of the waka and other indigenous groups who lived in chiefdom societies along the northwest coast of North America from the extreme northwest tip of California through the coasts of Oregon , ton , British Columbia , and southern Alaska . Potlatch ceremonies observed major events such as births , deaths , marriages of important persons , and installment of a new chief . Families prepared for the event by collecting food and other valuables such as fish , berries , blankets , animal skins , carved boxes , and copper . At the potlatch , several ceremonies were held , dances were performed by their owners , and speeches delivered . The new chief was watched very carefully . Members of the society noted the of his speech , the grace of his presence , and any mistakes he made , however egregious or trivial . Next came the distribution of gifts , and again the chief was observed . Was he generous with his gifts ?

Was the value of his gifts appropriate to the rank of the recipient or did he give valuable presents to individuals of relatively low rank ?

Did his wealth allow him to offer valuable objects ?

162 PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL The next phase of the potlatch was critical to the chief validation of his position . Visitor after visitor would arise and give long speeches evaluating the worthiness of this successor to the chieftainship of his father . If his performance had so far met their expectations , if his gifts were appropriate , the guests speeches praised him accordingly . They were less than adulatory if the chief had not performed to their expectations and they deemed the formal eligibility of the successor insufficient . He had to perform . If he did , then the guests praise not only legitimized the new chief in his role , but also it ensured some measure of peace between villages . Thus , in addition to being a festive event , the potlatch determined the successor legitimacy and served as a form of diplomacy between Much has been made among anthropologists of rivalry in which competitive gifts were given by rival pretenders to the chieftainship . Philip Drucker argued that competitive were a product of sudden demographic Changes among the indigenous groups on the northwest When smallpox and other diseases decimated hundreds , many potential successors to the chieftainship died , leading to situations in which several potential successors might be eligible for the chieftainship . Thus , competition in potlatch ceremonies became extreme with blankets or copper repaid with larger piles and competitors who destroyed their own valuables to demonstrate their wealth . The events became so raucous that the Canadian government outlawed the displays in the early part of the Prior to that time , it had been sufficient for a successor who was chosen beforehand to present appropriate Integrative Mechanisms Conical Clans With the centralization of society , kinship is most likely to continue playing a role , albeit a new one . Among Northwest Coast Indians , for example , the ranking model has every lineage ranked , one above the other , siblings ranked in order of birth , and even villages in a ranking scale . Drucker points out that the further north one goes , the more rigid the ranking scheme is . The most northerly of these coastal peoples trace their descent matrilineally indeed , the consist of four clans . Those further south tend to be patrilineal , and some show characteristics of an descent group . It is still unclear , for example , whether the are patrilineal clans or descent groups .

CLAN GENEALOGY ( Senior sons to the left ) Ancestor Ancestor of Intermediate Lineage Ancestor of intermediate Lineage I Ancestor of Local Lineages Area at . Lineage Lineage , Chief Chief a ma District ol intermediate District of Intermediate Lineage I , Chief Lineage II . Territory of Conical Clan ( chiefdom ) a Figure Conical clan design of a chiefdom . Scheme is based on relative siblings age and patrilineal descent Eldest sons appear to the left . Reprinted with permission of Kendall Hunt Publishing Company . In the accompanying diagram ( Figure ) assuming patrilineal descent , the eldest male within a given lineage becomes the chief of his district , that is , Chief a in the area of Local Lineage A , which is the older intermediate lineage ( Intermediate Lineage I ) relative to the founding clan ancestor . Chief is the oldest male in Local Lineage , which , in turn , is the oldest intermediate lineage ( again Intermediate Lineage ) relative to the founding clan ancestor . Chief is the oldest male of local Lineage descended from the second oldest intermediate lineage ( Intermediate Lineage II ) relative to the founding clan ancestor , and Chief is the oldest male of Local Lineage , descended from the second oldest intermediate ( Intermediate Lineage II ) relative to the founding clan ancestor . Nor does this end the process . Chief a , as head of Local Lineage A , also heads the district of Lineage I while Chief heads Local Lineage in the district of Intermediate lineage II . Finally , the entire chiefdom is headed by the eldest male ( Chief a ) of the entire district governed by the of the clan ancestor .

164 PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL Integration through Marriage Because can not enforce their power by controlling resources or by having a monopoly on the use of force , they rely on integrative mechanisms that cut across kinship groups . As with tribal , marriage provides with a framework for encouraging social cohesion . However , since have status hierarchies than tribes , marriages tend to reinforce ranks . A particular kind of marriage known as demonstrates this effect and is illustrated by the diagram in Figure . The figure shows three ( family lineage groups based on descent from a common male ancestor ) that are labeled A , and Consider the marriage between man and woman . As you can see , they are linked by ( ego father ) and his sister ( who is married to and bears daughter . If you look at other partners , you will notice that all of the women move to the right and daughter , will marry and bear a daughter ,

165 I LineageD Figure . marriage Reprinted Will ! permission of Kendall Hunt Publishing Company Viewed from the top of a diagram , the three lineages marry in a circle and at least three lineages are needed for this arrangement to work . The of India , for example , practiced cousin marriage among seven lineages . Notice that lineage can not return the gift of A daughter with one of its own . If married , he would be marrying his who is linked to him through , his sister , and her daughter . Therefore , must marry and lineage can never repay lineage A for the loss of their their links to find out why . Since lineage can not meet the third of obligations . is a beggar relative to A . And lineage is a beggar relative to lineage Paradoxically , lineage A ( which gives its daughters to ) owes lineage because it obtains its brides from lineage In this system , there appears to be an equality of inequality .

166 PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL The patrilineal marriage system also operates in a complex society in highland Burma known as the Kachin . In that system , the lineage is known as and the lineage as dama to the lineage that gave it a wife . Thus , in addition to other mechanisms of dominance , lineages maintain their superiority by giving daughters to lineages and reinforce the relations between social classes through the The Kachin are not alone in using interclass marriage to reinforce dominance . The peoples , a matrilineal society of the Mississippi region of North America , were divided into four classes Great Sun chiefs , noble lineages , honored lineages , and inferior ( commoners ) Unlike the Kachin , however , their marriage system was a way to upward mobility . The child of a woman who married a man of lower status assumed her mother status . Thus , if a Great Sun woman married a stinkard ( commoner ) the child would become a Great Sun . If a stinkard man were to marry a Great Sun woman , the child would be the same rank as the mother . The same relationship obtained between women of noble lineage and honored lineage and men of lower status . Only two stinkard partners would maintain that stratum , which was continuously replenished with people in Other societies maintained status in different ways . marriages , for example , were mon in the royal lineages of the Inca , the Ancient Egyptians , and the Hawaiians , which sought to keep their lineages Another , type was marriage in which men married their fathers brothers daughters . This marriage system , which operated among many Middle Eastern nomadic societies , including the Bedouin , consolidated their herds , an important consideration for lineages wishing to maintain their Integration through Secret Societies Pam and secret societies for men and women , respectively , are found in the peoples of West Africa , particularly in , Sierra Leone , the Ivory Coast , and Guinea . The societies are illegal under Guinea national laws . Elsewhere , they are legal and membership is universally mandatory under local laws . They function in both political and religious sectors of society . So how can such societies be secret if all men and women must join ?

According to Beryl Bellman , who is a member of a pan ) association , the standard among the of is an ability to keep secrets . Members of the community are entrusted with the political and religious responsibilities associated with the society only after they learn to keep There are two political structures in poros and the and the The secular structure consists of the town chief , neighborhood and kin group , and elders . The sacred structure ( the 20 ) is composed of a hierarchy of priests of the and the in the neighborhood , and among the the and 20 take turns dealing with town fighting , rapes , homicides , incest , and land disputes . They , like leopard skin chiefs , play an tant role in mediation . The 20 of both the pan ) and are held in great respect and even feared . Some authors have suggested that sacred structure strengthens the secular political authority because chiefs and landowners occupy the most powerful positions in the Consequently , these seem to have developed formative elements of a stratified society and a state , as we see in the next section . STRATIFIED SOCIETIES Opposite from egalitarian societies in the spectrum of social classes is the stratified society , which is

defined as one in which elites who are a numerical minority control the strategic resources that sustain life . Strategic resources include water for states that depend on irrigation agriculture , land in societies , and oil in industrial societies . Capital and products and resources used for further duction are modes of production that rely on oil and other fossil fuels such as natural gas in industrial societies . Current political movements call for the substitution of solar and wind power for fossil fuels . Operationally , stratification is , as the term implies , a social structure that involves two or more largely mutually exclusive populations . An extreme example is the caste system of traditional Indian society , which draws its legitimacy from . In caste systems , membership is determined by birth and remains fixed for life , and social from one social class to not an option . Nor can persons of different castes marry that is , they are endogamous . Although efforts have been made to abolish castes since India achieved independence in 1947 , they still predominate in rural areas . India caste system consists of four varna , pure castes , and one collectively known as and times as English , untouchables , reflecting the notion that for any varna caste member to touch or even see a pollutes them . The topmost varna caste is the or priestly caste . It is composed of priests , governmental officials and bureaucrats at all levels , and other professionals . The next highest is the , the warrior caste , which includes soldiers and other military personnel and the police and their equivalents . Next are the , who are craftsmen and merchants , followed by the ( pronounced ) who are peasants and menial workers . Metaphorically , they represent the parts of Manu , who is said to have given rise to the human race through dismemberment . The head corresponds to , the arms to , the thighs to , and the feet to the . There are also a variety of in India . The most important are the hundreds , if not thousands , of occupational known as . landed peasants , landless workers , tailors of various types , and barbers all belong to different . Like the broader castes , are endogamous and one is born into them . They form the basis of the relationship , which involves the provider of a particular service , the jajman , and the recipient of the service , the . Training is involved in these occupations but one can not change vocations . Furthermore , the relationship between the and the is determined by previous generations . If I were to provide you , my , with haircutting services , it would be because my father cut your father hair . In other words , you would be stuck with me regardless of how poor a barber I might be . This system represents another example of an economy as an instituted process , an economy embedded in Similar restrictions apply to those excluded from the varna castes , the untouchables or . Under the worst restrictions , were thought to pollute other castes . If the shadow of a fell on a min , the immediately went home to bathe . Thus , at various times and locations , the were also unseeable , able to come out only at were born into jobs considered polluting to other castes , particularly work involving dead animals , such as butchering ( consumption of meat so the clients were Muslims , Christians , and believers of other religions ) skinning , tanning , and shoemaking with leather . Contact between an upper caste person and a person of any lower caste , even if pure , was also considered polluting and was strictly forbidden . The theological basis of caste relations is belief that one caste in this life is the tive product of ones acts in past lives , which extends to all beings , from minerals to animals to gods . Therefore , though soul class mobility is nonexistent during a lifetime , it is possible between lifetimes . Brahmins justified their station by claiming that they must have done good in their past lives . However , there are indications that the untouchable and other lower castes are not convinced of their Although India system is the most extreme , it not the only caste system . In Japan , a caste known

PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL as is similar in status to . Though they are no different in physical appearance from other Japanese people , the people have been forced to live in ghettos for centuries . They descend from people who worked in the leather tanning industry , a occupation , and still work in leather industries such as shoemaking . Marriage between and people is restricted , and their children are excluded from public Some degree of social mobility characterizes all societies , but even societies are not as mobile as one might think . In the United States , for example , actual movement up the social latter is rare despite Horatio and myths . Stories of individuals making it through hard work ignore the majority of individuals whose hard work does not pay off or who actually experience downward mobility . Indeed , the Occupy Movement , which began in 2011 , recognizes a dichotomy in American society of the percent ( millionaires and billionaires ) versus the 99 percent ( everyone else ) and socialist Bernie Sanders made this the catch phrase of his campaign for the Democratic Party presidential nomination . In India ( a society ) on the other hand , there are exceptions to the caste system . In , for example , those who own or control most of the land are not of the warrior caste as one might expect they are of the lowest caste and their tenants and laborers are STATE LEVEL OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATION The state is the most formal of the four levels of political organization under study here . In states , political power is centralized in a government that exercises a monopoly over the legitimate use of It is important to understand that the exercise of force constitutes a last resort one hallmark of a weak state is frequent use of physical force to maintain order . States develop in societies with large , often ethnically diverse of thousands or are characterized by plex economies that can be driven by command or by the market , social stratification , and an intensive agricultural or industrial base . Several characteristics accompany a monopoly over use of legitimate force in a state . First , like tribes and , states occupy a more or less clearly defined territory or land defined by boundaries that separate it from other political entities that may or not be states ( exceptions are associated with the Islamic State and are addressed later ) Ancient Egypt was a state bounded on the west by desert and forager or tribal nomadic peoples . Mesopotamia was a series of competing for territory with other . Heads of state can be individuals designated as kings , emperors , or monarchs under other names or can be democratically elected , in fact or in dictators , for example , are often called . Usually , states establish some board or group of Councilors ( the cabinet in the United States and the in the former Soviet Union . Often , such councils are supplemented with one or two legislative assemblies . The Roman Empire had a senate ( which originated as a body of councilors ) and as many as four assemblies that combined patrician ( elite ) and ( general population ) Today , nearly all of the worlds countries have some sort of an assembly , but many the executives decisions ( or play an obstructionist role , as in the Congress during the Obama ) States also have an administrative bureaucracy that handles public functions provided for by tive orders or legislation . Formally , the administrative offices are typically arranged in a hierarchy and the top offices delegate specific functions to lower ones . Similar hierarchies are established for the

personnel in a branch . In general , agricultural societies tend to rely on relations in the administrative structure while industrial states rely on rational hierarchical An additional state power is system of redistribution in which all citizens are required to participate . This power is exercised in various ways . Examples include the mita or labor tax of the Inca , the tributary systems of Mesopotamia , and monetary taxes familiar to us today and to numerous subjects throughout the history of the state . Control over others resources is an mechanism undergirding the power of the state . A less tangible but no less powerful characteristic of states is their ideologies , which are designed to reinforce the right of to rule . Ideologies can manifest in philosophical forms , such as the divine right of kings in Europe , karma and the caste system in India , consent of the in the United States , and the metaphorical family in Imperial China . More often , ideologies are less indirect and less perceptible as propaganda . We might watch the Super Bowl or follow the latest antics of the Kardashians , oblivious to the notion that both are diversions from the reality of power in this society . Young Americans , for example , may be drawn to military service to fight in Iraq by otic ideologies just as their parents or grandparents were drawn to service during the Vietnam War . In a multitude of ways across many cultures , Plato parable of the shadows in the watchers perceive shadows as served to reinforce political ideologies . Finally , there is delegation of the states coercive power . The states need to use coercive power betrays an important and citizens often refuse to recognize the right to rule . Even when the legitimacy of power is not questioned , the use or threat of force serves to maintain the state , and that function is delegated to agencies such as the police to maintain internal order and to the military to defend the state against real and perceived enemies and , in many cases , to expand the states territory . Current examples include a lack of accountability for the killing of black men and women by police officers the killing of Michael Brown by Darren Wilson in Ferguson , is a defining example . State and Nation Though state and nation are often used interchangeably , they are not the same thing . A state is a coercive political institution a nation is an ethnic population . There currently are about 200 states in the world , and many of them did not exist before World War II . Meanwhile , there are around nations identified by their language , territorial base , history , and political Few states are conterminous with a nation ( a nation that wholly comprises the state ) Even , where millions of the country people are of a single ethnicity , there is a significant indigenous minority known as the who at one time were a distinct biological population as well as an ethnic group . Only recently has Japanese society opened its doors to immigrants , mostly from Korea and . The vast majority of states in the world , including the United States , are . Some have no state of their own . The Kurds , who reside in adjacent areas of Turkey , Syria , Iraq , and Iran , are one such nation . In the colonial era , the peoples ranged across at least four West African countries , and borders between the countries were drawn out respect to the tribal identities of the people living there . the scattering of a people of one ethnicity across the globe , are another classic example . The of and is . Many others , such as the Chinese , have more recently been forced to their homelands . The current ongoing mass migration of Syrians induced by formation of the Islamic State and the war in Syria is but the most recent example .

170 PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Formation of States How do states form ?

One precondition is the presence of a stratified society in which an elite ity controls strategic resources . Another is increased agricultural productivity that support for a larger population . Neither , however , is a sufficient cause for development of a state . A group of people who are dissatisfied with conditions in their home region has a motive to move there is nowhere else to go and they are circumscribed . Circumscription can arise when a region is hemmed in by a geographic feature such as mountain ranges or desert and when migrants would have to change their subsistence strategies , perhaps having to move from agriculture back to aging , herding , or horticulture or to adapt to an urban industrialized environment . The Inca Empire did not colonize on a massive scale beyond northern Chile to the south or into the Amazon because indigenous people there could simply pick up and move elsewhere . Still , the majority of the Inca lation did not have that option . Circumscription also results when a desirable adjacent region is taken by other states or Who , then , were the original subjects of these states ?

One short answer is peasants , a term derived from the French , which means Peasantry entered the anthropological literature relatively late . In his tome Anthropology published in 1948 , Alfred defined in less than a sentence part societies with part 56 Robert defined peasantry as a little tradition set against a great tradition of national state Louis argued in 1961 against calling African peasants because they had not lived in the context of a civilization long Thus , peasants had been defined in reference to some larger society , usually an empire , a state , or a civilization . In light of this , Wolf sought to place the definition of peasant on a structural Using a funding metaphor , he compared peasants with what he called primitive Both primitive and peasants have to provide for a caloric fund by growing food and , by sion , provide for clothing , shelter , and all other necessities of life . Second , both must provide for a replacement fund only reserving seeds for next years crop but also repairing their houses , replacing broken pots , and rebuilding fences . And both primitive and peasants must provide a ceremonial fund for rites of passage and . They differ in that peasants live in states and do not . The state exercises domain over peasants resources , requiring peasants to vide a fund of That fund appears in many guises , including tribute in kind , monetary taxes , and forced labor to an empire or lord . In Wolf conception , primitive are free of these to the Subjects of states are not necessarily landed there is a long history of landless populations . Slavery has long coexisted with the state , and forced labor without compensation goes back to such as . Long before Portuguese , Spanish , and English seafarers began trading slaves from the west coast of Africa , Arab groups enslaved people from Africa and For peasants , loss of been a continuous process . One example is landed gentry in eighteenth century England who found that sheepherding was more profitable than tribute from peasants and removed the peasants from the A similar process occurred when liberal president privatized the land of Mayan peasants that , until 1877 , had been held

Law and Order in States At the level of the state , the law becomes an increasingly formal process . Procedures are more and more regularly defined , and categories of breaches in civil and criminal law emerge , together with remedies for those breaches . Early agricultural states formalized legal rules and punishments through codes , formal courts , police forces , and legal specialists such as lawyers and judges . Mediation could still be practiced , but it often was supplanted by adjudication in which a judge decision was binding on all parties . Decisions could be appealed to a higher authority , but any final decision must be accepted by all concerned . The first known system of codified law was enacted under the warrior king in Babylon ( present day Iraq ) This law was based on standardized procedures for dealing with civil and criminal offenses , and subsequent decisions were based on precedents ( previous decisions ) Crimes became offenses not only against other parties but also against the state . Other states developed similar codes of law , including China , Southeast Asia , and Aztec and societies . Two interpretations , which are not necessarily mutually exclusive , have arisen about the political function of codified of law . Fried ( 1978 ) argued , based on his analysis of the codes , that such laws reinforced a system of inequality by protecting the rights of an elite class and keeping peasants This is consistent with the theory of a stratified society as already defined . Another is that maintenance of social and political order is crucial for agricultural states since any disruption in the state would lead to neglect of agricultural production that would be deleterious to all members of the state regardless of their social status . Civil laws ensure , at least in theory , that all ing parties receive a long as high legal expenses and bureaucratic do not cancel out the process . Criminal laws , again in theory , ensure the protection of all citizens from offenses ranging from theft to homicide . laws fail to achieve their aims . The United States , for example , has one of the highest crime rates in the industrial world despite having an extensive criminal legal system . The number of homicides in New York City in 1990 exceeded the number of deaths from colon and breast cancer and all accidents Although the rate of violent crime in the United States declined during the , it occurred thanks more to the construction of more prisons per capita ( in California ) than of schools . Nationwide , there currently are more than one million prisoners in state and federal correctional institutions , one of the highest national rates in the industrial Since the , little has changed in terms of imprisonment in the United States . Funds continue to go to prisons rather than schools , affecting the education of minority communities and expanding slave labor in prisons , according to Michelle Alexander who , in 2012 , called the current system the Warfare in States Warfare occurs in all human societies but at no other level of political organization is it as widespread as in states . Indeed , warfare was integral to the formation of the agricultural state . As governing elites accumulated more resources , warfare became a major means of increasing their And as the wealth of states became a target of nomadic , the primary motivation for warfare shifted from control of resources to control of neighboring A further shift came with the advent of industrial society when industrial technologies driven by

172 PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL sil fuels allowed states to invade distant countries . A primary motivation for these wars was to establish economic and political hegemony over foreign populations . World War I , World War II , and lesser wars of the past century have driven various countries to develop ever more sophisticated and deadly , including wireless communication devices for remote warfare , tanks , stealth aircraft , nuclear weapons , and unmanned aircraft called drones , which have been used in in the Middle East and Afghanistan . Competition among nations has led to the emergence of the United States as the most militarily powerful nation in the world . The expansion of warfare by societies organized as states has not come without cost . Every state has involved civilians in its military adventures , and almost everyone has been involved in those wars in some not as militarily , then as member of the civilian workforce in military industries . World War II created an unprecedented armament industry in the United States , Britain , Germany , and Japan , among others , and the aerospace industry underwent expansion in the Cold War that followed . Today , one can scarcely overlook the role of the process of globalization to explain how the United States , for now an empire , has the peoples of other countries in the world . Stability and Duration of States It should be noted that states have a clear tendency toward instability despite trappings designed to induce awe in the wider population . Few states have lasted a thousand years . The American state is more than 240 years old but increases in extreme wealth and poverty , escalating budget and trade deficits , a war initiated under false pretenses , escalating social problems , and a highly controversial presidential election suggest growing instability . ared Diamond book Collapse ( 2004 ) compared the decline and fall of Easter Island , Canyon , and the Maya with contemporary societies such as the United States , and he found that the environment caused the collapse of those three Chalmers Johnson ( 2004 ) similarly argued that a state of perpetual war , loss of democratic institutions , systematic deception by the state , and financial overextension contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire and will likely contribute to the demise of the United States with the speed of 71 Why states decline is not difficult to fathom . Extreme disparities in wealth , use of force to keep in line , the stripping of peoples resources ( such as the enclosures in England that removed ants from their land ) and the harshness of many laws all should create a general animosity toward the elite in a state . Yet , until recently ( following the election of Donald Trump ) no one in the United States was taking to the streets calling for the president to resign or the government as illegitimate . something of a paradox , widespread animosity does not necessarily lead to dissolution of a state or to an overthrow of the elite . Thomas Frank addressed this issue in What the Matter with Kansas ?

2004 ) Despite the fact that jobs have been shipped abroad , that cities like are virtual ghost towns , and that both congress and the state legislature have voted against social programs time and again , continued to vote the Republicans whose policies are responsible for these conditions into office . Nor is this confined to Kansas or the United States . That slaves tolerated slavery for hundreds of years ( despite periodic revolts such as the one under Nat Turner in 1831 ) that workers tolerated extreme conditions in factories and mines long before unionization , that there was no peasant revolt strong enough to reverse the enclosures in demand an explanation . Frank discusses reinforcing variables , such as propaganda by and Rush but offers little explanation beside However , recent works have provided new explanations . Days before Donald Trump won the presidential election on November , 2016 , sociologist Russell released a book that

partially explains how Trump appealed to the most marginalized populations of the United States , around Lake Charles in southwestern Louisiana . In the book , Strangers in Their Own Land ( 2016 ) contends that the predominantly white residents there saw the federal government ing preferential treatment for blacks , women , and other marginalized populations under affirmative action programs while putting white individuals further back in line for governmental assistance . The people interviewed were fully aware that a corporate petroleum company had polluted Lake Charles and hired nonlocal technicians and Filipino workers to staff local positions , but they nonetheless expressed their intent to vote for a billionaire for president based on his promise to bring outsourced jobs back to America and to make the country great Other books , including Thomas Frank Listen Liberal ( 2016 ) Nancy White Trash ( 2016 ) and Matt Not Quite White White Trash and the Boundaries of Whiteness ( 2006 ) address the decline of the United States cal power domestically and worldwide . These books all link Trump successful election to tion of whites and raise questions about how dissatisfaction with the state finds expression in political processes . Stratification and the State Recent Developments States elsewhere and the stratified societies that sustain them have undergone significant changes and , in some instances , dramatic transformations in recent years . Consider ISIS , formed in reaction to the intervention in Iraq in 2003 , which is discussed in greater detail in the case study available from the Perspectives website . Other states have failed has all but dissolved and is beset by piracy , Yemen is highly unstable due in part to the Saudi invasion , and Syria has been mated by conflict between the Assad government and a variety of rebel groups from moderate reform movements to extremist jihadi groups , and ISIS . Despite ( formerly Burma ) partial transition from a militarized government to an elective one , the Muslim minority there , known as , has been subjected to discrimination and many have been forced to to neighboring . Meanwhile , has been unable to enforce safety regulations to foreign investors as witnessed by the collapse of a clothing factory in 2013 that took the lives of more than workers . CONCLUSION Citing both state and stateless societies , this chapter has examined levels of integration , types of social class ( from none to stratified ) and mechanisms of social control exercised in various forms of political organization from to large , fully developed states . The chapter offers nations for these patterns , and additional theories are provided by the works in the bibliography . Still , there are many more questions than answers . Why does inequality arise in the first place ?

How do states reinforce ( or generate ) inequality ?

Societies that have not developed a state have lasted far to years societies that became states . Will states persist despite the demonstrable disadvantages they present for the majority of their citizens ?

A Chinese curse wishes that you may live in interesting These are interesting times indeed .

AN OPEN CULTURAL Discussion Questions In large communities , it can be difficult for people to feel a sense of connection or loyalty to people outside their immediate lies . Choose one of the techniques used in tribes and and explain why it can successfully encourage solidarity between people . Can you identify similar systems for encouraging social integration in your own community ?

Although state societies are efficient in organizing people and resources , they also are associated with many disadvantages , such as extreme disparities in wealth , use of force to keep people in line , and harsh laws . Given these difficulties , why do you think the state has survived ?

Do you think human populations can develop alternative political organizations in the future ?

Why is it important to understand whether ISIS is or is not likely to become a state ?

GLOSSARY Affinal family relationships created through marriage . Age grades groups of men who are close to one another in age and share similar duties or . Age sets named categories to which men of a certain age are assigned at birth . Band the smallest unit of political organization , consisting of only a few families and no formal ship positions . Big man a form of temporary or situational leadership results from acquiring followers . Bilateral marriage a man marries a woman who is both his mother brother daughter and his fathers sister daughter . Bilateral descent kinship ( family ) systems that recognize both the mothers and the fathers sides of the family . Caste system the division of society into hierarchical levels one position is determined by birth and remains fixed for life . Chiefdom large political units in which the chief , who usually is determined by heredity , holds a formal position of power . Circumscription the enclosure of an area by a geographic feature such as mountain ranges or desert or by the boundaries of a state . Codified law formal legal systems in which damages , crimes , remedies , and punishments are specified . Egalitarian societies in which there is no great difference in status or power between individuals and there are as many valued status positions in the societies as there are persons able to fill them . Feuds disputes of long duration characterized by a state of recurring hostilities between families , or other kin groups . Ideologies ideas designed to reinforce the right of to rule . Legitimacy the perception that an individual has a valid right to leadership . Lineage individuals who can trace or demonstrate their descent through a line of males or females back to a founding ancestor . marriage a man marries a woman who is his mother brother daughter . Matrilineal kinship ( family ) systems that recognize only relatives through a line of female ancestors . Nation an ethnic population . Negative reinforcements punishments for noncompliance through fines , imprisonment , and death sentences . Oaths the practice of calling on a deity to bear witness to the truth of what one says .

Ordeal a test used to determine guilt or innocence by submitting the accused to dangerous , painful , or risky tests believed to be controlled by supernatural forces . Patrilineal kinship ( family ) systems that recognize only relatives through a line of male ancestors . Peasants residents of a state who earn a living through farming . and secret societies for men and women , respectively , found in the of West Africa , particularly in , Sierra Leone , the Ivory Coast , and Guinea . Positive reinforcements rewards for compliance examples include medals , financial incentives , and other forms of public recognition . Proletarianization a process through which farmers are removed from the land and forced to take wage labor employment . Raids uses of physical force organized and planned to achieve a limited objective . Ranked societies in which there are substantial differences in the wealth and social status of als there are a limited number of positions of power or status , and only a few can occupy them . Restricted exchange a marriage system in which only two extended families can engage in this exchange . Reverse dominance societies in which people reject attempts by any individual to exercise power . Segmentary lineage a hierarchy of lineages that contains both close and relatively distant family . Social classes the division of society into groups based on wealth and status . Sodality a system used to encourage solidarity or feelings of connectedness between people who are not related by family ties . State the most complex form of political organization characterized by a central government that has a monopoly over legitimate uses of physical force , a sizeable bureaucracy , a system of formal laws , and a standing military force . Stratified societies in which there are large differences in the wealth , status , and power of individuals based on unequal access to resources and positions of power . Sumptuary rules norms that permit persons of higher rank to enjoy greater social status by wearing distinctive clothing , jewelry , or decorations denied those of lower rank . Tribe political units organized around family ties that have or shifting systems of temporary . descent kinship ( family ) systems that recognize only one side of the family . ABOUT THE AUTHOR . Paul ( University of British Columbia , 1974 ) examined the transition of the hierarchy in a factory and peasant community in to a secular town government and church organization called . He is the author of Cultural

176 PERSPECTIVES AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL A Concise Introduction and Cultures Around the World An Ethnographic Reader he has also read eral papers on the political globalization of . BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexander , Michelle . The New jim Crow Mass Incarceration in the Age of Color Blindness . New York The New Press , 2010 . Bari . Islamic State The Digital Caliphate . London Books , 2015 . japan An Anthropological Introduction . San Francisco Chandler , 1971 . Bellman , Beryl . The Language of Secrecy Symbols and Metaphors in Ritual . New Brunswick , gers University Press , 1984 . Caroline Women and Marriage in Society . Stanford , CA Stanford University Press , 1980 . Christopher . Hierarchy in the Forest The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior . Cambridge , MA University Press , 1999 . Paul . and among the . Prospect Heights , IL Press , 1989 . Fox . 1996 . Study Finds Disparity of Justice for New York Times , February 13 . Robert . On the Relationship between Size of Population and Complexity of Social Southwest 23 ( 1967 ) A Theory of the Origin of the Science 169 no . 3947 ( 1970 ) Chiefdom Precursor to the In The Transition to Statehood in the New World , edited by and Grant , and Robert , New York Cambridge University Press , 1981 . Napoleon . New York Holt , and Winston , 1997 . Childe , Gordon . The Urban Town Planning Review 21 ( 1950 ) Clay , Whats a Nation ?

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. 10 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 . 20 . 21 . 22 . 23 . 24 . 25 . 26 . 27 . 28 . 29 . 30 . 179 , The Law Man ( New York , 1968 1954 ) For a critique of see john , White Lies about the ( University of Press , 2007 ) Service , Origins of the State and Civilization The Process of Cultural Evolution ( New York Norton , 1975 ) Christopher . Hierarchy in the Forest The Evolution Behavior . Cambridge , MA Harvard Press , 1999 . Richard Lee , The ( New York , 2003 ) Julian Steward , The Theory of Culture Change The Methodology Evolution ( University of Press , 54 . Service , Origins of the State and Civilization . Morton Fried , The Evolution Society . Richard Lee , The , Julian Steward , The Theory of Culture Change . Service , Primitive Social Organization An Evolutionary Perspective ( New York Random House , 1962 ) Kay Martin and Barbara , Female of the Species ( New York Columbia University Press , 1975 ) The Law Man , 168 . See Colin Turnbull , The Forest People A Study of the Pygmies of the Congo ( New York Simon and , 1963 ) and Colin Turnbull , The Pygmies Change and Adaptation ( New York Holt , and Winston , 1983 ) Hart , Arnold , The Australia ( New York Holt , and Winston , 1988 ) Richard Lee , The , Napoleon , New York Holt , and Winston , 1997 ) Marcel , The Gift The Form and Exchange in Archaic Societies ( London , 2001 1925 ) Douglas Oliver , A Solomon Island Society Kinship and Leadership among the ( Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press , 1955 ) For an account of , the big man in a village , see Andrew and Pamela . Stewart , Collaborations and Conflict A Leader through Time ( Belmont , CA , 1999 ) Walter , The of Western Kenya , in Peoples , ames Gibbs , ed . New York Holt , and Winston , 1965 ) 71 . The reader will notice the discrepancies between description of age grades and year for each , totaling a cycle of 105 his chart from which the one shown here is extrapolated to 1994 . First , the age grade small boys , is 10 years , not 15 . Second , the age grade ritual elders is 20 years , not 15 . Why this discrepancy exists , does not answer . This discrepancy demonstrates the raised when ideal types do not match all the ethnographic information . For example , if ranged 15 years in 1939 , why did they suddenly expand to a range of 20 years in 1954 ?

By the same token , why did the age set cover 10 years in 1939 and expand to 15 years in 1954 ?

It is discrepancies such as this that raise questions and drive further research , Blood Is Warfare among the ( Palo Alto , CA Mayfield , 1977 ) Marcel , The Gift . Ibid . Ibid . Claude ' concept is further described in Robin Fox , Kinship and Marriage ( UK , 1967 ) Edward The . Oxford , UK Oxford University Press , 1940 . Paul , justice and judgment among the . Prospect Heights , IL Press , 1989 . And Murphy , Robert , and Leonard . The Structure of Parallel Cousin American Anthropologist 61 no . Marshall , The Segmentary Lineage An Organization of Predatory American Anthropologist 63 ( 1961 ) Ibid . Witchcraft , and Magic among the ( Oxford Oxford University )

180 AN OPEN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY 31 . 32 . 33 . 34 . 35 . 36 . 37 . 38 . 39 . 40 . 41 . 42 . 43 . 44 . 45 . 46 . 47 . 48 . 49 . 50 . 51 . 52 . 53 . 54 55 . 56 . 57 . 58 . 59 . 60 . 61 . 62 . et , Ritual Reconciliation and the Obviation of Grievances A Comparative Study in the Ethnography of Law . Ethnology 16 ( 1977 ) The ( Oxford , UK Oxford University Press , 1940 ) 291 . Laura Nader , Harmony Ideology justice and Control in a Mountain Village . Stanford Stanford University Press , 1991 ) Marvin Harris , Cows , Pigs , Wars , and Witches . New York Vintage , 1974 . Good , Kenneth . Into The Heart One Mans Pursuit ofLove and Knowledge among the . Upper Saddle River , 1997 . Napoleon , Douglas White , Rethinking Polygyny , Codes , and Cultural Systems , Current Anthropology 29 no . 1988 ) Karl , The Dani A Culture in the Highlands of West New Guinea ( Chicago Aldine , 1970 ) Philip Drucker , Indians of the Northwest Coast ( New York Natural History Press , 1955 ) Ibid . For more information about the reasons for the potlatch ban , see Douglas Cole and Ira , An Iron Hand upon the People The Law against the Potlatch on the Northwest Coast ( Seattle University of Washington Press , 1990 ) The website of the Mista Cultural Society in Alert Bay , British Columbia , Canada offers more information about potlatch traditions and the impact of the ban . Philip Drucker , Indians of the Northwest Coast . Edmund Leach , cited in Robin Fox , Kinship and Marriage , Raymond , Cultural Anthropology A Global Perspective ( Upper Saddle River , Pearson , 2012 ) The information comes from William Lancaster , The Bedouin Today ( Prospect Heights , IL Press , 1997 ) and Service , Profiles ( New York Harper Collins , 1978 ) Beryl Bellman , The Language of Secrecy Symbols and Metaphors in Ritual ( New Brunswick , Rutgers Press , 1984 ) Kenneth Little , The Political Function of the , Part . Africa 35 ( 1965 ) See also Caroline , Women and Marriage in Society ( Stanford Stanford University Press , 1980 ) Karl , The Great Transformation ( New York Beacon Press , 1944 ) Bruce Long , Reincarnation , Encyclopedia ( New York Macmillan , 1987 ) and William , Dharma , Encyclopedia , Vol . New York Macmillan , 1987 ) The Untouchable as Himself Identity and Pragmatism among the ( New York Cambridge University Press , 1984 ) japan An Anthropological Introduction ( San Francisco Chandler , 1971 ) William , The Human Challenge . Morton Fried , The Evolution Society An Essay in Political Anthropology ( New York , 1967 ) and Max Weber , The Theory of Social and Economic Organization ( New York Free Press , 1997 1947 ) For instance , Max Weber , The Theory and Economic Organization . Clay , What a Nation ?

in Talking about People , William and . Gordon , Mountain View , CA Mayfield ) 1996 . Robert , A Theory of the Origin of the State . Science 169 no . 3947 ( 1970 ) and Robert , Chiefdom Precursor to the State , in The Transition to Statehood in the New World , and Robert , New York Cambridge University Press . Alfred , Anthropology ( New York , Brace , and World , 1948 ) 284 . Robert , The Little Community and Peasant Society and Culture ( Chicago University of Chicago Press , 1989 ) Louis , Are African to Be Called Peasants ?

Current Anthropology no . 1961 ) Eric Wolf , Peasants . Cliffs , 1966 . Ibid . Global Rift ( New York Quill , 1974 ) Michael , The Invention of Capitalism Classical Political Economy and the Secret History 63 . 64 . 65 . 66 . 67 . 68 . 69 . 70 71 . lation ( Duke University Press , 2000 ) For more information about land privatization , see Paul , Political and Religious Change in a Factory . University of British Columbia , 1974 and Paul , The Decline of the Hierarchy The Case of Canadian journal can Studies 35 no . 10 ( 1980 ) Morton Fried The State , the Chicken , and the Egg or What Came First ?

In Origins of the State , edited by Ronald Cohen and Service . Philadelphia Institute for the Study of Human Issues , 1978 . Sam Roberts , Fighting the Tide of Bloodshed on Streets Resembling a War Zone . New York Times , November 15 , 1993 . Fox , Study Finds Disparity ofjustice for Blacks . New York Times , 13 , 1996 . Michelle Alexander , The New im Crow Mass Incarceration in the Age of Color Blindness . New York The New Press , 2010 Gordon Childe , The Urban Town Planning Review 21 ( 1950 ) Keith The Anthropology of War , in Handbook and Cultural Huntington , ed . Chicago Rand McNally , 1974 ) and The Evolution of War A Study ( New Haven , Human Relation Area Files , 1989 ) Jared Diamond , Collapse How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed ( New York Viking , 2004 ) The Sorrows Militarism , Secrecy , and the End of the Republic ( New York Metropolitan Books , 2005 ) 285 . Thomas Frank , What the Matter with Kansas ?

How Conservatives Won the Heart ( New York tan Books , 2004 )