Languages and Worldview Textbook PART 2 Conveying Meaning

Conveying Meaning Learning Objectives After completing this module , students will be able to . and contrast verbal and communication . and contrast the following terms phonology and phonetic lexicon semantics grammar syntax phoneme and morpheme . Explain and illustrate the ways in which sounds , word choice , and words order create and convey meaning in different languages . Explain why the above are good working tools for us to understand language more , by providing examples of linguistic misunderstandings . Understand the meanings of silence and gestures in select cultures Reflection Questions . How important is communication in communication ?

What examples do you have of communication ?

Do you use a lot of gestures when talking ?

Do you think gestures are universally understandable ?

Do you have a preference for spoken or written communication ?

Why or why not ?

How are they different , if at all ?

Theory of Communication Important Concepts We use body language , eye contact , gestures , posture , and facial expressions to communicate with one another . Although the majority of nonverbal communication studies researched by Ray focus on encounters between two or more people , advances in technology are creating new forms of nonverbal communication . Handwriting styles and can be included in this new category . which are often used in text messaging , serve to more clearly express a point or add context to what is being communicated since one tone of voice and facial expressions can not be seen at the time of viewing . Nonverbal communication can be an incredibly effective way of sending and receiving messages from person to person , especially in a foreign country . For example , you can communicate hunger through making a gesture pointing to your stomach or your mouth , a universal sign . Often people will use this rudimentary sign language to speak to others when they need something . Another subtle yet common form of nonverbal communication is facial expressions . 14

CONVEYING MEANING 15 Its easy to portray being happy or sad or confused . However , there are other social expressions in foreign countries that become important to pay attention to . For example , when giving a speech at a table in Sweden , its expected to make direct eye contact with others , contrary to , where eye contact is seen as rude and disrespectful , especially in public areas . Nonverbal communication can also lead to things that people did not mean to communicate . For example , a person from American culture sees kissing as a sign of affection but in some countries , kissing is a way to greet someone . There are also certain ways to kiss someone in those countries depending on what your relationship is to that person . If two people from these places meet and one of them comes in for a kiss because they think they are greeting them properly , the other person might become confused as to why the other person is trying to kiss them . Sometimes nonverbal communication can bring to light the many cultural differences that there are around the world . Clothing has been known to be a form of communication or expression , as well . For example , the chief of a Native tribe will dress more extravagantly than other members of the tribe , such as with a piece like a feathered headdress . Great hunters wear animal skins to show off a kill in some communities . Another cultural piece of clothing would be a wedding dress . It is meant to be worn on the day that two people get married and is typically never to be worn again . Oftentimes , couples spend thousands on said dress because it is a special occasion to show the love of the couple to the people they care about . Sometimes the a person wears , how they move , or how they express mean more than words , providing little clues into cultures . PUBLIC SPACE , coined by anthropologist Edward Hall in 1966 , is the amount of space that people feel necessary to put between themselves and others . SOCIAL SPACE . as they interact . The category of IS ' most commonly into a physical territory and personal territory , although can also be in several other forms , such as eye contact , facial expression , smells , body warmth , gender , and the number of people involved . The FIGURE . A diagram representation of personal space limits , according to Edward Hall interpersonal distances of man , showing radius in feet and meters . By Own , 25 , work ,

16 area of the personal territory is further as public space ( ranging from feet between people ) social space ( ranging from feet between people ) personal space ( feet of separation ) and intimate space ( a foot or less of separation ) The physical distance between them is related to their social distance . For example , people who know each other very well often communicate in the intimate space , which is about feet away from each other , whereas acquaintances will usually communicate about 12 feet from each other . can vary by culture , gender , social setting , and individual preference . For example , in grocery stores it is considered polite to leave the person in front of you in line plenty of personal space . In China , however , due in large part to its denser population , it is common to leave less than a gap between you and the person in front of you in line . is a of study examining the utilization of time in nonverbal communication . Perceptions of time can play roles in various forms of nonverbal communication . For example , a slight pause before an announcement can help to build a sense of anticipation in ones audience . Aside from the transmission of mood , time can also into communication in terms of attention span and the expression or reinforcement of power relationships . A culture perception of time not only the way they communicate but also the way they organize and execute their daily lives . Cultures are divided into two main groups based on the way that members of that culture generally perceive time monochronic cultures and cultures . Monochronic cultures are societies made up of people that appreciate doing one task at a time without interruption or tardiness . People in these cultures tend to believe that time is linear . The contemporary United States is a monochronic culture . People in the tend to keep very rigid schedules and usually value punctuality , brevity , and adherence to plans made in advance . In the , time is viewed as a resource , as is illustrated by the common expression time is People living in monochronic cultures tend to focus on the completion of one task at a time and usually view interruption and distraction as things to be avoided . Monochronic cultures like the look down upon being late . When there is a schedule and it is not followed , there are often consequences and social respect is sometimes lost . cultures tend to see time as and malleable . Characteristics of cultures include interrupted meetings , schedules , and higher values placed on people and relationships over punctuality and deadlines . Examples of cultures are those found in modern Mexico and Egypt . People of these cultures tend to keep open schedules , often altering plans without notice and themselves . In monochronic cultures such as the United States , Germany , and Great Britain , these behaviors are thought to be and improper . People of cultures are more susceptible to distractions and open to

CONVEYING MEANING 17 interruption but are better at focusing on many tasks at once . prefer to keep their time unstructured , changing from one activity to another as the mood takes them . Although can meet deadlines , they need to do so in their own way . A does not want detailed plans imposed upon him , nor does he want to make his own detailed plans . prefer to work as they see without a strict schedule , following their internal mental processes from one minute to the next . Kinesics Kinesics is as a study of how body movements and gestures serve as a means of nonverbal In short , different movements of your body convey particular ideas and kinesics is how nonverbal communication is interpreted , which will greatly vary across cultures . Through body movements , it is possible to send signals , such as leaning forward when someone is talking to show you are engaged and listening . Being aware of kinesics can be an aid in relationships , job interviews , or when meeting new people . This term was used in 1952 by Ray , an anthropologist who studied this certain movement . He argued that all movements of the body meant something . He said that nothing was done by accident , and every movement was used to say how the person was feeling . Posture Posture varies from person to person and can be interpreted as nonverbal communication . Posture is the position in which someone holds their body when standing or sitting . It is also meant to show a way of dealing with or considering something . Much can be interpreted from a persons posture such as their View of themselves , their mood , etc . Such behavior can be intended to impress or mislead another individual in a particular attitude or mood . Posture is used to determine a participant degree of attention or involvement , the difference in status between communicators , and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator . Gesture A gesture is a form of communication . It is a distinguished physical movement that is an expression of inner thoughts and emotions . Gestures can range from expressions such as dancing or hugging , to smaller gestures in the hands or arms such as a slap across the face , or facial gestures such as of the face to convey discomfort or disgust . Gestures vary widely across cultures , just as vastly as spoken language . In the United States , for example , a commonly accepted gesture of anger is holding up your middle , but this emotion can be expressed via a hand under the chin in Spain and Latin America or a thumbs up in Iran and Iraq .

18 Haptics Haptics is used to refer to the sense of touch and touching capabilities . Haptics can be broken down and organized into three different . Haptic communication is the way that people communicate based solely through touch . This sense is important for humans because it provides information about objects that we touch , and it is also a part of nonverbal communication . Touch can send a very strong message ( positive , negative , sexual , or platonic ) Haptic communication is a key to physical intimacy . According to research conducted by ones and ( 1985 ) there are different types of touch positive touches , playful touches , control touches , ritualistic touches , hybrid touches , touches , and accidental touches . Haptic technology is a technology that interfaces with the user through the sense of touch . An example of this might be all of the cell phones that have become very popular in the Haptic perception is used when we recognize an object by touching it . It involves the combination of the senses in the skin , the position of the hand , and conformation . This is used in many everyday actions . An example of this would be using your hand to dig around in your bag looking for a particular object , like a cell phone or a pen . This haptic is particularly useful for the blind who may rely entirely upon touch in order to identify an object since they can not see it . An ethnographic representation of haptics in different cultures depends on what is socially acceptable . For example , in the United States it is usually a form of positive touching when you pat someone head , but in the Thai culture , it is rude to touch someone head . Eye Contact Eye contact is one of the most important forms of nonverbal communication between people . Eye contact signals vary from culture to culture and vary among certain religions as well . For example , in America , someone who is unable to maintain eye contact is seen as , shy , or submissive . In some Arab countries , a person who is unable to maintain eye contact is seen as disrespectful . Some cultures , such as South Asia , might View extended eye contact as challenging , rude , and aggressive . In the Islamic faith , Muslims often lower their gaze and do not look at the opposite gender eyes after the initial greeting . This is because lustful glances to those of the opposite gender are prohibited . What is considered harmless in some western cultures may be seen as a form of adultery in Islam . In cultures , a certain amount of eye contact is required in daily social situations , but too much eye contact can have misdirected meaning , often misinterpreted .

CONVEYING MEANING 19 Sign Languages Sign language is a formal language using a system of hand gestures and movements , typically replacing vocalization . Sign language is the dominant language for the deaf community . Like any other language , it has its own unique structure and linguistic components . Also similar to how most languages are learned , sign language is learned through Visualization , practice , and patience . However , understanding that 90 of the deaf community have hearing parents , sign language is mostly learned in schools because for those 90 , sign language is not their mother tongue . However , spoken languages are faster than sign language , which means that it takes a longer time . There are many types of sign language around the world , including American Sign Language , used primarily in North America , parts of Canada and Mexico , and small countries French Sign Language , used in France , Switzerland , Mali , Congo , Togo , Vietnam Ethiopian Sign Language , used in Ethiopia Spanish Sign Language , used in many parts of Spain Arabic Sign Language , used across the Middle East Sign language is actually one of the quickest ways for children to learn how to communicate as well . Picking up on motions and symbols is a much easier thing for children to do than make sounds . By learning sign language first , some children have an easier time learning to verbally speak . The children will have an image or sign already in their mind to match the word . American Sign Language American Sign Language is an intricate language that uses signs made with the hands and other movements such as facial expressions and postures of the body . Sign language is the fourth most commonly used language in ) the United States . originated when Thomas Hopkins , an apprentice lawyer , and Laurent , a prominent deaf man who was in French Sign Language , founded , the American School for the Deaf . This was the first ( of its kind in the , and in 1817 the school would witness seven students become the first class to graduate . I was not recognized as a legitimate language until the 19605 . Prior to this , it was considered a broken , FIGURE 22 alphabet limited form of the English language . By Own work ,

20 Adapted from Cultural Anthropology , Human Nonverbal Communication ( contributors , 2018 ) Theory of Verbal Communication Important Concepts Consciousness ca evolve any faster than Imagine for a moment that you have no language with which to communicate . Its hard to imagine , isn it ?

Its probably even harder to imagine that with all of the advancements we have at our disposal today , there are people in our world who actually do not have , or can not use , language to communicate . Sign Language Nearly 25 years ago , the Nicaraguan government started bringing deaf children together from all over the country in an attempt to educate them . These children had spent their lives in remote places and had no contact with other deaf people . They had never learned a language and could not understand their teachers or each other . Likewise , their teachers could not understand them . Shortly after bringing these students together , the teachers noticed that the students communicated with each other in what appeared to be an organized fashion they had literally brought together the individual gestures they used at home and composed them into a new language . Although the teachers still did not understand what the kids were saying , they were astonished at what they were birth of a new language in the late century ! This was an unprecedented discovery . In 1986 , American linguist went to to out what she could learn from these children without language . She contends that our brains are open to language until the age of 12 or 13 , and then language becomes to learn . She quickly discovered approximately 300 people in who did not have language and says , They are invaluable to the only people on Earth who can provide clues to the beginnings of human To access the full transcript , view the following link Supplemental reading News Birth of a Language Perez , one of the early deaf students who formed this new language ( referred to as Nicaraguan Sign Language ) says that without verbal communication , You cant express your feelings . Your thoughts may be there but you cant get them out . And you cant get new thoughts in .

CONVEYING MEANING 21 As one of the few people on earth who has experienced life with and without Verbal communication , his comments speak to the heart of communication it is the essence of who we are and how we understand our world . We use it to form our identities , initiate and maintain relationships , express our needs and wants , construct and shape , and achieve personal goals ( Defining Verbal Communication When people ponder the word communication , they often think about the act of talking . We rely on Verbal communication to exchange messages with one another and develop as individuals . The term Verbal communication often evokes the idea of spoken communication , but written communication is also part of verbal communication . Reading this book , you are decoding the authors written Verbal communication in order to learn more about communication . Let explore the various components of our of verbal communication and examine how it functions in our lives . Verbal Communication Nonverbal Communication Oral Spoken language Laughing , crying , coughing , etc . Non oral Written sign language Gestures , body language , etc . Verbal communication is about language , both written and spoken . In general , verbal communication refers to our use of words , whereas nonverbal communication refers to communication that occurs through means other than words , such as body language , gestures , and silence . Both verbal and nonverbal communication can be spoken and written . Many people mistakenly assume that verbal communication refers only to spoken communication . However , you will learn that this is not the case . Lets say you tell a friend a joke , and he or she laughs in response . Is the laughter verbal or nonverbal communication ?

Why ?

As laughter is not a word , we would consider this Vocal act as a form of nonverbal communication . For , the table above highlights the kinds of communication that fall into the Various categories . You can many of Verbal communication in our literature , but for this text , we verbal communication as an and system of symbols used to share meaning . Let examine each component of this in detail . A System of Symbols Symbols are arbitrary representations of thoughts , ideas , emotions , objects , or actions used to encode and decode meaning ( Nelson Kessler Shaw ) Symbols stand for , or represent , something else . For example , there is nothing inherent about calling a cat a cat . Rather , English speakers have agreed that these symbols ( words ) whose components ( letters ) are used in a particular order each time , stand for both the actual object , as well as our interpretation

22 sender Idea FIGURE . Ogden Richard Triangle of Meaning ( 1923 ) the actual thing , a cat , at one point of the triangle the symbol , the sound or letter combination CAT , at another A point and the mental representation of a cat in the sender mind at the third point . of that object . This idea is illustrated by Ogden and I . Richard triangle of meaning . The word cat is not the actual cat . Nor does it have any direct Symbol connection to an actual cat . Instead , it is a symbolic CAT representation of our idea of a cat , as indicated by ) the line going from the word cat to the speakers idea of cat to the actual object . Symbols have three distinct qualities they are arbitrary , ambiguous , and abstract . Notice that the picture of the cat on the left side of the triangle more closely represents a real cat than the word However , we do not use pictures as language , or verbal communication . Instead , we use words to represent our ideas . This example demonstrates our agreement that the word cat represents or stands for a real cat AND our idea of a cat . The symbols we use are arbitrary and have no direct relationship to the objects or ideas they represent . We generally consider communication successful when we reach agreement on the meanings of the symbols we use ( Duck ) Symbols Are Abstract , Ambiguous , Arbitrary Not only are symbols arbitrary , they are is , they have several possible meanings . Imagine your friend tells you she has an apple on her desk . Is she referring to a piece of fruit or her computer ?

If a friend says that a person he met is cool , does he mean that person is cold or awesome ?

The meanings of symbols change over time due to changes in social norms , values , they have several possible meanings they are they no material or have no direct physical . They relationship to the only represent objects or ideas objects and ideas the represent FIGURE . The words abstract , ambiguous , and arbitrary with definitions ( found in the text below ) pointing to symbols ( By Own work ,

CONVEYING MEANING 23 and advances in technology . You might be asking , If symbols can have multiple meanings then how do we communicate and understand one another ?

We are able to communicate because there are a number of possible meanings for our symbols , a range of meanings which the members of a given language system agree upon . Without an system of symbols , we could share relatively little meaning with one another . A simple example of ambiguity can be represented by one of your classmates asking a simple question to the teacher during a lecture where she is showing PowerPoint slides Can you go to the last slide , please ?

The teacher is halfway through the presentation . Is the student asking if the teacher can go back to the previous slide ?

Or does the student really want the lecture to be over with and is insisting that the teacher jump to the slide of the presentation ?

Chances are the student missed a point on the previous slide and would like to see it again to quickly take notes . However , suspense may have overtaken the student and they may have a desire to see the slide . Even a simple word like last can be ambiguous and open to more than one interpretation . The verbal symbols we use are also abstract , meaning that words are not material or physical . A certain level is inherent in that symbols can only represent objects and ideas . This abstraction allows us to use a phrase like the public in a broad way to mean all the people in the United States rather than having to distinguish among all the diverse groups that make up the population . Similarly , in . Harry Potter book series , wizards and witches call the population on earth muggles rather than having to all the separate cultures of muggles . Abstraction is helpful when you want to communicate complex concepts in a simple way . However , the more abstract the language , the greater potential there is for confusion . Verbal communication is . We must follow rules to make sense of the symbols we share . Lets take another look at our example of the word cat . What would happen if there were no rules for using the symbols ( letters ) that make up this word ?

If placing these symbols in a proper order was not important , then , tac , act , or atc could all mean cat . Even worse , what if you could use any three letters to refer to cat ?

Or still worse , what if there were no rules and anything could represent cat ?

Clearly , it important that we have rules to govern our verbal communication . There are four general rules for verbal communication , involving the sounds , meaning , arrangement , and use of symbols . Phonology is the study of speech sounds . The pronunciation of the word cat comes from the rules governing how letters sound , especially in relation to one another . The context in which words are spoken may provide answers for how they should be pronounced . When we don follow phonological rules , confusion results . One way to understand and apply phonological rules is to use syntactic and pragmatic rules to clarify phonological rules .

24 PART Semantic rules help us understand the in meaning between the word cat and the word dog . Instead of each of these words meaning any domestic pet , we use each word to specify what domestic pet we are talking about . You ve probably used these words to say things like , a cat person or a dog Each of these statements provides insight into what the sender is trying to communicate . We attach meanings to words meanings are not inherent in words themselves . As you ve been reading , words ( symbols ) are arbitrary and attain meaning only when people give them meaning . While we can always look to a dictionary to a standardized of a word , or its denotative meaning , meanings do not always follow standard , upon when used in various . For example , think of the word The denotative of the word is ill or unwell . However , connotative meanings , the meanings we assign based on our experiences and beliefs , are quite varied . Sick can have a connotative meaning that describes something as good or awesome as opposed to its literal meaning of illness , which usually has a negative association . The denotative and connotative of sick are in total contrast of one another , which can cause confusion . Think about an instance where a student is asked by their parent about a friend at school . The student replies that the friend is The parent then asks about the new teacher at school and the student describes the teacher as sick as well . The parent must now ask for as they do not know if the teacher is in bad health , or is an excellent teacher , and if the friend of their child is ill or awesome . Syntactics is the study of language structure and symbolic arrangement . Syntactics focuses on the rules we use to combine words into meaningful sentences and statements . We speak and write according to syntactic rules to keep meaning coherent and understandable . Think about this sentence The pink and purple elephant its wings and out the While the content of this sentence is and unreal , you can understand and visualize it because it follows syntactic rules for language structure . Pragmatics is the study ofhow people actually use verbal communication . For example , as a student you probably speak more formally to your professors than to your peers . its likely that you make different word choices when you speak to your parents than you do when you speak to your friends . Think of the words bowel movements , poop , crap , and While all of these words have essentially the same denotative meaning , people make choices based on context and audience regarding which word they feel comfortable using . These differences illustrate the pragmatics of our verbal communication . Even though you use symbolic systems and follow phonological , syntactic , and semantic rules , you apply these rules differently in different . Each communication context has different rules for appropriate communication . We are trained from a young age to communicate appropriately in different social .

CONVEYING MEANING 25 It is only through an and system of symbols that we can exchange verbal communication in an effective manner . Without agreement , rules , and symbols , verbal communication would not work . The reality is , after we learn language in school , we dont spend much time consciously thinking about all of these rules , we simply use them . However , rules keep our verbal communication structured in ways that make it useful for us to communicate more effectively . Adapted from Survey Study ( Laura Hahn Scott , 2019 ) Mental Grammar and Phonology You can either watch the video at the following link , or read the script below . Watch the video Mental Grammar ( Anderson , 2018 ) Video transcript We know now that linguistics is the scientific study of human language . also important to know that linguistics is one member of the broad field that known as cognitive science . The cognitive sciences are interested in what goes on in the mind , and in linguistics we re specifically interested in how our language knowledge is represented and organized in the human mind , Think about this you and I both speak English . speaking English right here on this video , and you listening and understanding me . Right now , ve got some idea in my mind that I want to express . I squeezing air out of my lungs , vibrating my vocal folds , manipulating parts of my mouth to produce sounds . Those sounds are captured by a microphone and now they re playing on your computer , In response to the sound coming from your computer speaker or your headphones , your eardrums are vibrating and sending signals to your brain with the result that the idea in your mind is something similar to the idea that was in my mind when I made this video . There must be something that your mind and my mind have in common to allow that to happen , some shared system that allows us to understand each other , to understand each other ideas when we speak . In linguistics , we call that system the mental grammar and our primary goal is to find out what that shared system is like , All speakers of all languages have a mental grammar , that shared system that lets speakers of a language understand each other . In essentials of linguistics ,

26 we devote most of our attention to the mental grammar of English , but we also use our scientific tools and techniques to examine some parts of the of other languages . We start by looking at sound systems , how speakers make particular sounds and how listeners hear these sounds . If you ever tried to learn a second language , you know that the sounds in the second language are not always the same as in your first language . Linguists call the study of speech sounds phonetics . Then we look at how the mental grammar of each language organizes sounds the mind . This is called phonology . We examine the strategies that languages use to form meaningful words . This is called morphology . Then we take a close look at the different ways that languages combine words to form phrases and sentences . The term for that is syntax . We also look at how the meanings of words and sentences are organized in the mind , which linguists call semantics . These five things are the core pieces of the mental grammar of any language . They re the things all speakers know about their language . All languages have phonetics , phonology , morphology , syntax , and semantics in their . And these five areas are also the core of theoretical linguistics . Just as there are other kinds of language knowledge we have there are other branches of the field of linguistics , and we take a peek at some of those other branches along the way , We will study each of these aspects of linguistics study more in depth over the next few checkpoints . Sounds and Language , Language and Sounds Phonology Phonology is the use of sounds to encode messages within a spoken human language . Babies are born with the capacity to speak any language because they can make sounds and hear differences in sounds that adults would not be able to do . This is what parents hear as baby talk . The infant is trying out all of the different sounds they can produce . As the infant begins to learn the language from their parents , they begin to narrow the range of sounds they produce to ones common to the language they are learning , and by the age of , they no longer have the vocal range they had previously . For example , a common sound that is used in Indian language is . To any native Indian there is a huge difference between and , but for people like me who can not speak Hindi , not only can we not hear the difference , but it is very difficult to even attempt to produce this sound . Another large variation between languages for phonology is where in your mouth you speak from . In English , we speak mostly from the front or middle of our mouths , but it is very common in African languages to speak from the glottal , which is the deepest part of ones throat .

CONVEYING MEANING 27 The Biological Basis of Language The human anatomy that allowed the development of language emerged six to seven million years ago when the first human ancestors became walking on two feet . Most other mammals are move about on four feet . This evolutionary development freed up the of human ancestors for other activities , such as carrying items and doing more and more complex things with their hands . It also started a chain of anatomical adaptations . One adaptation was a change in the way the skull was placed on the spine . The skull of quadrupedal animals is attached to the spine at the back of the skull because the head is thrust forward . With the new upright bipedal position of , the attachment to the spine moved toward the center of the base of the skull . This skeletal change in turn brought about changes in the shape and position of the mouth and throat anatomy . Humans have all the same organs in the mouth and throat that the other great apes have , but the larynx , or voice box ( you may know it as the Adams apple ) is in a lower position in the throat in humans . This creates a longer pharynx , or throat cavity , which functions as a resonating and amplifying chamber for the speech sounds emitted by the larynx . The rounding of the shape of the tongue and palate , or the roof of the mouth , enables humans to make a greater variety of sounds than any great ape is capable of making ( see Figure ) Speech is produced by exhaling air from the lungs , which passes through the larynx . The voice is created by the vibration of the vocal folds in the larynx when they are pulled tightly together , leaving a narrow slit for the air to pass through under pressure . The narrower the slit , the higher the pitch of the sound produced . The sound waves in the exhaled air pass through the pharynx then out through the mouth or the nose . The different positions and movements of the tongue , the lips , the Nasal Cavity produce the different speech sounds . Palate ( Roof of Mouth ) Velum Along with the changes in mouth and throat anatomy that made speech Al 90 possible came a gradual enlargement and compartmentalization of the brain of human ancestors over millions of years . The modern human brain is among the largest , Oral , Cavity in proportion to body size , of all animals . This development was crucial to language UPS Teeth Voice FIGURE . Human articulatory anatomy . Human vocal Tongue BOX tract . Areas where constriction occurs in the vocal ( Tongue Tip , tract to create the various phonetic gestures . Tongue Blade )

28 ability because a tremendous amount of brain power is required to process , store , produce , and comprehend the complex system of any human language and its associated culture . In addition , two areas in the left brain are dedicated to the processing of language no other species has them . They are area in the left frontal lobe near the temple , and area , in the temporal lobe just behind the left ear . refers to those characteristics of speech beyond the actual words spoken . These include the features that are inherent to all speech pitch , loudness , and tempo or duration of the sounds . Varying pitch can convey any number of messages a question , sarcasm , surprise , or lack of it , impatience , and many other often subtle connotations . An utterance that is shouted at close range usually conveys an emotional element , such as anger or urgency A word or syllable that is held for an undue amount of time can intensify the impact of that word . For example , compare Its beautiful versus It ! Often the latter type of expression is further emphasized by extra loudness of the syllable , and perhaps higher pitch all can serve to make a part of the utterance more important . Other features that often accompany speech might be a chuckle , a sigh or sob , deliberate throat clearing , and many other sounds like , oh , ah , and Most behaviors are unconsciously performed and not noticed unless someone violates the cultural standards for them . In fact , a deliberate violation itself can convey meaning . Other behaviors are done consciously like the gestures that indicate approval , such as thumbs up , or making a circle with your thumb and Other examples are waving at someone or putting a to your lips to quiet another person . Many of these deliberate gestures have different meanings ( or no meaning at all ) in other cultures . For example , the gestures of approval in culture mentioned above may be obscene or negative gestures in another culture . Try this As an experiment in the power of communication , try violating one of the cultural rules for or eye contact with a person you know . Choosing your guinea pigs carefully ( they might get mad at youl ) try standing or sitting a little closer or farther away from them than you usually would for a period of time , until they notice ( and they will notice ) Or , you could choose to give them a bit too much eye contact , or too little , while you are conversing with them . Note how they react to your behavior and how long it takes them to notice . A phoneme is the smallest phonetic unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning . For example , in English we can tell that pail and tail are different words , so and are . Two words differing in only one sound , like pail and tail , are called a minimal

CONVEYING MEANING 29 pair . The International Phonetic Association created the International Phonetic Alphabet ( a collection of standardized representations of the sounds of spoken language . When a native speaker does not recognize different sounds as being distinct they are called . For example , in the English language we consider the in pin and the in spin to have the same phoneme , which makes them . In Chinese , however , these two similar are treated separately and both have a separate symbol in their alphabet . The minimum bits of meaning that native speakers recognize are known as . It is any small set of units , usually about 20 to 60 in number , and different for each language , considered to be the basic distinctive units of speech sound by which , words , and sentences are represented . A phoneme is as the minimal unit of sound that can make a difference in meaning if substituted for another sound in a word that is otherwise identical . The phoneme itself does not carry meaning . For example , in English if the sound we associate with the letter is substituted for the sound of the letter in the word bit , the word meaning is changed because now it is pit , a different word with an entirely different meaning . The human articulatory anatomy is capable of producing many hundreds of sounds , but no language has more than about 100 . English has about 36 or 37 , including about eleven vowels , depending on dialect . Hawaiian has only vowels and about eight consonants . No two languages have the same exact set of . Linguists use a written system called the International Phonetic Alphabet ( to represent the sounds of a language . Unlike the letters of our alphabet that spell English words , each symbol always represents only one sound no matter the language . For example , the letter a in English can represent the different vowel sounds in such words as cat , make , pupa , law , but the symbol always and only represents the vowel sound of papa or pop . Adapted from Cultural Anthropology , Communication and Language ( contributors , 2018 ) Adapted from Perspectives , Language ( Linda Light , 2017 ) Morphology , Syntax , and Semantics The study of the structures of language is called descriptive linguistics . Descriptive linguists discover and describe the of a language , research called phonology . They study the lexicon ( the vocabulary ) of a language and how the are used to create new words , or morphology . They analyze the rules by which speakers create phrases and sentences , or the study of syntax . And they look at how these features all combine to convey meaning in certain social , of study called semantics and pragmatics .

30 Morphology The of morphology is the study of the structure of words formed together , or more simply put , the study of . are the smallest utterances with meaning . Not all are words . Many languages use , which carry grammatical meanings and are therefore , but are not words . For example , do not think of the as a word , but it is a morpheme . The creation of rather than words also allowed anthropologists to more easily translate languages . For ' FIGURE . Ajunior Moran with example ! In the language the 71 means dress and markings . It would be difficult the opposite , not , or lacking , which can distinguish the translate this tribe language Without the use of . words unheard and heard apart from each other . Morphology is very helpful in translating different languages , such as the language . For example , some words do not have a literal translation from to English because a word in may mean more than one word in English . Two professors from discovered an algorithm that could translate words , as they are generally very complex . They search for the whole word . If this does not come up with results , they then search the morpheme they in one example , it was Ma of Ma was a correct morpheme , however was not . The researchers then attempted Man , however was not a correct morpheme . They next tried and tir , discovering that this was correct combination of . The Units That Carry Meaning are the smallest grammatical unit of language that has semantic meaning . In spoken language , are composed of ( the smallest unit of spoken language ) but in written language are composed of ( the smallest unit of written language ) A morpheme can stand alone , meaning it forms a word by itself , or be a bound morpheme , where it has to attach to another bound morpheme or a morpheme in order to form a word . and are the simplest form of bound . For example , the word bookkeeper has three book , keep , and This example illustrates the key difference between a word and a morpheme although a morpheme can be a word , it can also need to be associated with other units in order to make sense . Meaning that one would not go around saying interdependently , it must be bound to one or more other .

CONVEYING MEANING 31 A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning in a language a morpheme can not be broken down into any smaller units that still relate to the original meaning . It may be a word that can stand alone , called an unbound morpheme ( dog , happy , go , educate ) Or it could be any part of a word that carries meaning that can not stand alone but must be attached to another morpheme , bound . They may be placed at the beginning of the root word , such as ( not , as in unhappy ) or ( again , as in rearrange ) Or , they may follow the root , as in ( makes an adjective into an adverb quickly from quick ) for plural , possessive , or a verb ending ) in English . Some languages , like Chinese , have very few if any bound . Others , like have so many that nouns and verbs can not stand alone as separate words they must have one or more other bound attached to them . Semantics Semantics is the study of meaning . Some anthropologists have seen linguistics as basic to a science of man because it provides a link between the biological and sociocultural levels . Modern linguistics is diffusing widely in anthropology itself among younger scholars , producing work of competence that ranges from historical and descriptive studies to problems of semantic and social variation . In the , prompted a formal analysis of semantics and argued that needed to represent all of a speaker linguistic knowledge , including the meaning of words . Most focused attention on how words are linked to each other within a language through different relations . meaning ( ex old and aged ) sound , different meaning ( ex would and wood ) meaning ( ex tall and short ) words refer to in the real world ( ex having the word pig refer to the actual animal , instead of pig meaning dirty , smelly , messy , or sloppy ) meanings that derive from the typical in which they are used in everyday speech ( ex calling a person a pig , not meaning the animal but meaning that they are dirty , smelly , messy , or sloppy ) Formal only focused on the four , but we have now discovered that our ability to use the same words in different ways ( and different words in the same way ) goes beyond the limits of formal semantics . Included in the study of semantics are metaphors , which are a form of or language that links together expressions from unrelated semantic domains . A semantic domain is a set of linguistic expressions with interrelated meanings for example , the words pig and chicken are in the same semantic domain . But when you use a metaphor to call a police officer a pig , you are combining two semantic domains to create meaning that the police officer is fat , greedy , dirty , etc .

32 Conveying Meaning in Language Semantics and Pragmatics The whole purpose of language is to communicate meaning about the world around us so the study of meaning is of great interest to linguists and anthropologists alike . The of semantics focuses on the study of the meanings of words and other as well as how the meanings of phrases and sentences derive from them . Recently linguists have been enjoying examining the multitude of meanings and uses of the word like among American youth , made famous through the Valley Girl in 1983 . Although it started as a feature of California English , it has spread all across the country , and even to many young speakers of English . Its , like , totally awesome dude ! The study of pragmatics looks at the social and cultural aspects of meaning and how the context of an interaction affects it . One aspect of pragmatics is the speech act . Any time we speak we are performing an act , but what we are actually trying to accomplish with that utterance may not be interpretable through the dictionary meanings of the words themselves . For example , if you are at the dinner table and say , Can you pass the salt ?

you are probably not asking if the other person is capable of giving you the salt . Often the more polite an utterance , the less direct it will be syntactically . For example , rather than using the imperative syntactic form and saying Give me a cup of coffee , it is considered more polite to use the question form and say Would you please give me a cup of coffee ?

The Structure of Phrases and Sentences Syntax Rules of syntax tell the speaker how to put together grammatically and meaningfully . There are two main types of syntactic rules rules that govern word order , and rules that direct the use of certain that perform a grammatical function . For example , the order of words in the English sentence The cat chased the dog can not be changed around or its meaning would change The dog chased the cat ( something entirely different ) or Dog cat the chased the ( something meaningless ) English relies on word order much more than many other languages do because it has so few that can do the same type of work . For example , in our sentence above , the phrase the cat must go in the sentence , because that is how English indicates the subject of the sentence , the one that does the action of the verb . The phrase the dog must go after the verb , indicating that it is the dog that received the action of the verb , or is its object . Other syntactic rules tell us that we must put the before its noun , and at the end of the verb to indicate past tense . In Russian , the same sentence has fewer restrictions on word order because it has bound that are attached to the nouns to indicate which one is the subject and which is the object of the verb . So the sentence chased , which means the cat chased the dog , has the same meaning no matter how we order the words , because the on the end of means the cat is the subject , and the on the end of means the dog is the object . If we switched the endings and said

CONVEYING MEANING 33 FIGURE . The study of the arrangement and order of words , for example if the subject or the object comes first in a sentence . expression term actor constant digit chased , now it means the dog did the chasing , even though we haven changed the order of the words . Notice , too , that Russian does not have a word for Syntax is the study of rules and principles for constructing sentences in natural languages . Syntax studies the patterns of forming sentences and phrases as well . It comes from ancient Greek ( means together and taxis means arrangement . Outside of linguistics , syntax is also used to refer to the rules of mathematical systems , such as logic , formal languages , and computer programming language . There are many theoretical approaches to the study of syntax . a linguist , sees syntax as a branch of biology , since they view syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as the human mind sees it . Other linguists take a view , in that they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system . Major Approaches to Syntax Generative grammar pioneered the generative approach to syntax . The hypothesis is that syntax is a structure of the human mind . The goal is to make a complete

34 model of this inner language , and the model could be used to describe all human language and to predict if any utterance would sound correct to a native speaker of the language . It focuses mostly on the form of the sentence rather than the communicative function of it . The majority of generative theories assume that syntax is based on the constituent structure of sentences . Categorial grammar An approach that attributes the syntactic structure to the properties of the syntactic categories , rather than to the rules of grammar . Dependency grammar Structure is determined by the relations between a word and its dependents rather than being based on constituent structure . Adapted from Cultural Anthropology , Communication and Language ( contributors , 2018 )