Introduction to LGBTQ+ Studies A Cross-Disciplinary Approach US LGBTQ+ Hisrory

Part 111 Histories History Clark LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter , students will be able to do the following Explain the social construction of sex , gender , and sexuality . Summarize the history of genders and , including homosexuality , bisexuality , and transgender identity , as well as queer identity and activism . Describe from an perspective . Analyze how key social institutions shape , and enforce structures of inequality . Describe how people struggle for social justice within ical of inequality . Describe several examples of activism , particularly in relation to other struggles for civil rights . Identify key approaches used in studies , including the study of history . Define key terms relevant to particular methods of people and issues , such as and primary sources . Describe the relationship between history , political activism , and studies . Summarize the personal , theoretical , and political differences of the , gay liberation , radical feminism , rights , and queer movements . 121

122 Introduction to Studies pansexual The sexual , romantic , or emotional attraction toward people regardless of their sex or gender identity . queer Pertaining to a person or group that does not fall within the gender binary or heterosexuality . social construction A theory of knowledge in and communication theory that examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world that form the basis for shared assumptions about reality . Figure . At the 2007 Pride march in New York , people hold a banner INTRODUCTION Political organizing by oppressed Americans in the 19705 helped create lesbian , gay , bisexual or pansexual , trans , and queer history as a of study . Why would people struggles for rights and freedom include wanting to be represented in historical accounts ?

Inclusive histories the diversity of people in the United States , expose institutional discrimination against minorities , and outline their contributions toward the American democratic experiment . Like women history , tory has developed through four stages that compensation , contributions , revision , and social historians first Compensated for and by people to reinsert into historical narratives , then determined how people contributed to history . As they analyzed primary sources , they slowly revised historical narratives through testing generalizations and against evidence found by and about people . Finally , the understood that sexual orientation and gender selves are social constructions . By the oan Nestle and Deborah had founded the Lesbian Archive ( collecting evidence of lesbian for the public , and Ned published a thick book of primary sources , Gay American Stages one and two included uncovering the gender identity or sexual orientation of known representing Lesbian Archives .

History like civil rights leaders Murray and Bayard . For stages two and three , scholars have debated how best to tell counts as a , who and what historians should emphasize , what places to highlight . scholars stopped declaring that anyone who wrote intimately about someone of the same gender was gay or lesbian ( why not bisexual ?

and instead questioned how those terms are and debated how to identify people from time periods before society widely considered sexual orientation an identity . This chapter takes the approach that history hinges on how concepts of sexuality and gender have changed to produce identities , how queer Americans have formed community , and how these minority groups have forged movements using different tactics to gain rights and freedoms amid resistance and backlash . The chapter sizes formative , respected scholarship and includes some primary sources and recent research . It discusses the social construction of sex , gender , and sexuality how intersects with other structures of ity that social institutions have enforced and how people have struggled for social justice despite resistance and setbacks . Ideas about sexuality and gender have changed historically . This basic premise is one of the ways that we know that sex , gender , and sexuality are social is , they are ideas that emerge from society and are changed through social action . Queer Americans have formed different types of communities in different historical eras , and people have struggled for social justice . The political struggles of people intersect with and have been by other struggles for social justice , like civil rights and women rights . NORMS IN COLONIAL AMERICA THROUGH THE LATE 18008 White Settler Colonial Norms Colonial Europeans established norms of marital reproduction and a double standard within gender roles , which rendered what fell outside these two ideals unacceptable ?

The Europeans encounters with nearly six hundred indigenous nations and all the ways these societies constructed gender and allowed varied sexual practices challenged European beliefs . Europeans tended to believe their Christian God created two genders through sex assignment , set duties , and made reproduction the purpose of sex . Thus , sex acts for purposes other than reproduction were signs of sin rather than any identity . norms Collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as individual perceptions of particular group conduct . essentialist The view that every entity has a set of attributes that are necessary to its identity and function . sex assignment The of an infant sex at birth .

124 Introduction to Studies people A modern umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who a traditional gender ( or other gender variant ) ceremonial role in their cultures . sodomites People who engage in nonreproductive sex acts , especially anal or oral sex . sodomy Anal or oral sex . Yet European and , later , North American records give evidence that over 130 tribes recognized some individuals as women whom Europeans male or acknowledged some persons as men whom Europeans sexed The Spaniard Pedro , for example , reported from his 1770 California expedition , I have submitted substantial evidence that those Indian men who , both here and farther inland , are observed in the dress , clothing and character of being two or three such in each as sodomites by profession . They are called , and are held in great descriptions forced what later became known as people into inadequate Western models , such as calling the men and White settlers ally amassed power through irregular warfare to impose their norms by murdering and civilians . An indirect effect was indigenous genders by labeling variation sinful , criminal , and subject to punishment ?

The intersections of race and sexuality are foundational to colonial history . Consolidation of English power included writing white supremacy into Virginia law . By the 16905 divided people into categories of white , Negro , mulatto , and Indian and decreed enslaved status ble through the mother . Many colonies enacted laws against interracial sexual relationships , but judicial systems prosecuted enslaved Black , free Black , and sometimes poor white people and not the plantation owners , ensuring that power included the ability to rape without legal consequences ?

Meanwhile , church and colonial laws drew on the dominant View of sexuality as simply behavior and not a basis for majority and minority social identities . Legal statutes deemed sodomy ( oral or anal sex ) unnatural , a sin and a crime . An English servant case illustrates how class also intersected with gender and sexuality in colonial America . Hall lived as a girl , woman , and man before migrating to Virginia in 1627 as a male servant , Thomas . There Hall sewing skills and sporadic dress in women clothes led neighbor women to question Hall gender . A group of women physically examined Hall three times . Amid rumors that Hall fornicated with a serving woman , the General Court assessed Hall der . Examiners declared Hall had male genitalia . Hall response according to the court records was hee had not the use of the mans parte and I have a of an hole vulva . After refused the ruling that Hall was female , the court decreed Hall must wear a nation of men and women clothing . We will never know whether Hall was intersex or what to call Hall sexual desire . Evidence suggests that , like other colonists , Hall enjoyed sex for pleasure outside of marriage .

History 125 Anglo society was more bothered by than hybridity in wanting to Hall in place as both woman and Gender , racial , and class hierarchies established by the eighteenth century all helped shape organizing , but people had to start forming communities based on their relationships . PASSIONLESS WOMEN , ROMANTIC FRIENDSHIPS , AND VANGUARD COMMUNITIES From the American Revolution through the Civil War , sex as acts rather than as the basis for social identity continued . New gender norms , however , affected attitudes toward attraction . Americans in the early republic rejected previous views of women as sexual beings . Instead , in the late , society considered Protestant , women less lustful and more spiritually moral than men . women as passionless and sexually compared with men natural sex drive constrained women public ( though not ) behavior . Women reformers , whose organizing started in churches , asserted that society needed women input because of their Christian The perception that women and men temperaments and desires were distinctly different facilitated wide acceptance of emotionally intense relationships alongside traditional Occasionally , women who could support themselves lived together in ton marriages . Contemporaries were more likely to attribute a sexual component to romantic friendships between men , like the poet Walt Whitman with Peter Doyle , than to women relationships because of society continued belief that a penis was necessary for Industrialization through the 18005 also played a role in forming communities based on sexual orientation . As industries spread , more ple migrated to larger urban centers for factory and related jobs and into places for raw production that had extreme gender imbalances . Despite the prevalent view that affection was behavior anyone might show , rather than an identity , communities based on attraction formed . By the late , New York City had developed a subculture with identity terms like fairy for effeminate men and queer for gender normative men who loved New Orleans was another hub . An array of relationships also existed , usually divided by class and race . Lesbians sometimes patronized bars , dance halls , and other public spaces where queer men congregated in the early Police from Los Angeles to New York might arrest women wearing pants attraction Attraction between members of the same gender . romantic friendships Also called passionate friendships or affectionate friendships , very close but typically nonsexual relationships between friends , often involving a degree of physical closeness beyond what is common in contemporary Western societies . fairy A term from 18005 New York applied to effeminate men .

126 Introduction to Studies sexology The study of human sexuality , including human sexual interests , behaviors , and functions . passing In the context of gender , this refers to someone , typically either a transgender person or , who is perceived as the gender they wish to present as . and sporting short hair on charges of masquerading as relationships also occurred among men doing the physical labor that produced resources for industrial in California , Northwest logging , Seattle dock work , and railroad labor transporting laws that penalized these HOW SEXOLOGY IDENTITY AND LED TO SOLIDIFYING THE STRAIGHT STATE Near the same time that communities developed , European sexology repackaged marital reproduction and widespread views on sin and crime in the language of medical science . These lated the concept of heterosexuality and The earliest campaigned against sodomy laws by asserting that attraction constituted a form of benign variation among is , harmless identities differing from those focused on reproducing . Most , though , argued attraction correlated with gender as a pathological Newspapers had recurring on women passing as men for work and freedom . By 1892 the pathology model played a role in a Memphis insanity inquisition . This case exposed the plans of two women , whom relatives had thought to be romantic friends , to marry each other by having one assume a male identity . But when family members broke up this relationship , the distraught masculine half of the couple murdered her lover , and the defense lawyer her father hired used sexology to argue With the emergence of sexology , gender and sex attraction were now mental illness , in addition to being violations of religious ideas about sin and criminal laws . Although queer communities continued to spread , society validation of romantic friendships declined , and antivice campaigns arose by the and punished queer public expression . After Prohibition ended , federal and state officials enacted laws to control alcoholic beverages , to police respectability in bars . State agents held authority to revoke alcohol licenses if bar owners allowed the presence of undesirables like prostitutes , gamblers , gays , or lesbians ( terms in the popular culture by the ) who according to these laws , made establishments From the through the 19605 police freely busted bar patrons on suspicion of During World War II the military spread the normalization of and negative perceptions of the homosexual . Psychologists convinced military that homosexuality was a mental disorder that threatened morale and discipline . As eighteen million men moved through

History 127 draft boards and induction stations , staffers asked questions designed to exclude gay men from service . Such questions heightened recognition that homosexuality existed even while it . feared that straight men would claim to be gay to avoid the draft to deter this , they labeled anyone rejected for homosexuality as a sexual psychopath and gave employers the right to review draft records . Women auxiliary units started in World War II , but because criminal law usually ignored lesbian sex acts , the military did not similarly screen women recruits . Gay service members caught having sex or suspected of it faced humiliating expulsion after systematic inquisitions , which left several thousand men and dozens of women with undesirable discharges on their Gay and lesbian communities proliferated during and after the war , especially in cities with a military During the Cold War , eral , state , and local authorities redoubled efforts to achieve a straight state , including congressional laws and a presidential executive order against employing homosexuals in federal jobs ?

Recent scholars have argued that the 19505 McCarthy Red Scare most victimized gay men and George Harris was among thousands . When the Central Intelligence Agency did a background check , they asked people from his Mississippi hometown about his sexual orientation . Suddenly jobless and homeless , Harris got a ride to Texas . He met ack Evans soon afterward at a Dallas gay bar . As they dated , fell in love , and then lived together , they steered clear of bars to avoid arrest , years became the first gay couple to marry legally in Dallas Watch George Harris and Jack Evans are married in Dallas June 26 , 2015 , in this video ( They were both in their eighties , having lived together for years . Describe what you witness in the video . What do you think is the relationship between the videographer and the couple ?

What terms , items , or actions featured in the video are you unfamiliar with ?

Given the history you learned in this chapter , why was this occasion so publicized and celebrated ?

Conduct a bit more research on George and how did their lives together larger historical events from the 19605 to 2015 ?

128 Introduction to Studies movement Coined by the German astrologist , author , and psychoanalyst Gunther in his 1924 doctoral dissertation und , was in common use in the 19505 and 19605 by homosexual organizations and publications the groups of this period are now known collectively as the movement . FROM MOVEMENT TO GAY LIBERATION In the face of Cold War hostility and , gay and lesbian further institutionalized and began organizing a movement for civil rights . Los Angeles gay men formed the Society in 1951 . Its founders , Harry Hay , Bob Hull , and Chuck Rowland , had organizing experience as US . Communist Party members . They into secret cells to survive government The founders blended Marxist injustice and oppression were deeply embedded in societal inspiring tactics from the African American civil rights movement . They argued that repressive norms based in heterosexuality left homosexuals largely unaware that they in fact constituted a social minority imprisoned within a nant culture . The founders sought to mobilize a large gay constituency through meetings and by creating journals to produce a new pride in belonging , a pride in participating in the cultural growth and the social achievements of . the homosexual Soon grew to include many politically mainstream who were anticommunist . The founders stepped down in favor of leaders who argued that the mostly white , gay members were the same as heterosexual citizens , aside from the private sphere of love . They focused on gaining allies among heterosexual psychologists , clergymen , and public officials . Meanwhile , in San Francisco , Del Martin , Lyons , and their group , Daughters of , also were the church , the couch , and the courts for equality . Like the more run ne Review and One magazine , Daughters of journal , The Ladder ( consistently assured lesbians of their worth as respectable people deserving treatment equal to ?

Chapters of both organizations spread to the East Coast and Midwest , forming a web of advocates for homosexual civil rights by the who published , lobbied , and picketed the White House and city governments for equality . By the 19605 , various social movements were developing tactics to discrimination and inequality . Black civil rights legal work and direct action produced desegregation , law , and voting rights , although centuries of housing segregation , education , and job discrimination continued to racialize poverty . Frustrations rose in poor communities of color over police brutality and the dearth of economic opportunities . In 1965 , gay and lesbian street youth organized in San Francisco . They and trans women often gathered at Compton Cafeteria , one of few places where they could meet . When Compton management

OCTOBER , 1957 Figure . October 1957 cover of The Ladder . Public domain , Women and Social Movements . Watch This 1983 interview by Vito Russo features Society founder Harry Hay and Barbara , a founder of the Daughters of and editor of The Ladder ( and ) What are some similarities and differences between Hay and experiences with political activism ?

What does Barbara mean when she states that the very first gay pickets had maybe ten , at the most twenty people who could afford to get out in public and do this ?

What does Harry Hay mean when he argues it was important to quit imitating the heterosexuals as much as we do ?

History 129 130 Introduction to Studies called the police to deter drag queens and trans women patronage , a riot erupted . The next night , trans hustlers and street people picketed Compton and protested police brutality . Although the protest did not end abuse , a new collective militant queer resistance pushed the city to address queer and trans people rights as Three years later the Stonewall rebellion broke out after a New York City police raid . Stonewall Inn was a dive that blackmailed gay Wall Street patrons and used those funds to pay off police . In return , police gave the Stonewall advance warning of raids . Raids targeted those in full drag and trans sex workers like Sylvia Rivera . But raids could also ruin the lives of white , Black , and gay and lesbian customers newspaper exposure often led to their being from jobs or evicted from housing . On une 28 , 1969 , there was no for the police raid . Trans and lesbian patrons to produce or to follow a female officer to the bathroom to verify their sex for arrest . They also objected to officers groping A growing crowd outside spontaneously responded to police violence by hurling coins and cans at , who retreated into the bar . Rioting resumed a second and third night . The gay poet Allen heard slogans being chanted and crowed , Gay power ! Is that great ! We one of the largest minorities in the percent , you know . It about time we did something to assert ourselves . The Stonewall rebellion also did not stop police raids , but mainstream and gay coverage and spurred the creation of gay organizing that was more militant than previous groups . The Gay ation Front sought to combine freedom from homophobia with a broader political platform that denounced racism and opposed capitalism . From the Gay Liberation Front arose the Gay Activists Alliance and its zaps , or surprise public confrontations with politicians to force them to edge gay and lesbian Gay like Carl drew on past New Left antiwar student activism and the womens liberation movement . Refugees from A Gay Manifesto ( 1970 ) rails against homophobia , imploring gays to free themselves by coming out while also acknowledging it will be too dangerous for some . man was attuned to the rise of lesbian feminism , which linked sexism and homophobia . Lesbian feminists emphasized women autonomy and rather than as mothers , wives , and daughters who indirectly gained from what men . deemed male chauvinism and urged gay men to stop being sexist . Rather than mimic straight society , gay liberation should reject gender roles and and should embrace queens as having stood Gay continued the to overturn homophobia in religion , psychology , and law . Gay Catholics formed Dignity in

History 131 The Unitarian Universalist Association urged an end to legal and social expressions of discrimination in 1970 , and the United Church of Christ ordained the first openly gay person in 1972 . started Integrity in 1974 . Mainstream Protestant denominations like the Church ( USA ) United Methodist Church , and Lutheran Church in America endorsed but still disapproved of ity . Fundamentalist evangelicals became increasingly vocal among opposed to relationships and gender nonconformity . They began conservative religious organizing in response to progressive changes , propelling to celebrity status some ministers on the right such as Jerry , Pat Robertson , and im and Tammy . Some Christians to the Pentecostal minister Rev . Troy Perry . He founded the Metropolitan Community Church denomination from a service in 1968 . Meanwhile , gay Jews in Los Angeles created the first gay synagogue in or houses of worship proliferated over the decade , but the majority of Americans faced discrimination in unwelcoming religious congregations . In addition to trying to integrate religious spaces , gay demonstrated for the removal of homosexuality from the American Association list of mental disorders . Activists and gay knew people were not sick for being queer . They used the research of their ally , the psychologist Evelyn Hooker she had , on the basis of personality tests she had conducted since 1957 , that gay men were equally stable as heterosexual men and sometimes showed more In 1973 the association voted unanimously to homosexuality in its diagnostic manual as one form of sexual Figure . A Gay Liberation Front logo .

132 Introduction to Studies behavior , like other forms of sexual behavior which are not by selves psychiatric This was a major win on the long road to discrediting claims that homosexuality was a mental illness and the conversion therapies designed to cure homosexuals . However , in 1980 the American Psychiatric Association third manual introduced der identity disorder of childhood and as disorders , indicating it preserved a concern about variety in behavior , which sustained forced conversion programs for children and adolescents without increasing access to medical services that some trans adults Politically , in the efforts to gain equal rights ordinances and to elect lesbian and gay politicians became fruitful . Elaine Noble joined the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1974 , and Harvey Milk won a seat in the San Francisco Board of Supervisors election in The conservative campaign of Anita Bryant that overturned Florida Dade County gay rights ordinance in 1977 galvanized conservatives on the Christian right and gay activists nationwide against or for , extending equal rights regardless of sexual orientation . The next year activists managed to prevent California from passing an initiative that would have barred gay teachers from working in public schools . But cities with campaigns experienced increased violence against gay and lesbian people and their businesses , centers , and churches , in the murder of Harvey Milk and Mayor George by a former board of supervisors member and , Dan White , in 1978 . White was convicted of manslaughter and served Amid the volatile cultural battles of the , there were some tories . By the end of the decade , activists had decriminalized themselves in just under half the nation by overturning state sodomy statutes , had countered city initiatives , and had convinced the Democratic Party to include a plank against sexual crimination in its 1980 They would have to wait until 2003 for the Supreme Court decision on Lawrence Texas to strike down sodomy laws The also saw a cultural renaissance of institution building and cultural productions through publishing and music . More Americans came out despite the real hazards of family rejection , violence , and legal discrimination . Sylvia Rivera and survived such dangers to start Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries ( STAR ) in 1970 . STAR , the organization led by trans women of color , the homeless queer youth and sex worker shelter in North America . By recognizing links among homophobia , racism , and classism , STAR filled needs other early gay liberation groups were

History Watch Billy Porter provides a brief history of queer political actions that predate the Stonewall rebellion ( What surprised you about this video ?

What did not surprise you ?

What organization or historical event described in this video was new to you ?

Conduct some more research to better understand that organization or event goals and accomplishments . What organizations or movements are active now , and how are they similar to or different from the movements discussed earlier ?

not considering . More often gays and lesbians organized safe spaces through bars , gay baths , bookstores , discos , sports leagues , and musical As the continued , feminist lesbians of color took the lead in advocating for the development of integrated analysis and practice based upon the fact that the major systems of oppression are interlocking . This important way of analyzing the world would become known as . RESPONDING TO AIDS In the , the emergence of a deadly epidemic marked a crossroads for activism and institution building . A 1981 newsletter from the Centers for Disease Control reported Los Angeles gay men had an unusual pneumonia typically found in people . Then the New York Times stated that a rare , aggressive skin cancer had struck recently healthy By late 1982 , related cases existed among infants , women , men , intravenous drug users , and . The mortality rate of the original patients was 100 percent . Panic spread as media , many government , and the gay community asked what linked the affected gay men . Connecting a deadly disease , ultimately called acquired syndrome ( AIDS ) to gay male sexuality provided a new rationale for discriminatory laws and harassment as the political power of the Christian Right continued to ' In response to AIDS , Americans organized new institutions and created new methods to get needed resources , which furthered lively debates over political tactics . Because the health care system failed to Refers to an analytic framework used to understand how social identities , including race , class , gender , sexuality , and ability , intersect to the discrimination or privilege an individual faces within society . The term was coined by Williams Crenshaw .

134 Introduction to Studies address the epidemic causes and consequences , New York City gay men founded Gay Mens Health Crisis in 1982 . It became a model for AIDS service organizations that offered information and support to prevent or treat the Lesbians contributed experience from the womens health movement , where they had countered medicine with their own research and support networks . Black free breakfasts and community health clinics became a model for AIDS service By 1983 the group People With AIDS had nationally to demand control over decisions about their care and to draw attention to scapegoating that resulted in job loss and refusal of hospital treatment . They released The Denver Principles , which asserted their responsibility to use sexual behaviors without denying their right to satisfying sexual and emotional lives . 52 The gay munity split on whether to blame casual sex with multiple partners for the crisis and how to contain the spread of the disease . As city public health officials sought to shut down bathhouses and bars that had spaces for sex , some gay activists agreed with the precaution , but others saw the campaign as more harassment . Those opposed to closures argued that instead of driving gay sex further underground , public sites like bathhouses should become education centers for safer sex practices . Meeting spaces were places where the community organized to respond to A major contributor to the AIDS epidemic was willful neglect by the federal government . For the first years of the epidemic , President Ronald Reagan remained silent about it . In 1986 he and governors from both parties proposed cutting government spending on AIDS . That year the Supreme Court ruled in Bowers that gay adults did not have constitutional privacy rights that would protect them from for private , consensual The Department announced that federal law allowed employment discrimination based on status . When Reagan spoke at the Third International ence on AIDS in 1987 in favor of testing , over twenty thousand of the thousand Americans diagnosed with AIDS had died . Congress prohibited using federal funds for AIDS education that condoned sex behavior but mandated testing of federal prisoners and immigrants to bar entry to those with This spurred radical organizing . Larry Kramer and formed the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT UP ) in 1987 . It further publicized the New York City slogan Silence Death in demonstrations . ACT UP dramatically disrupted Wall Street , the Food and Drug Administration , the Centers for Disease Control , and Saint Cathedral to protest the high cost of ( the first drug treatment ) and the appointment of a loudly homophobic Catholic cardinal to the

History 135 HIV Commission . ACT UP chapters spread to other cities the groups became known for their insistence on action and their reclaiming of the term Keith Haring art spread the message . Cleve created a memorial for people lost to AIDS , inviting loved ones to ate panels for the NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt ( During the second March on Washington in October 1987 , volunteers laid out panels on the National In tandem with responses to AIDS , portions of Americans organized . Trans people were disproportionately poor owing to job discrimination and devastating budget cuts to AIDS programs , welfare , and health programs . centers sold medical procedures for gender transition at high costs . Bisexuals started forming social and then political rights groups , including the National Bisexual Liberation Group in 1972 based in New York City , San Francisco Center in 1976 , and the national in San Francisco in 1983 . When the 1987 March on Washington organizers would not include bi or trans in the march title or list of demands , both constituencies argued that the category gay and lesbian was not New trans groups arose with transnational scope , including International ( advocating for the trans community ) and International Foundation for Gender Education , along with periodicals like phosis and Figure . The AIDS Memorial Quilt . Public domain , National Institutes of Health .

136 Introduction to Studies A term used in a variety of , usually by nationalist movements that want to secede from a larger polity ( usually in the form of an empire but also in a sovereign state ) or as a theory opposed to capitalism in discourse , derived from Vladimir Lenin work Imperialism , the Stage of Capitalism . With the development of intersectional theories and activism , gay , lesbian , and bi Americans who also held other minority statuses founded organizations in the and throughout the . Gay American ans was founded in San Francisco in 1975 , and in 1987 the group joined American Indian Gays and Lesbians . Conferences of the American Indian Gays and Lesbians produced the consensus that two was the term for The National Rainbow Society of the Deaf ( 1977 ) grew from its Florida origins to hold annual around the country as Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf ( 1982 ) and to become a force for advocacy . The national Asian Lesbian Network was founded when organizing for the 1987 march . African American gays and lesbians created religious community with Unity Fellowship Church ( 1985 ) and secular groups . When gay men formed the National tion of Black and White Men Together ( 1981 ) with local across the country , they ushered in a new form of interracial organizing . Some queer people of color joined with white gays and lesbians for and AIDS work and criticized queer communities for their racism . Queer people of color worked with other people of color for civil rights , poverty issues , and while objecting to those communities homophobia , sexism , and . Queer people of color needed their own queer groups by race as from coalition Listen In a 1989 Making interview ( ACT UP founder Larry Kramer describes being a student at Yale University in the , before the Stonewall rebellion , and then how he tried to organize gay men to the AIDS crisis in the . What were some of the challenges that Kramer had to come in his lifetime , whether at college or in the against AIDS ?

Queer theory emerged during a very turbulent period in history , with AIDS decimating gay male communities . The anger at the apathy of the government , in the face of tens of thousands of men dying , drove the radical activism of ACT UP . Describe some of the tactics they used . What do you think of them ?

In the interview , Kramer says there had been a lot of change and no change between when he was in college in the and the late 19805 . What do you think he meant by that ?

If he were interviewed today , do you think he say the same thing , and why ?

History 137 MAINSTREAM AND QUEER GOALS Beginning in the and the first decade of the 20005 , new drug therapies prolonged the lives of people living with AIDS . Although cal , AIDS activism continued , work for mainstream legal protections and rights dominated activism . Americans and supporters sought inclusion in the military , the passage of crimination laws , and marriage equality . After a campaign promise to end military exclusion , President Bill Clinton responded to pushback from military leaders with a compromise . He supported a congressional law that instructed service members to remain closeted and military officials not to pursue people for discharge ( Ironically , this Don Ask , Do Tell policy increased discharges of gay service and continued violence against them until its repeal by President Figure . Cover of a Don Ask , Tell pamphlet . Public domain , United States Army .

138 Introduction to Studies The belief that heterosexuality , predicated on the gender binary , is the norm or default sexual orientation . Barack Obama in 2010 ended discrimination based on sexual orientation ( but not gender identity ) President Clinton was more effective with his executive order to end discrimination in federal government in 1998 than with his military Violence against Americans continued , including the rural murders of Brandon and then Matthew Shepard . Both murders gained so much media coverage that they eventually became movies . Outrage against violence and prejudice led New York ACT UP members to form Queer Nation in 1990 and inspired groups like the Pink Panthers ( 1990 ) and Lesbian Avengers ( 1992 ) Their direct actions to sexuality and gender from were queer . A particularly controversial tactic was exposing the closeted of politicians and pundits . New federal tracking confirmed the scope of violence , indicating that over 10 percent of violent crimes motivated by bias against the victim were based on sexual orientation , putting that category behind only race and religion . Congressional passage of the Hate Crimes Sentencing Enhancement Act ( 1994 ) included gay bashing as a federal crime to ensure fairer State legislatures and popular ballots featured both tion and measures , creating grassroots organizing for and against protecting Americans from being or excluded from jobs , Read Read 52 Respect A Guide on Homosexual Conduct Policy , a pamphlet published by the Army in 2001 that explains to soldiers the new homosexual conduct policy that would become known as Don Ask , Do Tell ( Does this pamphlet help you better understand the Don Ask , Do Tell policy ?

Why or why not ?

According to the pamphlet , the army goal was to fairly force this new policy , to promote unit cohesiveness and . Do you think this pamphlet would have helped achieve that goal ?

What is or is in the policy that might explain why ment and violence against gay service members continued while it was in effect ?

History 139 housing , and public accommodations . Cultural conservatives lamented the gradually increasing acceptance of people as celebrity musicians and television and stars slowly started to come out and weathered backlash to continue their careers . Meanwhile , the Hawaii state supreme court win temporarily legalized marriage there in National organizations pushed to extend marriage equality nationwide . Over the next decade states split on whether to ban or legalize marriage equality . Popular support steadily grew in the years of the , reaching 60 percent in 2015 when the Supreme Court ruled in Hodges that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees couples the right to marry ( Groups that centered young , trans , poor , and minority people warned in the early that legislation and nondiscrimination laws connected to it would further hurt the most marginalized cans . Dean Spade cautioned that sentences mandatorily extended for hate crimes strengthened the criminal punishment system that targets poor ( and trans ) people of Likewise , some feminist and queer activists opposed the costly push for marriage equality because it supported only heteronormative Paula , among the , argued in 1989 against endorsing one family form instead of unconventional relationships and sexual expression . Lisa has argued for broad to gain universal instead of tying needs like health coverage to employment and legislation State and federal laws intended to protect against hate crimes ( also known as bias crimes ) motivated by enmity or animus against a protected class of persons . Although state laws vary , current statutes permit federal prosecution of hate crimes committed on the basis of a protected characteristics of race , religion , ethnicity , nationality , gender , sexual orientation , gender identity , and disability . nondiscrimination laws Also called laws refers to legislation designed to prevent discrimination against particular groups of people . Figure . The White House is illuminated in rainbow colors on the night of the Supreme Court ruling June 26 , 2015 . Ted .

140 Introduction to Studies CONCLUSION history in the United States has witnessed profound in meanings , the social construction of identities , and how people have used collective action to for rights and equality . For centuries laws touted marriage as the place for reproductive sex but allowed some men sex for pleasure across race and class . When sex was considered simply a form of behavior and society believed women and men were fundamentally different , intimacy that was not obviously sodomy was deemed unremarkable . But as sexuality into normal or pathological identities , psychology and medical science joined the church and state as key social institutions that demonized people . Communities of gay and bisexual men , lesbian and bisexual women , and trans people multiplied in the 19505 despite heightened repression , and a portion of these minorities organized for equal rights . Even the epidemic , blamed on and falsely with gays , could not stop organizing . Activists further developed radical tactics from the to call for liberation from . Legal gains have been arduously won , but foundational power imbalances based on race , class , gender , ability , and citizenship persist . Nonetheless , both legal and cultural changes continue to form society . PROFILE SEXUALITY SEXOLOGY . PSYCHOANALYSIS . AND THE LAW Miller and SEXOLOGY , CIVIL RIGHTS , AND European scientists and social scientists developed the social science known as sexology to understand human sexuality . They used biology , medicine , psychology , and anthropology to support beliefs that privileged binary gender identities ( man or woman ) and reproductive sex while trying to account for gender and sexual diversity . What was at stake for the men who created sexology varied some felt attraction , some were sympathetic to those who did , others opposed behaviors . Their became arguments for and against behavior . This history of sexology prioritizes primary sources to consider how explained diversity in gender and sexuality and how the shifted from an initial focus on social tice to creating oppressive , diagnoses . Knowing this history

History 141 helps us understand sexology implications as a method by which people worldwide have been taught about queer and trans people . The earliest form of sexology legal discrimination . The German lawyer Karl Heinrich ( drew on Plato for his 18605 theory that love was biologically inborn and therefore used the term urning for a man who desired men and believed the urning desire an internal female psyche . After telling his family he was an urning , from his to repeal sodomy laws . He maintained that ing adult men who were not being publicly indecent had a civil right to express their love without state persecution . hoped to national legal reform as German states , so he published Appeal for the Liberation of the Urning Nature from Penal Law . To the Imperial Assemblies of North Germany and Austria in The next year , Germany assembly refused change and retained a sodomy law in the new law code . Paragraph 175 of the German Imperial Penal Code stated , Unnatural vice committed by two persons of the male sex or by people with animals is to be punished by imprisonment the verdict may also include the loss of civil 72 Germany would not homosexuality until 1969 . Figure . Karl Heinrich . Public domain . Karl Heinrich The German lawyer in sexology who theorized that male desire for men existed because such men had a female psyche ( mind , soul , spirit ) and who argued that consensual adult love was a human right . urning Karl Heinrich term from Plato Symposium for his 18605 theory that love was biologically inborn and one partner having an internal female psyche . Paragraph 175 of the German Imperial Penal Code A German law in effect from 1871 to 1969 that spurred activism for its repeal .

142 Introduction to Studies The human rights journalist and sexologist who coined the words heterosexual and homosexual in 1868 as two forms of strong sex drive apart from reproductive goals . Initially both terms included an idea of excessive behavior . Richard von A German sexologist who theorized that anything outside reproductive sex was inferior and immoral deviation . He produced a book categorizing deviance and argued in favor of laws . degeneracy Behavior that deviates from the norm and that society considers immoral , inferior , pathological , relation to evolutionary retreat from progress . Magnus A German physician who advocated for homosexual rights from 1896 through 1935 in his publications , by forming the Humanitarian Committee in 1897 and by creating a private sexology research institute in 1919 in Germany . Although his argument was unsuccessful , work other and became part of a growing . His contemporary , the human rights journalist ia , coined the words heterosexual and homosexual in 1868 as two forms of strong sex drive apart from those that pursued reproductive goals . Out of compassion for a friend who killed himself after being mailed for attraction , argued that sodomy laws lated human The German psychiatrist Richard von adopted terminology and view that men who loved men had womanly desire ( however , considered anything outside reproductive sex to be an inferior , immoral deviation , which he called degeneracy . His , Contrary Sexual Instinct A ( 1894 ) provided an elaborate taxonomy of pathological manifestations of the sexual The taxonomy included sexualizing an object ( fetishism ) sexually enjoying pain ( masochism , which considered natural for women ) and sexually enjoying Figure . Photographs from Richard von personal collection the photographs appear to be unusual specimens of the erotic French postcard popular in the late nineteenth century , but their source and the people in them are unknown . Public domain , Public Domain Review and the Wellcome Library .

History pain ( sadism , which considered natural for men ) claimed attraction was usually innate but could sometimes be produced as a result of exposure to other forms of sexual deviance like Like and , hoped to jurisprudence with psychological claims , but to him , The laws of all civilized nations punish those who commit perverse sex acts . Inasmuch as the preservation of chastity and morals is one of the most important reasons for the existence of the commonwealth , the state can not be too careful , as a protector of morality , in the struggle against 75 Sexology language has continued to aid the power to police sexuality legally and has contributed to critiques of that power . Both in Germany and in England , used widespread eugenics beliefs of their day that the body revealed behavioral . Reformers hoped that ascribing innate , unchangeable status to would secure rights , but eugenics was an imperialist science that racial , class , and sexual Magnus , a German physician who experienced attraction , asserted that anatomy indicated sexual desires features make the diagnosis of homosexuality 77 advocated for homosexual rights from 1896 through 1935 , arguing in The of Men and Women ( 1914 ) that homosexuals nature contributed creativity and philanthropy to society and gave homosexuals equal understanding to both 75 In addition to publishing books , started the Scientific Humanitarian Committee in Germany in 1897 . The committee goals were ( to win legislative bodies to the position of abolishing the paragraph of the German penal code , Paragraph 175 ( enlightening public opinion on homosexuality ( interesting the homosexual himself in the struggle for his rights . amassed an archive of research and literature that the Nazi state destroyed in 1933 . British contemporaries Havelock Ellis ( and published Sexual Inversion in 1897 . It was based on their interpretation of examples of attraction and varied sexual expression . This English medical textbook claimed inversion was an involuntary physiological abnormality usually due to the accidental absence of the natural objects of sexual attraction or , more rarely , was Ellis case studies highlighted perceived abnormalities in subjects bodies , especially females . According to Ellis , whether acquired or inborn , inversion should not be criminalized , because it could not be helped . was at the forefront of homosexual rights Havelock Ellis The British physician who Sexual Inversion in 1897 . The medical textbook claimed inversion was an involuntary physiological abnormality of the body on the basis of the authors interpretation of examples . Ellis argued that inversion should not be criminalized because it could not be helped . ohn The British literary critic and historian who Sexual Inversion in 1897 . was at the forefront of homosexual rights activism in England , where , until 1866 , homosexuality was punishable by death . In life and through 1967 , British law still criminalized homosexual behavior . inversion An early theory of homosexuality developed by Havelock Ellis and john that suggested desire was by inborn psychic with femininity for men and masculinity for women .

144 Introduction to Studies Edward Carpenter British activist who advocated on behalf of homosexuals like himself and for rights , vegetarianism , and socialism . His 1914 Intermediate ) among ve Folk describes genders and among peoples in tribal and ancient societies as naturally individuals and society . Figure . Havelock Ellis . Public domain , Smithsonian Institution . activism in England , where , until 1866 , homosexuality was punishable by death . In life and through 1967 , British law still criminalized homosexual behavior . In the following generation of activists , Edward Carpenter used anthropology to appeal to , seeing intimacy between men as a way to overcome society class Carpenter advocated on behalf of homosexuals like himself and for women rights , ism , and socialism . The idea of camaraderie ( as he read the meaning of the American poet Walt Whitman ) was central to his work and activism . In 1914 , Carpenter published Types among Folk , where he used intermediate to describe genders and among peoples in tribal and ancient societies . By terms like invert or , he argued that tive genders and were natural to individuals and Although the notion that homosexual men were effeminate and bian women were masculine was an enduring stereotype that sexology promoted , some started to untangle gender from sexuality . asserted that homosexuals had traits , but he was the to study men and women and found that most of them were heterosexual . As a result , his 1910 The

History 145 Erotic Drive to understood for sexual pleasure as separate from Noting that a difference between gender expression and sexual desire was an important contribution to the . another German who advocated for the repeal of Paragraph 175 , challenged the popular idea that homosexuality was related to the presence of and was one of the scholars to attack the popular notion of degeneracy found in the work of His anthropological and historical evidence of behavior existing around the world argued that it should be understood as naturally occurring difference . After more than a century , the ideas of , Ellis and , Carpenter , and continue to how gender and sexuality are interpreted . Sexology described homosexuality in myriad ways ( an innate condition theorists as degenerate or benign , a learned behavior resulting from sexual excess , trauma , or no access to the preferred sex object , thing that should not or should be criminalized , and ( an individual liberty or a social problem . The ideas and terminology that developed continue to provide the contradictory framework through which arguments about sexuality are made . Figure . Public domain . A German sexologist who advocated repeal of Paragraph 175 and challenged the popular idea that homosexuality was a degeneracy related to the presence of sex characteristics . His anthropological and historical evidence argued that because behavior existed around the world , it should be understood as naturally occurring difference .

146 Introduction to Studies Sigmund Freud An Austrian founder of psychoanalysis famous for his developmental theory that all individuals pass through stages ( including the Oedipal crisis ) that end with achieving heterosexuality or being diverted to other forms of desire . Freud rejected the ideas that homosexuality was an immoral , criminal condition or that sexuality was innate . He considered people to be innately desiring beings whose desire society directed by prescribing what were acceptable and preferred . perversions A term various used regarding sexual behaviors and attractions that were not about reproductive sexuality . Sigmund Freud included as perversions any acts outside of reproduction such as touching and kissing but did so without the condemning attitude , such as Richard von had . PSYCHOANALYSIS Psychoanalysts distinguished themselves from other because they understood becoming and developing sexuality as mental human processes that required mental , emotional labor rather than as simply happening naturally to the body . The most famous proponent of psychoanalysis was Sigmund Freud , whose 1905 Three Essays on the Theory ) responded to prior His system for absolute as individuals who had a sexual interest in their own sex exclusively , as individuals with a sexual interest in women and men , and contingent as individuals who preferred the opposite sex but who would have sex with someone of the same sex on the basis of Freud rejected the idea that homosexuality was an immoral condition or that sexuality was innate . He considered people to be innately desiring beings whose desire was shaped by society about what were acceptable and preferred . Nonetheless , he also considered the highest form of sexual development to be reproductive heterosexuality featuring active males and passive females . According to Freud , all but the most sexually repressed people perversions into their sexual routines . He perversions as acts outside reproduction such as touching and kissing . Freud created a multistage explanation for how people achieved adult heterosexuality or got diverted into other forms of desire . He claimed that all infants start with unfocused sexuality . Young children focused their desire on their mother . An Oedipal crisis , which ended infatuation with the mother , was the next stage to move children toward forming the gender roles and desire that was normative in Freud time . Freud attributed a girl rejection of her mother in favor of her father to the girl realizing she lacked a penis and being drawn to her father who had one . A boy moved from actively desiring his mother to passively identifying with his father because of castration anxiety . A boy realization that not everyone had a penis prompted anxiety that he could lose his . The boy recognition of adult male status and possessiveness led to fear that the father would castrate him if he acted on desire for the mother but also anticipation that the boy would gain that adult male status later in This early Oedipal crisis generally would be repressed and unable to enter into conscious thought , as girls converted their penis envy into desire to have a baby and boys grew into men who desired sex with women . repressed feelings to the unconscious , however , would leave people in denial of their own motives and reasons for their actions , making it hard for them to understand why they were heterosexual or interested in Freud theory of the unconscious also made

History 147 it difficult to prove his claims , but became wildly popular in the United LEGACIES Sexology and the law were two key social institutions that produced the category of the homosexual as a form of social identity . Gradually , as people accessed sexology texts and terms from the through the , they internalized this new form of identity , which then became a key component of their sense of self . When homosexual men and women internalized sexual orientation as part of identity they often had to grapple with how sexology and psychoanalysis explicitly or implicitly positioned homosexuality as somehow inferior to reproductive heterosexuality . Both sexology and psychoanalysis presented stereotypes about der expression , immaturity , and excess that circulated in society . By the , psychologists in Europe , the United States , and the imperially world used Freudian psychoanalysis to rationalize treatments that conformed women to passive homemaking roles and the of homosexuality as a disorder ( until 1973 in the United States ) Feminists and then gay began to attack the incestuous overtones of Freudian theory and its disparaging references to women as anatomically and emotionally inferior . The French philosopher Simone de 1949 The Second Sex , the American feminist journalist Betty 1963 The Mystique ( and American feminist books Figure . Betty . Public domain , Fred . Oedipal crisis A stage in Sigmund Freud theory that follows the stages of infants unfocused sexuality and infants focus on their mother as the object of desire . Freud posited that both girls and boys passed through an Oedipal crisis when they came to want a penis . Freud attributed a rejection of her mother in favor of her father to the girl realization that she did not have a penis , being drawn to her father who did . In Freud formulation , a boy moved from an active desire for his mother to a passive with his father as a result of castration anxiety . castration anxiety A feature of Sigmund Freud theory of the Oedipal crisis whereby a boy realizes that not everyone has a penis , which prompts anxiety that he could lose his . The boy recognition of adult male status and possessiveness leads to fear that the father would castrate him if he acted on his desire for the mother and to anticipation of gaining that status later in life .

148 Introduction to Studies from 1970 like Kate Sexual Politics and The ' all sought to debunk Freud in the name of womens Gay built on this feminist foundation to draw the homosexual rights activism that had emerged in the late away from rhetorical reliance on a sexology or psychoanalysis framework while still working to challenge the of love . KEY QUESTIONS What histories of genders and cussed in this chapter surprised you ?

What were you already familiar with , and why ?

What are three examples of activism , and how are they related to other struggles for civil rights in the United States ?

What important role does play in the history recounted in this chapter ?

Choose three glossary terms how would you them using your own words ?

RESEARCH RESOURCES Compiled by Carrie Discuss Choose one or two resources listed in this chapter , and discuss them in relation to what you have learned about history . Present Choose a key topic or event found in this chapter . Then locate one or two resources from the Quick Dip and Deep Dive sections and develop a presentation for the class . Explain the of the topic , and provide additional details that support your explanation . Create What idea , person , or event from this chapter really moved you ?

Do more research on that idea , person , or event based on the resources in this chapter . Then create your own artistic response . Consider writing a poem , drawing a picture , or editing a photograph in a way that demonstrates both History 149 what you have learned and how you feel about the issue or person . Debate Find a partner or split into groups , and choose a topic , idea , or controversy from this chapter . Have each ner or group present an opposing perspective on it . Use at least two of the resources in this chapter to support your argument . QUICK DIP ONLINE RESOURCES ACT UP Oral History Project The ACT UP Oral History Project ( interviews surviving members of the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT UP ) New York . The project includes almost two hundred interviews , with clips and transcriptions of each interview available on the website . This is a critical primary source for understanding the impact of AIDS on the community . Committee on Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Transgender History The Committee on Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Transgender History ( is an organization of the American Historical Association and holds annual meetings in conjunction with the ation conference . The committee was founded in 1979 to promote the study of populations in the past and present . Its website a collection of syllabi from history courses ( national and international ) citations for dissertations focused on history , and other resources . Digital Transgender Archive The Digital Transgender Archive ( provides an online repository of digitized historical materials , digital materials , and information on archival holdings throughout the world . Based at the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester , the archive is an international collaboration among more than fifty colleges , universities , organizations , public libraries , and private collections . This collection serves as a critical resource for researchers who need access to materials on transgender history and culture .

150 Introduction to Studies Diverse Sexuality and Gender Section The Diverse Sexuality and Gender Section of the Society of American promotes the preservation and research use of records history ( Lesbian Archives The Lesbian Archives , in New York City , is home to the largest collection of materials by and about lesbians and their ties . The project and makes available online some of the Archives audio and video interviews ( Among the important items in this collection are audio recordings of speeches and readings by Lorde audio interviews from the Boots of Leather , Slippers Gold project , which documents a lesbian community in Buffalo , New York and video interviews from the Daughters of Video Project . This resource makes available invaluable primary sources on the history of lesbian life in the United States . Archives , Libraries , Research Centers , and Special Collections Karla Strand , Gender and Women Studies Librarian at the University of Wisconsin , compiled a list of links to and information about library and archival resources . Although most of these are physical , many also have a digital presence , with either portions of their collections digitized or other materials freely available , such as curriculum documents and lesson plans that center on studies and tory . See . ONE National Gay and Lesbian Archives The University of Southern California Digital Library makes some items from the ONE Archives collection available online ( Founded in 1952 , the ONE National Gay and Lesbian Archives is the oldest active organization in the United States and the largest repository of materials in the world . The digital collection encompasses over six

History 151 sand artifacts , including photographs , letters , periodicals , audio recordings , advertisements , and other materials , mostly from the to . Founded in 2008 by Ned ( author of Gay American tory ) the website ( tells the stories of individuals , from the to present . Visitors can browse entries by time period , location , and subject or search among a tion of documents from the movement . The site also includes timelines , oral histories , curated , and other materials that make it a rich source for both research and teaching . Washington Blade Archive Established in 1969 , the Washington Blade is one of the oldest publications in the United States . Beginning as a monthly publication and eventually transitioning to a weekly publication , the Blade covers current events from an perspective and the social and cal progress of the gay rights movement ( The digital archive ( from the Washington , Public Library encompasses issues from 1969 to 1989 , with other issues to be added . The current publication is updated online daily and includes local , national , and world news . DEEP DIVE BOOKS AND FILM After Stonewall From the Riots to the Millennium , directed by John This 1999 sequel to the Stonewall , After wall chronicles history in the United States from 1969 through the end of the twentieth century . It includes interviews with prominent , including Dorothy Allison , Barney Frank , and Barbara . The also examines how the AIDS sis affected and changed the gay rights movement . After Stonewall won Outstanding Documentary Feature at the 1999 Los Angeles and was nominated for a Media Award in 2000 ( New York First Run Features )

152 Introduction to Studies And the Band Played on Politics , People , and the AIDS Epidemic , by Randy , a former reporter for the Advocate and the San Francisco , broke new ground with his incisive exploration of the AIDS crisis as it ensnared the United States in the latter part of the twentieth century . This volume , which serves as the basis for the of the same name , lays out the missteps of the federal government in not addressing the crisis and the response from the gay community . It is required reading for anyone who wants to understand the impact of the AIDS crisis ( New York Martin Press , 2000 ) Before Stonewall The Making of a Gay and Lesbian Community , directed by Greta Schiller and Robert Originally released in 1984 , Stonewall was restored in 2019 in with the anniversary of the Stonewall rebellion . It history in the United States from the early twentieth century up until the Stonewall rebellion in 1969 . The uses archival footage and interviews with activists , writers , and historians , including Allen , Lorde , Barbara , and Martin . Before Stonewall is a vital documentation of life in the United States before the watershed moments in the gay rights movement . The won an Emmy Award in 1987 for Best Program and Best Research ( New York First Run Features ) Daughters A History of the Daughters and the Rise of the Lesbian Rights Movement , by Marcia Gallo Gallo chronicles the history of the Daughters of , a San based organization committed to lesbian visibility and empowerment that emerged in the Cold War era . Through interviews with several dozen mer members of the Daughters of , Gallo preserves a critical piece of lesbian history and the history of the larger community ( New York Carroll and , 2006 ) Gay American History Lesbians and Gay Men in the USA . by Jonathan Ned work encompasses a broad view of gay and lesbian history in the United States , from the sixteenth century through the . It covers US . history from the earliest European settlers and Native Americans to

History contemporary times . The book includes reprints of rare documents resenting over four hundred years of oppression , and struggle experienced by the gay and lesbian community ( New York Meridian , 1992 ) The Gay Revolution The Story of the Struggle , by Lillian This extensive history of the rights movement in the United States covers the through . lengthy volume , which was honored as a Stonewall Honor Book in , is based on thorough research and interviews with more than 150 individuals who were part of the rights movement ( New York Simon and , 2015 ) Not Straight , Not White Black Gay Men from the March on Washington to the AIDS Crisis , by Kevin This volume examines the history of Black gay men from the through the in the United States . It covers the lives of both famous and Black gay activists , including ames Baldwin , Bayard , Beam , and Brother Fitzgerald . additionally analyzes how social movements inspired and marginalized Black gay men , and he draws on an extensive archive of newspapers , pornography , and , as well as government documents and personal papers , to support his arguments ( Chapel Hill University of North Press , 2016 ) our Gay History in 50 States , by Stout Created as an educational resource for ages and up , this book tells the story of queer history , state by state . It covers people , places , and events and highlights struggles , successes , and contributions of the community in all states ( Point Media , 2019 ) Queer Brown Voices Personal Narratives of Activism , edited by Uriel , Gomez , and Salvador This volume breaks ground in chronicling activism in the community in the through the . The experiences of fourteen

154 Introduction to Studies activists from the United States and Puerto Rico are presented in essays and oral histories , offering a new perspective on the history of mobilization and activism within the community . Activists in the book detail their work in organizations and discuss the impacts of racism and discrimination in the larger community ( Austin University of Texas Press , 2015 ) Stonewall The Story of the Rights Uprising That Changed America , by Martin Originally published in 1993 , Martin history of the Stonewall rebellion remains a account of the landmark event in the gay rights movement . Through interviews with several who were present at Stonewall , describes the transformational event and its impact on gay rights history . A Distinguished Professor Emeritus of History at the City University of New York and author of multiple works on gay history , is a leading scholar in the , and Stonewall is a scholarly yet accessible work that chronicles an important period in tory ( New York Penguin Random House , 2019 ) The Times of Harvey Milk , directed by Robert Epstein Harvey Milk was the first openly gay politician in California when he was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors . This 1984 documents Milk rise from a neighborhood activist to his work on the board of supervisors and his assassination in November 1978 at San Francisco city hall . In 2012 , the was deemed culturally , historically , or aesthetically by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry ( New York New Yorker Films , 1984 ) Transgender The Roots of Today Revolution , by Susan Stryker Stryker concise history of transgender life and activism in the United States is essential reading for those who want to understand the history of this community . A renowned researcher and professor of gender and women studies at the University of Arizona , Stryker in this volume covers transgender history from the century to today . She highlights major texts and speeches in transgender history and brief biographies of key in the transgender community ( New York Seal Press , 2017 )

History 155 GLOSSARY . A term used in a variety of , usually by alist movements that want to secede from a larger polity ( usually in the form of an empire but also in a sovereign state ) or as a specific theory opposed to capitalism in course , derived from Vladimir Lenin work Imperialism , the Highest Stage of Capitalism . castration anxiety . A feature of Sigmund Freud theory of the Oedipal crisis whereby a boy realizes that not everyone has a penis , which prompts anxiety that he could lose his . The boy recognition of adult male status and possessiveness leads to fear that the father would castrate him if he acted on his desire for the mother and to anticipation of gaining that status later in life . degeneracy . Behavior that deviates from the norm and that society immoral , inferior , pathological , relation to ary retreat from progress . Edward Carpenter . British activist who advocated on behalf of like himself and for women rights , vegetarianism , and ism . His 1914 Intermediate ) among describes genders and among peoples in tribal and ancient societies as naturally individuals and society . essentialist . The View that every entity has a set of attributes that are necessary to its identity and function . fairy . A term from New York applied to effeminate men . legislation . State and federal laws intended to protect against hate crimes ( also known as bias crimes ) motivated by enmity or mus against a protected class of persons . Although state laws vary , current statutes permit federal prosecution of hate crimes committed on the basis of a person protected characteristics of race , religion , ethnicity , nationality , gender , sexual orientation , gender identity , and disability . Havelock Ellis . The British physician who Sexual Inversion in 1897 . The medical textbook claimed inversion was an involuntary physiological abnormality of the body on the basis of the authors interpretation of examples . Ellis argued that inversion should not be criminalized because it could not be helped . The belief that heterosexuality , predicated on the gender binary , is the norm or default sexual orientation .

156 Introduction to Studies movement . Coined by the German astrologist , author , and psychoanalyst in his 1924 doctoral und , was in common use in the and 19605 by homosexual organizations and the groups of this period are now known collectively as the movement . Refers to an analytic framework used to understand how social identities , including race , class , gender , sexuality , and ability , intersect to the discrimination or privilege an vidual faces within society . The term was coined by Crenshaw . inversion . An early theory of homosexuality developed by Havelock Ellis and ohn that suggested desire was by inborn psychic with femininity for men and masculinity for women . A German who advocated repeal of Paragraph 175 and challenged the popular idea that homosexuality was a degeneracy related to the presence of tics . His anthropological and historical evidence argued that because behavior existed around the world , it should be understood as naturally occurring difference . ohn . The British literary critic and historian who Sexual Inversion in 1897 . was at the forefront of homosexual rights activism in England , where , until 1866 , sexuality was punishable by death . In life and through 1967 , British law still criminalized homosexual behavior . Karl Heinrich . The German lawyer in sexology who theorized that male desire for men existed because such men had a female psyche ( mind , soul , spirit ) and who argued that consensual adult love was a human right . The human rights journalist and sexologist who coined the words heterosexual and homosexual in 1868 as two forms of strong sex drive apart from reproductive goals . Initially both terms included an idea of excessive behavior . Magnus . A German physician who advocated for homosexual rights from 1896 through 1935 in his publications , by forming the Scientific Humanitarian Committee in 1897 and by creating a private sexology research institute in 1919 in Germany . nondiscrimination laws . Also called laws refers to legislation designed to prevent discrimination against particular groups of people .

History 157 norms . Collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as individual perceptions of particular group conduct . Oedipal crisis . A stage in Sigmund Freud theory that follows the stages of infants unfocused sexuality and infants focus on their mother as the object of desire . Freud posited that both girls and boys passed through an Oedipal crisis when they came to want a penis . Freud attributed a girl rejection of her mother in favor of her father to the girl realization that she did not have a penis , being drawn to her father who did . In Freud formulation , a boy moved from an active desire for his mother to a passive with his father as a result of castration anxiety . pansexual . The sexual , romantic , or emotional attraction toward people regardless of their sex or gender identity . Paragraph 175 of the German Imperial Penal Code . A German sodomy law in effect from 1871 to 1969 that spurred activism for its repeal . passing . In the context of gender , this refers to someone , typically either a transgender person or , who is perceived as the gender they wish to present as . perversions . A term various used regarding sexual behaviors and attractions that were not about reproductive . Sigmund Freud included as perversions any acts outside of reproduction such as touching and kissing but did so without the condemning attitude , such as Richard had . queer . Pertaining to a person or group that does not fall within the gender binary or heterosexuality . Richard von I ( A German who that anything outside reproductive sex was inferior and immoral deviation . He produced a book categorizing deviance and argued in favor of laws . romantic friendships . Also called passionate friendships or affectionate friendships , very close but typically nonsexual relationships between friends , often involving a degree of physical closeness beyond what is common in contemporary Western societies . attraction . Attraction between members of the same gender . sex assignment . The determination of an infant sex at birth . sexology . The study of human sexuality , including human interests , behaviors , and functions . Sigmund Freud . An Austrian founder of psychoanalysis famous for his developmental theory that all individuals pass through emotional stages ( including the Oedipal crisis ) that end with

158 Introduction to Studies ing heterosexuality or being diverted to other forms of desire . Freud rejected the ideas that homosexuality was an immoral , criminal condition or that sexuality was innate . He considered people to be innately desiring beings whose desire society directed by prescribing what were acceptable and preferred . social construction . A theory of knowledge in sociology and cation theory that examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world that form the basis for shared about reality . sodomites . People who engage in nonreproductive sex acts , especially anal or oral sex . sodomy . Anal or oral sex . people . A modern umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who a traditional ( or other gender variant ) ceremonial role in their cultures . urning . Karl Heinrich term from Plato for his theory that love was biologically inborn and one partner having an internal female psyche . NOTES . Karl Heinrich and the , updated , 2020 , 1870 ) in We Are Everywhere A Historical and Lesbian Politics , ed . and ( New York , 1997 ) Paragraph 175 of the German Imperial Penal Code ( 1871 ) in and , We Are Everywhere , 63 . Invention of Heterosexuality , Von , Psychopathia , with Especial Reference to Contrary Sexual Instinct A Study , trans . Charles Gilbert ( Davis , 1894 ) Psychopathic , 400 . Racism and the Invention of the Homosexual . Selections from The Trans The Erotic Drive to , in The Transgender Studies Reader , ed . Stryker and Whittle ( New York , 2006 ) 149 . Homosexuality of Men and Women ( NY Books , 2000 ) 10 . and , The Early Homosexual Rights Movement , rev . ed . Ojai , CA limes Change Press , 1995 )

History 159 11 . Ellis , Sexual Inversion ( London University Press , 1897 ) 12 . Miller , The Outcast Redeemer , Politics and Culture , no . May 24 , 2010 ) 13 . Carpenter , The Intermediate Sex , in and , We Are Everywhere , 14 . Selections from The . 15 . Anthropological Studies in the Strange Sexual Practises All Races in All Ages , Ancient and Modern , Oriental and Occidental , Primitive and Civilized ( New York AMS Press , 1933 ) 16 . Freud , Three Essays on the Theory Sexuality ( New York Basic Books , 2000 ) 17 . Freud , 18 . Freud , The Dissolution of the Oedipus Complex , in The Freud Reader , ed . Gay ( New York Norton , 1995 ) 19 . Freud , 20 . de , Second Sex , trans . UK Books , 1949 ) The Feminine Mystique ( New York Norton , 1963 ) Sexual Politics ( Garden City , NY , 1970 ) Firestone , The Dialectic of Sex The Case for Feminist Revolution ( New York Morrow , 1970 ) 21 . The Trials of Alice Mitchell Sensationalism , and the Lesbian Subject in America , Signs 18 , no . Summer 1993 ) 22 . Gay New York , Lesbian Histories and Cultures An Encyclopedia ( New York Garland , 2003 ) 23 . Gay New York , 24 . Coming Out under Fire The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two ( New York Free Press , 1990 ) 201 , 227 , 228 . 25 . Coming Out under Fire Boyd , 49 , Softball and Alcohol The Limits of Lesbian Community in Memphis from the through the , in . Howard , On in the Lesbian and Gay South , Emilio , Sexual Politics , Sexual Communities The Making a Homosexual Minority in the United States , ed . Chicago University of Chicago Press , 1983 ) and Timmons , Gay , 73 , 87 Kennedy and Davis , Boots of Leather , Slippers of Gold The History of a Lesbian Community ( New York Penguin Books , 1993 ) Contacts Desired Gay and Lesbian Communications and Community , Chicago University of Chicago Press , 2006 ) Sears , Lonely Hunters An Oral History of Lesbian and Gay Southern Life , New York Press , 1997 ) Stein , City of Brotherly and Sisterly Loves Lesbian and Gay , Philadelphia Temple University Press , 2004 ) 26 . The Straight State Sexuality and citizenship in America ( Princeton , Princeton University Press , 2009 ) Emilio , Sexual Politics , Sexual Communities Leslie , Creating Criminals The Injuries by Unenforced Sodomy Laws , Harvard Civil Liberties Law Review 35 ( 2000 ) Lewis , Lifting the Ban on Gays in the Civil Service Federal Policy toward Gay and Lesbian Employees since the Cold War , Public Administration Review 57 , no . 1997 )

160 Introduction to Studies 27 . Groves , And They Were Teachers Florida Purge of Gay and Lesbian Teachers ( University of Illinois Press , 2009 ) Johnson , The Lavender Scare The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government ( Chicago University of Chicago Press , 2004 ) 28 . Wisely , When We Go to Deal with City Hall , We Put on a Shirt and Tie Gay Rights Movement Done the Dallas Way , University of North Texas , Denton , 2018 ) 29 . Emilio , Sexual Politics , Sexual Communities , 30 . Emilio , 63 , 65 ellipsis in the original see also Kaiser , The Gay Metropolis ( Boston , MA , 1997 ) 123 . Emilio , Sexual Politics , Sexual Communities , 87 Gallo , Daughters A History of the Daughters and the Rise the Lesbian Rights Movement ( New York Carroll and , 2006 ) 178 . 32 . and Stryker , Screaming Queens The Riot at ton Cafeteria ( San Francisco , CA , 2005 ) Stryker , Transgender History ( Berkeley , CA Seal , 2008 ) 33 . Carter , Stonewall The Riots That Sparked the Gay Revolution ( New York Martin , 2004 ) 68 , 80 , 141 , 156 man , Stonewall ( New York Plume Books , 1993 ) 34 . IV , Gay Power Comes to Sheridan Square , Village Voice , 1969 , 35 . Carter , Stonewall , 36 . Carl , A Gay Manifesto , in We Are Everywhere A Historical Gay and Lesbian Politics , ed . and ( New York , 1997 ) Jay and A . Young , Out of the Closets Voices of Gay Liberation ( New York New York University Press , 1992 ) Empowering Members , Not Overpowering Them The National Organization for Women , Calls for Lesbian Inclusion , and California , journal of Homosexuality 57 , no . 2010 ) 37 . History , accessed April 11 , 2021 , 38 . Queer America A People History of the United States ( New York New Press , 2008 ) 136 . 39 . Departing Deviance A History of Homosexual Rights and Science in America ( Chicago University of Chicago Press , 2002 ) 40 . Queer America , 41 . American Psychiatric Association , Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , ed . Washington , APA , 1980 ) gender identity disorder of childhood , 42 . Stein , Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement ( New York ledge , 2012 ) 133 . 43 . Stein , 44 . Queer America , 167 , 182 . 45 . Lawrence Texas , 539 US . 558 ( 2003 )

History 161 46 . Queer America , 47 . River Collective , A Black Feminist Statement , in Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism , ed . New York Monthly Review Press , 1978 ) 210 . 48 . Lawrence , Rare Cancer Seen in 41 Homosexuals , New York , 1981 . Also see . Victory Deferred How AIDS Changed Gay in America ( Chicago University of Chicago Press , 1999 ) 49 , And the Band Played On Politics , People , and the AIDS Epidemic ( New York Martin , 1987 ) 37 , 49 . A Queer History of the United States ( Boston , MA Beacon Press , 2011 ) 225 , Queer America , 176 Stein , Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement , 50 . Queer America , 177 Stein , Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement , 155 . 51 . Queer History if the United States , 229 , Queer , 180 . 52 . Advisory Committee of the People with AIDS , The Denver , 1985 , accessed April 11 , 2021 , 53 . Queer History if the United States , 228 . 54 . Bowers , 478 186 ( 1986 ) 55 . Queer History of the United States , 231 Stein , Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement , 157 . 56 . Queer America , 177 Stein , Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement , 57 . Queer America , 58 . Vested Interests and Cultural Anxiety ( New York , 1991 ) Vice Versa Bisexuality and Eroticism of Everyday Life ( New York Simon and , 1995 ) Queen , ism for the Shy Show Dress Up and Talk Hot ( New York Down There Press , 1995 ) Queen , Real Live Nude Girl Chronicles of ture ( New York Press , 1997 ) Queen and , Challenging Assumptions about Gender and Sexuality ( New York Press , 1997 ) 59 . Queer America , 152 , 181 . 60 . Stein , Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement , 152 . 61 . Stein , 62 . 10 USC . 654 . 2965 , 4025 . 63 . Exec . Order No . 1998 . 64 . 3355 , Pub . 65 . 910 112 ( 1996 ) 66 . Hodges , 576 ( 2015 ) 67 . Spade , Normal Life Administrative Violence , Critical Dans tics , and the Limits Law ( Duke University Press , 2005 ) Sylvia Rivera Law Project , Announces of the Gender ment Act , News , April , 2009 ,

162 Introduction to Studies 68 . Why Marriage ?

The History Shaping Today Debate over Gay Equality ( New York Basic Books , 2004 ) Beyond Democracy , Equality , and Kinship for a New Century , Online 10 , nos . Fall 2012 ) Warner , The with Normal Sex , Politics , and the Ethics of Queer Life ( New York Free Press , 1999 ) 69 . Since When Is Marriage a Path to Liberation ?

National Lesbian and Gay Quarterly ( 1989 ) 70 . Karl Heinrich and the , updated , 2020 , 71 . 1870 ) in We Are Everywhere A Historical Gay and Lesbian Politics , ed . and ( New York , 1997 ) 72 . Paragraph 175 of the German Imperial Penal Code ( 1871 ) in and , We Are Everywhere , 63 . 73 . Invention Heterosexuality , 74 . von , Psychopathia , with Especial to Contrary Sexual Instinct A Study , trans . Charles Gilbert ( Davis , 1894 ) 75 . Psychopathia , 400 . 76 . Racism and the Invention of the Homosexual Body . 77 . Selections from The The Erotic Drive to , in The Studies Reader , ed . Stryker and Whittle ( New York , 2006 ) 149 . 78 . Homosexuality of Men and Women ( NY Books , 2000 ) 79 . and , The Early Homosexual Rights Movement , rev . ed . Ojai , CA Times Change Press , 1995 ) 80 . Ellis , Sexual Inversion ( London University Press , 1897 ) 81 . Miller , The Outcast Redeemer , Politics and Culture , no . May 24 , 2010 ) 82 . Carpenter , The Intermediate Sex , in and , We Are Everywhere , 83 . Selections from The . 84 . Anthropological Studies in the Strange Sexual Practises of All Races in All Ages , Ancient and Modern , Oriental and Occidental , Primitive and Civilized ( New York AMS Press , 1933 ) 85 . Freud , Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality ( New York Basic Books , 2000 ) 86 . Freud , 87 . Freud , The Dissolution of the Oedipus Complex , in The Freud Reader , ed . Gay ( New York Norton , 1995 ) 88 . Freud , 5505 . 89 . de , The Second Sex , trans . UK Penguin Books , 1949 ) The Feminine Mystique ( New York

History ton , 1963 ) Sexual Politics ( Garden City , NY , 1970 ) Firestone , The Dialectic Sex The Case for Revolution ( New York Morrow , 1970 )