Introduction to LGBTQ+ Studies A Cross-Disciplinary Approach Queer New World

90 Queer New World Challenging in Archaeology James LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter , students will be able to do the following studies and queer theory , and explain why queer theory matters in the of archaeology . Explain the social construction of sex , gender , and sexuality in both the present and the ancient past . key terms such as ' gender per , and ) and explain how they interpretations of the past . Describe from an perspective . Discuss archaeology as a key within . INTRODUCTION The word archaeology is derived from the Greek words , which means ancient , and logos , or Archaeology is generally as the study of the human past using material evidence ( physical things as diverse as pottery or pollen ) In North America , archaeology

Queer New World 91 is typically a of anthropology , along with cultural , linguistics , and . Archaeologists focus on the prehistoric , or preliterate , past , whereas historians study the literate past . These overlap , however , because historical records are sometimes used in archeology . The origins of archaeology are themselves logical because we know that ancient people across the world collected artifacts from periods that preceded them . For example , the Aztecs of Mexico collected objects from the earlier site of , and officials in the Chinese Song Empire excavated , cataloged , and studied ancient artifacts from their own culture . The current discipline of archaeology developed out of , an interest in ancient Rome , which has roots among ans as early as the century but is most closely associated with the collection of ancient objects in the nineteenth century . These include objects related to sex and sexuality , many of which were placed in of erotica like the Secretum at the British Museum and , for objects from and , in the of the Naples Archaeological Museum . Until relatively recently these sorts of collections were typically privately owned or restricted from public view , showing the discomfort that scholars and the public have had in addressing issues of gender and sexuality in open and systematic ways . The use of physical evidence to reconstruct the past is challenging because things can have multiple meanings to different people or mean different things in different . In 1917 , the artist Marcel placed an ordinary , urinal in an art exhibit , and that new context changed its meaning from a functional , everyday object to a work of art ( Similarly , cows are ordinary animals in North America and Europe , but in India they are sacred . Thus , to understand artifacts , archaeologists must interpret them according to the cultural the artifacts came from . This can be because the context may be unknown ( as in the case of looted artifacts ) inadequately excavated ( constraints of time or funding ) or drastically changed by time ( weather , erosion ) Even when we have texts that relate to the artifacts , those texts may not address the issues with which were concerned . For example , ancient Maya hieroglyphic writing describes politics and ritual but not sex and sexuality . We also can not ask the people who made or used archaeological objects what they meant . Although we can ask their descendants , their cultures may have changed enough that the original meanings are lost . The use of objects to understand complex and ally varied concepts like gender and sexuality is especially challenging . A discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings , their extinct ancestors , and related nonhuman primates , particularly from an evolutionary perspective . antiquarianism The study of history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and archaeological and historical sites . looted artifact An artifact that has been removed from its original archaeological context , usually illegally , by who do not record contextual information . Looted artifacts are often sold on the art market away from their place of origin . Archaeologists despise looting because an artifact without context is much less informative about the culture that produced it than an artifact with contextual information .

92 Introduction to Studies An archaeological region by precontact cultural traits such as a distinctive calendar system , maize agriculture , and political organization . It extended from northern Mexico through Belize , El Salvador , Honduras , and northern Costa . Within this region societies before the Spanish colonization of the Americas . Andes The longest continental mountain range in the world , forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America . Figure . Fountain . Public domain , Alfred . In this chapter , I identify some themes in the archaeology of and the Andes . I show that many of these new and observations have been inspired by feminist and queer theory . Although some aspects of queer theory have become almost mainstream in archaeology , the topics of sex , gender , and sexuality remain challenging ones for archaeologists . Watch View Queer Archaeology some Basics , by James ( a companion introduction to this chapter . What are some examples of categories and in our study of the past that show how hard it is to be neutral ?

In Western culture , homosexual behavior did have a fixed definition or identity until the late 18003 . Why is it important to understand this type of context when studying ancient cultures and artifacts ?

Queer New World 93 QUEER THEORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY Queer theory is often considered an aspect of critical theory with roots in feminism . It is and challenges archaeological of all notably But critiques of queer theory are not limited to sexuality , and some people argue that queer theory is not a theory ( or set of theories ) that explains the world but rather a way of looking critically at normative assumptions about the world ?

Archaeological engagement with queer theory came mainly through the of feminism The growing of feminism in the twentieth century led to critiques of existing norms around gender , sex , and sexuality in many , and by the late these critiques began to inform archaeological studies . Nevertheless , many archaeological ies implicitly assumed that the norms and institutions that we take for granted today were present and important in the distant past . Thus , archaeologists often assumed that the Western sex and gender binary oppositions ( male versus female and man versus woman ) were tive across all cultures or that institutions such as the nuclear family and monogamy also applied to ancient During the and feminist ideas became mainstream in archaeology , as shown in the many works about and by women in those decades . An important development was the entry of queer theory into the archaeological mainstream in the first years of the with two seminal collections a thematic issue of World Archaeology and the from a 2004 conference titled Que ( Archaeology ?

Since then , archaeologists have increasingly investigated assumptions about sex , gender , and sexuality , and queer theory has been used to challenge normative assumptions of all sorts . Although potentially any topic can be examined through a queer theory lens , the most uses of queer theory in archaeology have been in relation to gender , sex , and sexuality . This is in part because queer theory challenges essentialist and sociobiological ideas about these issues in popular discourse and in some scholarship . If we think of queer as being fundamentally disruptive , then a lot of early work that challenged fundamental assumptions could be called queer , even if those works were not labeled as such by their These studies express a queer emphasis on the instability of the subject and the of identity , as well as the characteristic of queer theory ?

Queer theory has questioned , and , the we use in archaeology ?

In archaeology , binary oppositions related to sex , gender , and sexuality like man versus woman critical theory The assessment and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities to reveal and challenge power structures . Critical theory has origins in and also in literary criticism . feminism A range of social movements , political movements , and ideologies that share a common goal to , establish , and achieve the political , economic , personal , and social equality of the sexes . A confrontation or opposition to a status quo or hegemonic power and its legitimacy in politics , but also appears in other spheres of life , such as history , media , and music . is the phenomenon in human societies of designating some actions or outcomes as good or desirable or permissible and others as bad or undesirable or impermissible The belief that heterosexuality , predicated on the gender binary , is the norm or default sexual orientation . binary oppositions Words and concepts that are considered to be direct opposites , such as man and woman , male and female .

94 Introduction to Studies Those who study human remains in archaeological sites . First coined by British archaeologist Clark in 1972 as a reference to , the study of animal bones from archaeological sites . and homosexual versus heterosexual have been the most heavily . A truly queer archaeology will question received categories of sexual politics and seek to develop archaeological that do not depend on these problematic sexual My work with the of ancient Maya pottery reminds me that all are created to answer particular questions and that not every question can be addressed with a single classification . So the idea that there is one , of bodies or gender or sexuality is no more reasonable than the belief that one really great way of classifying pottery could answer all our questions . THE OF SEX One that most people probably consider unchallengeable is that of the two sexes , male and female . But about percent of humans are born , and Anne and others have drawn attention to the range of variability in the sexual characteristics of human Biological sex is multifaceted , potentially designated in reference to chromosomes or DNA , hormones , breasts , genitals , reproductive ties , or in archaeology , skeletal characteristics . As notes , Labeling someone a man or a woman is a social decision . These complexities have been acknowledged by , who study human remains . In a discussion of ancient Maya human remains , Pamela remarks that femaleness and maleness reside at opposite ends of a continuum with ambiguity situated in the middle . Thus , it would appear that a strict binary opposition of female and male is supplanted by a continuum of sexual Indeed , Rebecca Storey may have an intersex person in a royal Maya tomb at , Some suggest approaching sex in a similar way to race , as a social construct The ways in which race is described as a social construct may be translatable to sex what we understand to be a biological sex is composed of a diverse set of variables that may not invariably pattern out into what we socially comprehend as male and female . In a 2016 issue of the of Archaeological Method and Theory dedicated to challenging binary binds , the editors heralded recent attempts to resist the types of persons we expect to see in the cal Many scholars now approach sex and gender as a continuum . emergent in practice . and potentially variable throughout the life course . Some archaeologists now prefer to see identity in general

Queer New World 95 as and is , a phenomenon that is processual and not a taxonomy , or a set of taxonomic . Furthermore , we can not assume that physical sex differences were as important to people in the past as they are to us and that they were given as much weight in identifying people . Even contemporary ideas about sex turn out to be , from the perspective of archaeology , relatively new . In his book Sex , Thomas shows that perceptions of the sexed body changed radically from antiquity until the twentieth Up until the eighteenth century , anatomical and physiological representations of male and female bodies in Western and Eastern medicine relied on a common , androgynous body with differently positioned but homologous reproductive organs in each sex , the vagina being an inverted and internalized penis and so forth . Physiological differences were explained by relative humoral balances , heat , or measures of yin or Even when the physical differences between the sexes were recognized , they were not important until the end of the , when they became useful in arguments for or against the role of women in education and public It bears repeating that classifications are not are created in cultural in relation to questions . SEX AND GENDER The distinction between sex as biologically determined and gender as socially learned was popularized by ohn Money and and is now a standard view in academia and But even the gender binary has been by queer theory . Butler argued that our biology is not a neutral base on which gender is culturally As shown by and others , even our bodies are culturally constructed in that they are understood in culturally According to Butler , Perhaps this construct called sex is as culturally constructed as gender indeed , perhaps it was always already gender , with the consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all . 24 Although some remind us that sex has a material reality and that the conceptual separation of sex from gender has been generally productive , others have followed Butler in arguing that our processual The methodological study of cultural change and variability in . taxonomy The practice and science of of things or concepts , including the principles that underlie such .

96 Introduction to Studies model often reduces gender to sex and tends to create normative and gender categories that risk being as simplistic as racial For example , in studies of women buried with weapons , like the famous de Cao burial in Peru , normative approaches to sex and gender may lead to the creation of an exotic gender type . instead of simply a woman , probably taking part in activities during her 26 A replica of de Cao can be seen in . We do expect to find women warriors , so we are surprised when we do , and this prompts us to treat them as anomalies in need of nation . Taken at face value , however , imagery from the past often does not present what we might consider gender expression as at all . One of the roles of the Aztec goddess , also known as , was as a primordial warrior , and she is depicted with warrior In Maya art , women warriors are depicted similarly to their male counterparts . A female warrior occupies a position of authority on the central axis of a prominent relief at the Maya site of , Mexico , wearing a feathered headdress and Figure . A replica of de Cao . Manuel Franco .

Queer New World 97 snake skirt and carrying weapons typical of an warrior . Clearly bare breasts signal that she is a woman . 23 Like male rulers , female rulers at several other Maya sites are depicted on carved stone stelae as warriors with subjugated which they literally stand ( As early as 1990 , some recommended we consider both sex and gender in terms of intensity or as existing on a spectrum , with some cultures allowing more freedom and in gender expression than others ?

Evidence for gender has been cited by archaeologists for decades and is often interpreted as symbolic of power rather than For example , imagery on from the Gulf Coast of Mexico could be an expression of supernatural In one case , a female wearing a high belt that is atypical for women may be assuming a certain status or role , or even a level of power , that is usually , but not exclusively , associated with men . A study of from the Early Formative period ( 1400 ) suggests that the lack of attention to genitalia on tracks with observations Figure . Maya stela from , Public domain , Thomas ) gender Cultural ideas about gender frequently imply that one gender identity is and unchanging . Gender describes situations in which a person gender identity may change throughout the life cycle or in different .

98 Introduction to Studies Figure . A drawing of , one of the deities described in the Codex Borgia . Public domain . Figure . A reproduction of one of the murals depicting the Great Goddess of . National Museum of Archaeology , Mexico City . from throughout groups that primary sexual characteristics often are not the focus of gender differentiation and Back in 1977 , the gender of deities was associated with cycles , such as the maize god and the moon In this century , the major Aztec god was found to have bisexual and gender qualities ( In studies of the great goddess imagery on the murals at the huge of , researchers have suggested that the murals referred to a deity , and this a broader pattern in which binary gender is not clearly represented at the site ( Analogies to

Queer New World 99 historically known and living Indigenous people have been used to explain or imagery in Maya Male bloodletting from the penis arguably conceptually transformed the male genitalia into a doubly potent agent of fertility , capable of shedding two semen and blood . Images like Stela at the Maya site of , Honduras ( in which a man is depicted in a net skirt , have also been interpreted as characteristics expressing ' The use of powerful feminine imagery by a man may be in the colonial United States by Edward Hyde , or Lord ( whose purported portrait is shown in ) who as the governor of New York and New between 1701 and 1708 , was Queen Anne representative . When he was criticized for reportedly opening the assembly dressed in clothing , he is said to have answered , You are very stupid not to see the propriety of it . In this place and particularly on this occasion I represent a woman and ought in all respects to represent her as faithfully as I Figure . Honduras , Stela ( Public Figure The purported of domain , Frederick , Views of Ancient ( dressed 35 there IS I Monuments in America , about the identity of the sitter . Public domain ,

100 Introduction to Studies Read points out the mistakes that contemporary may lead to when interpreting the past in Is That Skeleton Gay ?

The Problem with Projecting Modern Ideas onto the Past , published in Forbes , April , 2017 ( 201 ) What does want readers to take away from the of the three examples of skeletons or burials that do within our understanding of gender and sexuality in the past ?

highlights a remark by Discoveries of dents whose bodies have been as romantically entangled , compulsorily reproductive , or occupationally ed say more about our present state of affairs than they do about past interactions and What is said about our cultures current views on by the media coverage of the skeletons found together ?

Colonial New Yorkers may have thought of Lord as a trans person or , but Hyde own words suggest a less , more contextual identity . Many questions remain about the Lord story , but it reminds us that trans behavior in other times and places may have symbolic resonance beyond simply deviance . Further complicating interpretation is a warning about projecting our notions of , public trans ancient america Maya imaginations presented as a strategy for understanding cosmic power . For other elements of to fall completely outside of that context would have been unimaginable . AND How does the of gender and sex relate to sexuality ?

The historian Michel argues that sex and sexuality are embedded in discourses shaped by More recently , the historian David book How to Do the ' describes the problems inherent in applying our contemporary concept of sexuality to other places and This attention to and

Queer New World 101 is a hallmark of queer theory because of people and their actions depend on ideas about what is normal and what is In other words , culturally varied meanings of abjection and who is abject help and maintain the normative . Yet there is good evidence that what we as abject ( homosexuality , would not have been considered so deviant in many places and times in prehistory . For , the domain of the abject involved concerns about being incompletely human or physically unusual ( hybrids , dwarfs ) Intersex people ( known as hermaphrodites in earlier times ) fall in this But the ancient Maya may not have been concerned so much with homosexual sex as with anything taken to The sexuality of young men in Postclassic and Classic Maya society may itself have been more than any normative sexual model would allow . In art , young men were routinely represented as the objects of the gaze of older men and adult women . 49 Carved stone reliefs at a possible public building for young men at the Maya site of San Diego depict enema insertion , erratic ( probably drunken ) dances , disheveled hair , and what may be autoerotic asphyxiation , and many depictions are with a decided undertone of 51 like normal or deviant and man or woman implicitly heterosexual sexuality as normal and desire as deviant . This often occurs without adequate consideration of how people in other times and places have framed sexuality differently . Our contemporary social norms lead us to believe that homosexuality and desire are deviant . ever , people in other times and places may have framed sexuality , and in fact the contemporary Western focus on sexual practice as a fundamental aspect of social identity is itself historically unusual . Ingrid concludes that there is nothing wrong with studying when this is relevant what is argued is rather that the paradigm insists on the enduring and absolute relevance of sexuality . 52 , Performance , and The diversity of gender in the ancient world has drawn attention to our assumptions about gender is , the ranking of men above women . Gender ( sometimes called gender ism ) is an alternative to gender hierarchy in However , both gender hierarchy and gender have been critiqued as binary oppositions that downplay variability and difference . While these abjection The state of being cast off . explorations the term use inherently disturbing to conventional identity and cultural concepts . One who is abject has been rejected . gender hierarchy How genders are ranked . Men are typically ranked higher than women , having more power , prestige , and so on . gender Men and women ( and other genders , if they are recognized ) play similarly important roles but in different areas of social life . Gender more accurately describes gender relations than gender hierarchy in some times and places . gender parallelism Men and women ( and other genders , if culturally recognized ) have similar levels of power and prestige but in different areas of social life . Often used interchangeably with gender and as an alternative to gender hierarchy in some times and places ( in the Inca empire )

102 Introduction to Studies Social identities , such as race , class , and gender , that overlap or intersect and the related systems of oppression , domination , or discrimination . The that make up an individual identity , such as race , class , gender , and sexuality , and how these affect the person view of the world . performative A linguistics term referring to utterances that do not just describe the world but change it ( I pronounce you husband and wife ) Popularized by the scholar Butler in gender studies , the term highlights the idea that gender is not a given but must be continually demonstrated through word , action , dress , and so on . The concept derives from the linguistics term . models have most certainly been useful in structuring our analyses , they rely on binary understandings of the relationship between biological sex and gender and tend to obscure variability in ways we should not This variability is captured by the concepts of ity and that are characteristic of feminism and queer approaches to gender , sex , and Both are related to the idea that people have multiple aspects to their identity ( race , class ) that they emphasize or downplay in different and that take on different importance in different Many societies take pains to gender individuals with objects , tasks , and food , yet we repeatedly see that gender is not as important in the very young and the very old and that gender is often most strongly marked when people are of reproductive age . Similar criticisms can be made about the ( often implicit ) assumption that sexuality was as important in the creation of identity in the past as it is now . suggests that we consider a scale of intensity for societal interest in sex , gender , and In these terms , many contemporary people live in societies with unusually attitudes to gender , sex , and sexuality . For the Maya , the data suggest not only that Maya gender gies may not have been founded on a belief that binary biological sexes translate into binary identities , but also that other aspects of social identity such as age or class may have played a more prominent part in determining gender roles . Ethnographic and colonial sources suggest that the aging moon may have changed gender over the course of the a similar model apply to aging people ?

Lunar and related deities ( the pulque god ) are typically bisexual and Likewise , Maya and Aztec carnivalesque gender blending occurred near the ends of temporal As noted previously , in Butler writing even the sexed body is formed rather than existing as a in a performative approach , the body . gains legibility through cultural interaction rather than as an ontologically prior Gender and sexuality can be compared to style in that they are ways of doing as much as ways of being , an ongoing performance rather than inborn , static states . The repeated of the acts and themselves , producing the identity of which they are thought to be the expressions . Intersectional Approaches to Ancient Identity Some Examples The deconstruction of received ( often binary ) a focus on individuals and variation over groups and norms , and Butler cept of have led to more contextual , localized , diachronic

Queer New World ( changing over time ) approaches . Some have called for more , intersectional , studies in some cases focused on individuals , not groups , thus effectively deconstructing gender as an ontological In this view , prehistoric identities do not rely on the notion of a core , ble self that remains unchanged throughout the . Instead , identity is and enacted or embodied in ways that capture the lived experiences of past Because we enact exclusionary practices on our data through the ical categories we deploy to make the past known to us , many scholars now advocate intersectional approaches that allow variation along more than one or two The following are some New World examples . Gender , Sexuality , Age , and Occupation A study of the early historical of California argues that ers were either men who engaged in homosexual acts or women . They were categorized together because their sexual activity did not result in conception and birth . In this case , occupation , age , and reproductive potential intersected with gender and sexual behavior in a classification system that differs greatly from familiar contemporary ones . Sexuality , Ethnicity , and Status Like gender , sexuality may be thought about , experienced and acted on differently according to age , class , ethnicity , physical ability , sexual orientation and preference , religion , and Recognition of this is apparent in the concept of used in a study of Spanish colonialism to refer to the clash between incompatible cultural beliefs and practices related to sexuality . Pete cites evidence for an institutionalized availability of ( the mentioned later ) for elite men in precontact Aztec society . has also drawn broad comparisons between Greek and Maya pederasty in the training of elite The discourse language of showed that nobles were allowed to engage in erotic games that stressed the power of the elder noble over the younger . 72 Religion , Status , and Sexuality The of Peru ( ca . AD ) produced a huge number of ally explicit pottery vessels that were often placed in burials

104 Introduction to Studies ( and ) Researchers linked the sexual imagery not to identity but to politics and power , including dependent relationships with dead One researcher has described the religious use of male sexuality in the Andes , and others have done the same for For example , among the Aztecs , the effeminate Figure . Phallic pottery vessel . SA , Commons , File , Museum , 68 ) Figure . Two Lovers pottery vessel . SA , Commons , Museum ,

Queer New World 105 Read Read the article Sex Pots Reproduction and Temporality in Ancient South America , by Mary in the September 2004 issue of American Anthropologist ( When you look at the phallic pottery vessel in , what do you see , and what do you think it means ?

How does factoring in general knowledge about and politics alter our interpretation of the pottery vessel ?

What is an example of an object or imagery from the ent time and culture that shows the intersection of religion , status , and sexuality ?

provided warriors with a variety of services , including sex . At other times , the , some of whom were housed in the , were available for sexual favors and other chores to priests and other members of the high 75 asserts that sodomy in the period immediately preceding the Aztec conquest was related to the gods , and ritual , and closely associated with disease and woe , and he notes that the ancient Maya forcibly sodomized their gods in order to masculinize themselves and gain power from the 77 Indeed , concludes that concepts like the transsexual penis and phallus are almost incomprehensible to a Western imagination . For the Maya , sexual desire and fantasy went beyond the delineated by Freud and the . Sexual behavior did not exist as a discernible category of sexuality but rather as an element of 78 Gender , Sexuality , and Colonialism Gender and status were intimately linked in both Indigenous and Latin America . Some Indigenous cultures ( the Maya and Aztec ) shared with the Spanish the idea that people conquered in war were feminine , and sodomy was a metaphor for conquest Elites among the Maya considered passivity in males feminine and viewed the vanquished warrior as symbolically if not actually less , many authors have argued that the intersection of gender , ity , and status during the Spanish invasion and subsequent colonial period , leading to the increased oppression of women and Others of all sorts . Effeminate men who had a range of institutional roles in Aztec society .

106 Introduction to Studies Figure . Indians being attacked by dogs illustration from Les Grandes ( 1596 ) by de ( de . Europeans in the New World sought to expressions of gender and sexuality that did not correspond with their ideas . An infamous print ( depicts de Balboa , a Spanish explorer , Conquistador , and governor , as he throws some Indians , who had committed the terrible sin of sodomy , to the dogs to be torn apart . Indeed , one of the insidious legacies of colonialism is the widespread idea that Indigenous cultures have always been conservative and restrictive around issues of gender , sex , and when in many cases that conservatism was imposed on them during colonization . Archaeologists and our colleagues in cultural anthropology and history are showing instead that the many cultures of the New World held diverse ideas about these issues and that this evidence must be understood on its own terms , not on ours . CONCLUSION Academics in many now challenge normative of ple and behavior . lust as anthropologists long ago abandoned terms like savage and the application of racial , so in archaeology we are gradually abandoning the uncritical use of terms like heterosexual

and homosexual and ethnocentric assumptions about gender , sexuality , and their centrality to identity . wrote about the role of experts in medicine and science in the creation of normative are some of those experts , and we have become more about our interpretations of issues around sex , gender , and sexuality . The of museum dioramas that present a timeless View of the nuclear family has been Even as recently as 2013 a study of seventy years of reconstructions of ancient life in National Geographic concluded that women and women work are underrepresented and undervalued and that a vigorous archaeology of gender has had little impact on the magazine imagined 53 Clearly , we have more to do . Archaeologists who engage with these issues are not just trying to dig up people we are trying to challenge in all its forms . KEY QUESTIONS Why is an understanding of queer theory important in ing ancient gender and sexuality through archaeology ?

What are three examples of the social construction of sex , gender , and sexuality in either the present or the ancient past ?

How do , gender , and binary oppositions interpretations of the past ?

How would you , and why is it to queer archaeology ?

How has the study of sex and gender changed over the years in archaeology ?

RESEARCH RESOURCES Compiled by Discuss Choose one or two resources listed in this chapter , and discuss them in relation to what you have learned about queer archaeology . Present Choose a key topic or event found in this chapter . Then locate one or two resources from the Quick Dip and Deep Dive sections and develop a presentation for the class . Queer New World 107 ethnocentric A term used in social sciences and anthropology to describe the act of judging another culture by the values and standards of one own culture in the belief that one culture is superior , especially with respect to language , behavior , customs , and religion .

108 Introduction to Studies Explain the of the topic , and provide additional details that support your explanation . Create What idea , person , or event from this chapter really moved you ?

Do more research on that idea , person , or event based on the resources in this chapter . Then create your own artistic response . Consider writing a poem , drawing a picture , or editing a photograph in a way that demonstrates both what you have learned and how you feel about the issue or person . Debate Find a partner or split into groups , and choose a topic , idea , or controversy from this chapter . Have each ner or group present an opposing perspective on it . Use at least two of the resources in this chapter to support your argument . QUICK DIP ONLINE RESOURCES More Sex Studying Sexuality and Roles in Archaeology , from Rosemary Joyce Rosemary is professor of anthropology at the University of nia , Berkeley , and a preeminent scholar in sex and sexuality in . in his podcast jones Myth , and Century Archaeology , interviewed ( archaeology ) She discusses the evolution of research in the archaeology of gender and sex as a beginning in the 19805 , when began to more directly explore and interrogate gender roles , labor , and societal structures of the past . In the latter half of the interview , describes the emergence of feminist and queer archaeology in the as a rejection of archaeological practices that naturalized gender and sex as heteronormative and . discusses many detailed examples from the Paleolithic , Assyrian , Egyptian , Greek , Roman , medieval , and time periods and up to modern to illustrate the varied methods and interpretations used in the study of gender , sex , and sexuality in the archaeological record . Queer Archaeology , from Chelsea and Megan Chelsea is assistant professor of anthropology at the University of California , Santa Cruz , and Megan is a historical

Queer New World 109 who edited and contributed to America A Theme Study of Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and Queer History for the National Park Foundation and the National Park Service . In this interview , on the podcast Go Dig a Hole , hosted by Christopher Sims ( they provide a broader view of queer archaeology , including not only theory and based scholarship but also how the field is present in other types of professional work . discusses definitions of queer archaeology in relation to queer theory and feminist theory , ing contributions by eminent in the field . introduces the Heritage project within the National Park Service , which preserves important sites on the National Register of Historic Places of the National Historic Landmarks program . They describe what ing archaeology and building inclusive archaeology means to them in academic and professional spaces . They also give advice to early career archaeologists and undergraduates on how to acquire knowledge and skills in queer theory and archaeology . SAA Queer Archaeology Interest Group The first meeting of the Queer Archaeology Interest Group occurred at the eightieth annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology ( SAA ) in 2015 . The group focuses on queer experience in the , and its interests lie in supporting professional archaeologists who identify as . They advocate for establishing a network of scholars interested in sexuality studies and other forms of queer research work to develop a support and mentorship program for archaeologists as a means to connect senior , junior , and student archaeologists and facilitate the involvement of archaeologists in all aspects of the SAA . See . What Know Well Why Feminism Matters to Archaeology , by Alison Alison is a professor of philosophy and anthropology at the of Washington and professor of philosophy at University in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , gave the Distinguished Lecture in the Humanities as the opening keynote for the conference Feminism and Classics Visions , held in Seattle , Washington . work advocates for a further infusion of feminist theory into archaeology as a whole . In the speech , focuses on interrogating the rejection of feminist point theory and the of feminist politics in some circles of gender archaeology research and argues that social constructivist analyses within archaeological bring richness to empirical study in a way

110 Introduction to Studies that calls into question the notion of research . introduces social constructionism and strategies and grades of constructionist analysis , talks about situated knowledge and its value to empirical research , and ends with feminist contributions and challenges to gender archaeology rooted in standpoint theory . See . DEEP DIVE BOOKS AND ARTICLES Ancient Bodies , Ancient Lives Sex , Gender and Archaeology , by Rosemary Joyce In this book , Rosemary explores the variety of ways in which social life has been organized by sex . She considers how ancient Greeks thought of men and women as different expressions of a single sexual potential and how Native American societies understood sexual identity . The book explains how archaeologists use the material remains of ancient cultures to learn about gender and sexuality . asks us to think about how these understandings might challenge us to think differently about our lives now ( New York Thames and Hudson , 2008 ) Gender and Archaeology Contesting the Past , by Roberta In this book , Roberta provides a thorough overview of the , interests , and methods of gender archaeology and evaluates the role of gender studies in archaeology . draws from the previous decade of research , and thus this work represents the midpoint in the span of interest in gender and queer archaeology in the century . begins in the first chapter by growth in gender archaeology within the progression of feminism and continues in the next chapter to interrogate how archaeological knowledge is . The following chapters consider the relationship between , on one hand , production and social processes of gender in the archaeology of labor and technology and , on the other , representations of gender identity , sexuality , and the body in art , space , and grave goods . The book concludes with a case study of a medieval English castle , putting into practice concepts discussed in the previous chapters ( New York , 2012 ) Gender and Power in , by Rosemary Joyce Rosemary , who has made contributions to the materiality and archaeology of gender , sex , and sexuality , invokes Butler

Queer New World 111 theoretical work on gender performance to situate this volume on gender in . analyzes material evidence and gender depictions and roles dating from the formative , Classic and Postclassic Maya , and then the Aztec periods . In this important work on gender and archaeology , the material record to reveal the contrasts between European and gender ideologies in order to alternative ways of understanding our material past ( Austin University of Texas Press , 2000 ) How to Do the History Male , by David takes a social constructionist or approach to human sexuality , stressing the contextual variation of sexuality across time and space . The book challenges the use of current , ideas about sexuality in historical interpretation ( Chicago University of Chicago Press , 2002 ) Queer , edited by Thomas In this 2000 issue of World Archaeology ( volume 32 , number ) issue editor Thomas introduces queer archaeology as a challenge to the normative ideas and practices entrenched in current archaeology . This journal was the in the of archaeology to devote an entire issue to and discussing queer , and this issue is frequently cited as representative of the origins of queer studies in archaeology . is a pioneer in the of queer . The articles include an anonymous autobiographical statement on the of sex and sexuality on a practicing archaeologist , homophobia and women in archaeology , queer theory and its relation to the study of the material past , an exploration of and , and biotechnology as a site of queer archaeology . Notably , several articles focus on the interpretation , or in some cases reinterpretation , of the rial record as inclusive of relationships and the . The issue as a whole gives the reader a rounded perspective of the shape of queer archaeology in the at the end of the twentieth century . Sexuality Studies in Archaeology , by Barbara Voss In this article , Voss offers a comprehensive review of the state of studies as of 2008 . A scholar who focuses on studies in archaeology , Voss examines areas reproduction management , sexual representations , sexual identities , prostitution , and the sexual politics of institutions . Of note is a section at the end of the

112 Introduction to Studies article on queer , where Voss draws a distinction between sexuality research in archaeology and applying queer theory to ology , because Voss the increasing and possibilities of queer theory in archaeological methods regarding sexuality and its wider applications to social identity . The article appears in Annual Review Anthropology ( volume 37 , number ) Towards an Inclusive Queer Archaeology , by Dawn and Chelsea The authors explore the challenges and opportunities faced by archaeologists in this short introduction to a 2016 special issue of SAA Archaeological Record ( volume 16 , number . from the Society for American Archaeology . GLOSSARY abjection . The state of being cast off . explorations find the terms use inherently disturbing to conventional identity and cultural concepts . One who is abject has been rejected . Andes . The longest continental mountain range in the world , forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America . antiquarianism . The study of history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and archaeological and historical sites . binary oppositions . Words and concepts that are considered to be direct opposites , such as man and woman , male and female . A discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings , their extinct ancestors , and related nonhuman primates , particularly from an evolutionary perspective . Those who study human remains in archaeological sites . First coined by British archaeologist Clark in 1972 as a reference to , the study of animal bones from archaeological sites . A confrontation or opposition to a status quo or hegemonic power and its legitimacy in politics , but also appears in other spheres of life , such as history , media , and music . critical theory . The assessment and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities to reveal and challenge power structures . Critical theory has origins in sociology and also in literary criticism .

Queer New World ethnocentric . A term used in social sciences and anthropology to describe the act of judging another culture by the values and standards of one own culture in the belief that one culture is superior , with respect to language , behavior , customs , and religion . feminism . A range of social movements , political movements , and that share a common goal to define , establish , and achieve the political , economic , personal , and social equality of the sexes . gender . Men and women ( and other genders , if they are recognized ) play similarly important roles but in different areas of social life . Gender more accurately describes der relations than gender hierarchy in some times and places . gender . Cultural ideas about gender frequently imply that one gender identity is and unchanging . Gender describes situations in which a person gender identity may change out the life cycle or in different . gender hierarchy . How genders are ranked . Men are typically ranked higher than women , having more power , prestige , and so on . gender parallelism . Men and women ( and other genders , if culturally recognized ) have similar levels of power and prestige but in different areas of social life . Often used interchangeably with gender and as an alternative to gender hierarchy in some times and places ( in the Inca empire ) The belief that heterosexuality , predicated on the gender binary , is the norm or default sexual orientation . Social identities , such as race , class , and gender , that overlap or intersect and the related systems of oppression , tion , or discrimination . looted artifact . An artifact that has been removed from its original archaeological context , usually illegally , by who do not record contextual information . Looted artifacts are often sold on the art market away from their place of origin . Archaeologists despise looting because an artifact without context is much less informative about the culture that produced it than an artifact with contextual information . An archaeological region defined by precontact cultural traits such as a distinctive calendar system , maize agriculture , and political organization . It extended from northern through Belize , El Salvador , Honduras , and northern Costa . Within this region societies before the Spanish colonization of the Americas . is the phenomenon in human societies of some actions or outcomes as good or desirable or permissible and others as bad or undesirable or impermissible .

114 Introduction to Studies performative . A linguistics term referring to utterances that do not just describe the world but change it ( I pronounce you husband and wife ) Popularized by the scholar Butler in gender ies , the term highlights the idea that gender is not a given but must be continually demonstrated through word , action , dress , and so on . The concept derives from the linguistics term . The that make up an indiVidual identity , such as race , class , gender , and sexuality , and how these affect the View of the world . processual . The methodological study of cultural change and Variability in archaeology . taxonomy . The practice and science of of things or concepts , including the principles that underlie such . Effeminate men who had a range of institutional roles in Aztec society . NOTES . Voss , Sexuality Studies in , Annual Review of Anthropology 37 ( 2008 ) See also this volume chapter . Queer Theory , in Archaeological Theory in a shell ( Walnut Creek , CA Left Coast Press , 2015 ) chap . Casey , and , Introduction At the Intersections of Feminist and Queer Debates , in Intersections between Feminist and Queer Theory , ed . and Casey ( New York Macmillan , 2006 ) Roosevelt , Gender in Human Evolution Revisited and Revised , in In Pursuit of Gender Worldwide Archaeological Approaches , ed . Nelson and ( Walnut Creek , CA Press , 2002 ) Why Queer Archaeology ?

An Introduction , in Queer , World Archaeology 32 , no . 2000 ) and Lyons , Que ( rying Proceedings of the Annual Conference ( AB Archaeological Association , University of gary , 2009 ) Klein , None of the Above Gender Ambiguity in ology , in Gender in America , ed . Klein and . Quilter ( Oaks Research Library and Collection , 2001 ) Women in the Inca Empire , Feminist Studies , no . 1978 ) Moon , Sun and Witches Gender Ideologies and Class in Inca and Colonial Peru ( Princeton , Princeton University Press , 1987 ) Lessons of Gender and in , 42 , no . 1995 )

Queer New World 115 . Bulger and A . of Embodied , in A Companion to Gender Prehistory , ed . New York Wiley and Sons , 2013 ) For , see , Identity and Difference Gender in Archaeology , Annual Review of Anthropology 38 ( 2009 ) 65 and for categorization , see , How to Queer the Past Without Sex Queer Theory , and the of Identity , of the World Archaeological Congress , no . 12 ( 2011 ) 79 . Voss , Looking for Gender , Finding Sexuality A Queer Politic of Archaeology , Fifteen Years Later , in and Lyons , Que ( ology , 10 . Sexing the Body Gender Politics and the of Sexuality ( New York Basic Books , 2000 ) 11 . 12 . Skeletal Analysis and Theoretical Complications , World Archaeology 37 ( 2005 ) 598 . 13 . Storey , Health and Lifestyle ( before and after Death ) among the Elite , in The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom , ed . Andrews and Fash ( Santa Fe , School of American Research Press , 2005 ) 14 . Perry and . Potter , Materiality and Social Change in the Practice of Feminist Anthropology , in Feminist Anthropology Past Present and Future , ed . and ( Philadelphia University of Press , 2006 ) 118 . 15 . and , Introduction to Binary Binds Deconstructing Sex and Gender in Archaeological Practice , of Archaeological Method and Theory 23 , no . 2016 ) 779 . 16 . Jordan , and , 771 . 17 . and , in A Companion to Social Archaeology , ed . and ( MA , 2007 ) 122 . 18 . Making Sex Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud ( Cambridge , MA Harvard University Press , 1990 ) 19 . Nye , Sexuality , in A Companion to Gender History , ed . Meade and ( MA , 2004 ) 16 . 20 . Experiencing Gender Identity , Sexuality and the Body , Gender and Archaeology Contesting the Past ( London , 1999 ) 55 . 21 . Money and A . Man and Woman , Boy and Girl and Dimorphism of Gender Identity Conception to Maturity ( Johns Hopkins University Press , 1972 ) See also , Sex , Gender and Society ( San Francisco , CA Harper and Row , 1972 ) and . Sex and Gender On the Development of Masculinity and ( New York Science House , 1968 ) 22 . Butler , Gender ( New York , 1990 ) Butler , Bodies That Matter On the Discursive Limits of Sex ( New York , 1993 ) 23 . Making Sex . 24 . Butler , Gender Trouble , 10 . 25 . The Body as Material Culture A Theoretical ( New York Cambridge University Press , 2006 ) 97 . Butler followers include

116 Introduction to Studies , Declaration on Behalf of an Archaeology of , journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 21 , no . 2014 ) 52 Schmidt , The of Gender to Personal Identity in the Southern Scandinavian Mesolithic , in The Archaeology of Plural and Changing Identities Beyond , ed . and Fowler ( New York Springer , 2004 ) and ren , Studies of Gender in the Americas , journal of Archaeological Research 16 ( 2008 ) 26 . Declaration on Behalf of an Archaeology of , 58 . 27 . and , The Metamorphosis of quetzal , in Manifesting Power Gender and the Interpretation of Power in , ed . New York , 1999 ) 117 . 28 . Wren , Spencer , and , To Face or to Flee from the Foe Women in Warfare at , in Landscapes of the and Art History at and Neighboring Sites , ed . Wren , and Spencer ( University Press of Florida , 2018 ) 29 . Guernsey , and , Warrior Queens among the Ancient Maya , in Blood and Beauty Organized Violence in the Art and Archaeology and Central America , ed . and ( Los Angeles , CA Institute of Archaeology Press , 2009 ) 30 . and Yates , This Perfect Body , This Virgin Text , in after Structuralism and the Practice , ed . and Yates ( New York , 1990 ) 31 . For an overview , see , The Archaeology of Gender in Moving beyond Gender , in A Companion to der Prehistory , ed . MA John Wiley , 2013 ) 32 . Looper , and ) Classic Maya Rulers and the Third Gender , in Ancient Maya Women , ed . Walnut Creek , CA Press , 2001 ) Unsexed Images , Costume , and Costume in Formative Period Gulf Coast Cultures , in Wearing Culture Dress and Regalia in Early and Central America , ed . and Looper ( Boulder University Press of Colorado , 2014 ) 226 . 33 . Unsexed Images , 217 . 34 . The Naked and the Ornamental Embodiment and Fluid Identities in Early Formative , in Wearing Culture Dress and Regalia in Early and Central America , ed . and Looper ( Boulder University Press of Colorado , 2014 ) 107 . 35 . Hunt , The of the Hummingbird ( NY Cornell University Press , 1977 ) for an expansion of this research , see , Corn Deities and the Principle , in Ancient Maya Gender Identity and Relations , ed . and ( Bergin and Garvey , 2002 ) and , Gender and the Roles of Lunar Deities in Postclassic Central Mexico and Their Correlations with the Maya Area , de 39 ( 1995 ) 36 . Klein , None of the Above , 37 . Gender and the Roles of Lunar Deities in Postclassic Central Mexico and Their Correlations with the Maya Area , A New

Queer New World 117 of the Gender Attribution of the Great Goddess of , Ancient 26 , no . 2015 ) 43 . 38 . Reilly , Female and Male The Ideology of Balance and Renewal in Elite Costuming among the Ancient Maya , in and , Ancient Maya Gender Identity and Relations , Looper , and ) 39 . A . Stone , and Sexuality Some Structural Relationships in Classic Maya Art , in The Role of Gender in Art and Architecture , ed . Miller ( University Press of America , 1988 ) 40 . Rosemary , del en La del a del , in La El ido a del Tiempo , Monograph , ed . and Fernandez ( City , del Indigena , 1992 ) Rosemary A . The Construction of Gender in Classic Maya , in Gender and Archaeology , ed . Wright ( Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press , 1996 ) 41 . The Lord Scandal The Politics of Reputation in British America ( Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press , 1998 ) 15 . 42 . Power , the Hybrid Self , and Homosexual Desire in Late Colonial , in Desire Male Homosexuality in Colonial Latin America , ed . Chicago University of Chicago Press , 2003 ) 115 . 43 . The History of Sexuality , vol . An Introduction ( London Allen Lane , 1978 ) 44 . How to Do the History Homosexuality ( Chicago University of Chicago Press , 2002 ) 45 . See Voss , Queer Theories , and the Archaeological Study of Past , World Archaeology 32 , no . 2000 ) 184 . 46 . Perry and A . Applications ing a Fast for Bodies That Matter Butler Impact on the Archaeology of Gender , International journal Sexuality and Gender Studies , nos . 2001 ) 74 . 47 . A . Performance and Inscription Human Nature in , in Gender and Power in , ed . Austin University of Texas Press , 2000 ) 191 . 48 . From Moon Goddesses to Virgins The Colonization of Maya Sexual Desire ( Austin University of Texas Press , 2000 ) 224 . 49 . Gender and Archaeology , in Handbook of Gender in Archaeology , ed . Nelson ( Press , 2006 ) 800 . 50 . The Sexual Colonization of the Ancient Maya , Research Reports in Archaeology 11 ( 2014 ) 157 . 51 . Houston and , The Classic Maya ( Cambridge Cambridge University Press , 2009 ) 55 . 52 . Declaration on Behalf of an Archaeology of , 69 . 53 . and , Powerful Women and the Myth of Male Dominance in Aztec Society , Archaeological Review from Cambridge ( 1988 ) For gender parallelism , see Rosemary A . Archaeology of Gender in Societies , in The Oxford Handbook of

118 Introduction to Studies , ed . Nichols and A . Pool ( New York Oxford University Press , 2012 ) 54 . On the Importance of Difference Sex and Gender in Ancient , World Archaeology 37 , no . 2005 ) 568 . 55 . How to Queer the Past Without Sex , 77 Voss , Looking for Gender , Finding Sexuality . 56 . How to Queer the Past Without Sex , 77 . 57 . Archaeology and the Life Course A Time and Age for Gender , in A Companion to Social Archaeology , ed . and ( MA , 2007 ) 58 . Declaration on Behalf of an Archaeology of , 66 drew on Schmidt , The Contribution of Gender to Personal Identity . 59 . On the Importance of Difference , 60 . Pulque is a lightly fermented beverage made from the agave plant . It was a common beverage that also had ritual importance . 61 . Gender and the Roles of Lunar Deities , 46 . 62 . Klein , None of the Above , 195 . 63 . and , Introduction to Binary Binds , 770 . 64 . Queer Prehistory , 95 . See also , Performance and Inscription . 65 . Experiencing Gender , 73 . See also , bed ) ding Sex Domesticity , Sexuality , and Ritual in New Kingdom Egypt , in of Sexuality ( New York , 2000 ) and and , Identities . 66 . Queer Prehistory , 94 . 67 . and , Introduction to Binary Binds , 777 . 68 . The Third Gender in Native California Undertakers among the and Their Neighbors , in Women in Prehistory North America and , ed . and Joyce ( Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press , 1997 ) 183 . 69 . Vance , Pleasure and Danger Exploring Female Sexuality ( Boston , MA , 1984 ) 17 . 70 . For the study of Spanish colonialism , see Voss , Domesticating Imperialism Sexual Politics and the Archaeology of Empire , American 110 , no . 2008 ) 196 and for , see . Race , Ethnicity , and Sexuality Intimate Intersections , Forbidden Frontiers ( Oxford Oxford University Press , 2003 ) 71 . Power , 104 , 108 . 72 . 109 . 73 . For sexual imagery linked to politics and power , see , Sex Pots Reproduction and Temporality in Ancient South America , American Anthropologist 106 , no . 2004 ) Sex Pots of Ancient Peru , in Combining the Past and the Present Archaeological Perspectives on Society , ed . set , and ( Oxford , 2004 ) and , Sex , Death , and in Religion and Visual Culture ( Austin University of Texas Press , 2006 ) See also Voss , Sexuality Studies in Archaeology , 322 . 74 . Toward an Theory of Ritual Sexuality and Subjectivity , in Infamous Desire Male Homosexuality in Latin America , ed . Chicago University of Chicago Press , 2003 ) 43 .

Queer New World 119 75 . Queer Faggots and Sodomites , Lesbians and Hermaphrodites , 54 , no . 2007 ) 23 . 76 . The , the , and the Abominable Sin in Early Colonial Society , Hispanic American Historical Review 85 ( 2005 ) 577 . 77 . Power , the Hybrid Self , 123 . 78 . From Moon Goddesses to Virgins , 249 . 79 . Gender , Male Homosexuality , and Power in Colonial , Latin American Perspectives 29 , no . 2002 ) 25 . 80 . de America , University of Houston Libraries Digital , 81 . The History of Sexuality . 82 . Archaeologists , Feminists , and Queers Sexual Politics in the Construction of the Past , in Feminist Past , Present , and Future , ed . and ( Philadelphia University of Press , 2007 ) 83 . and . Moss , Picturing the Past Gender in National graphic Reconstructions of Prehistoric Life , American Antiquity 78 , no . 2013 ) 123 .