Introduction to LGBTQ+ Studies A Cross-Disciplinary Approach Prejudice and Discrimination against LGBTQ+

Part Iv Prejudice and Health Prejudice and Discrimination against People Sean , Sarah Young , and Ann LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter , students will be able to do the following Describe the connections between identities and embodied experiences . Analyze how key social institutions shape , and force structures of inequality . Describe how people struggle for social justice within ical of inequality . Explain how different understandings of sexuality and gender affect and of people . INTRODUCTION In the decades since the 1969 Stonewall rebellion provided a symbolic turning point in the critical and community consciousness of ple , a great many things have changed a number of states have passed and legislation , openly people have been elected to public office , and marriage equality has become law in the United States and in many countries around the world . Representations of people have expanded because of community organizing , ing activism in response to the AIDS epidemic , increasing popular interest 199

200 Introduction to Studies resistance The effort of a social group or social movement to challenge or struggle against another group , policy , or government that is oppressing them . resilience An individual ability to recover , or bounce back , from a stressful or traumatic experience . prejudice Negative emotions , beliefs , or behaviors toward an individual , based on the person group membership and not based on prior knowledge or experience with that individual . discrimination The unjust or prejudicial treatment of an individual or group based on their actual or perceived membership in a particular group or class of people ( race , gender identity , or sexual orientation ) in lives , the proliferation and widespread use of the internet and social media , and the emergence of an consumer market . National rights organizations focused on lives have become more visible and have piqued the interest of social scientists and educators . However , these years have also witnessed ongoing , discrimination , and violence . According to from the survey Discrimination in America Experiences and Views of Americans , a majority of people have at some point been the target of bic slurs and negative comments about their sexuality and gender identity , and most have been threatened or harassed or have experienced violence at some point because of their sexual orientation or gender This chapter is an overview of the prevalence and trends of in the United States and the attempts to and measure it . The chapter describes what is known about the nature , origins , and of this prejudice and reviews the variables that have been found to increase or reduce its impact on the lives of people . The chapter discusses the resistance and resilience shown by the community in response to prejudice and discrimination . AND DISCRIMINATION In his book The Nature of Prejudice ( 1954 ) the psychologist Gordon describes prejudice as antipathy based on faulty and generalization . It may be felt or expressed . It may be directed toward a group or an individual of that Put simply , prejudice is felt when someone holds a negative View of a person without having any reason or experience that that negative view . Discrimination occurs when someone acts on prejudice by harming or a person or group or when someone favors their own group at the expense of the other Prejudice toward people has been found to result in discrimination , including violence , bullying and ment in schools , employment discrimination against people , and limited access to health care and other social goods . VIOLENCE AGAINST PEOPLE In 1998 , Ann Smith ( established November 20 as Trans Day of Remembrance as a time to speak the names of all the gender individuals who were killed in violence over the ous year . In 2016 , according to the National Coalition of Programs , incidents of hate violence were reported by

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 201 Figure . Ann Smith . survivors . Of those targeted by this violence , 47 percent as gay , 17 percent as lesbian , 14 percent as heterosexual , percent as queer , and percent as bisexual . Over half those targeted in these dents identified as transgender , and 61 percent identified as a person of color . That same year , 77 homicides against and people were reported . Of these homicides , 49 occurred during the Pulse nightclub shooting in Orlando , Florida . Even without considering the Pulse shootings , 2016 saw a 17 percent increase in homicides from 2015 . Of these homicides , 79 percent of the victims were people of color , and 68 percent were transgender or gender This violence is isolated to a particular part of the county . The League has tracked the incidence of hate crimes across the country and provides an interactive map showing hate crimes ing both sexual orientation and gender identity . A quick glance at the map shows hate crimes against folks happen everywhere , in all states ?

Unfortunately , these statistics are likely an underrepresentation of the crimes that actually occur . Many victims of hate crimes are hesitant to come of fear of retaliation if they do fear of being outed to family , friends , and coworkers or the belief that coming forward wo result in positive ' hate crimes Crimes , such as assault , bullying , harassment , vandalism , and abuse , that are motivated by prejudice toward a certain group and that in some jurisdictions incur harsher penalties .

202 Introduction to Studies Dignity for All Students Act A law in New York State passed in 2010 that seeks to eliminate discrimination and bullying ( based on race , physical size , national origin , ethnicity , religion , ability , sexual orientation , gender identity , and sex ) in schools through education , modification of district codes of conduct , and the mandated collection and reporting of incident data . Figure . Dan Savage . BULLYING , TEASING , AND HARASSMENT prejudice also affects youth in schools and online . The harassment , bullying , and victimization they experience contributes to lower , poorer academic performance , and increased truancy among youth . In addition , it leads to feeling less connected to school and having lower achievement goals , and it correlates with higher levels of depression , more suicidal thoughts and attempts , increased stance use , and more sexual Some states have passed laws to protect students from this harassment , bullying , and violence in their schools . One example is New York State Dignity for All Students Act of 2012 . The goal was to vide students with school environments that are free from discrimination and harassment based on gender , race , religion , sexual orientation , or gender identity ?

The legislation provides guidelines for students , teachers , and schools , and it institutes a policy regarding bullying in schools ( see chapter ) Unfortunately , many schools have failed to implement key components of the act , lack staff with adequate knowledge about its requirements , or have failed to adequately track and report incidents of harassment and bullying that fall within the guidelines ?

Another resource for youth is the It Gets Better Project , founded in 2010 by Dan Savage ( and his partner , Terry Miller .

Prejudice and Discrimination against People This organization attempts to uplift , empower , and connect bian , gay , bisexual , transgender , and queer . youth around the globe by educating about the negative effects of bullying and harassment and working to build for . EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION prejudice can also lead to employment discrimination . ing to the Discrimination in America survey of Americans , 20 percent of respondents reported experiencing employment discrimination when applying for a job and in terms of compensation and These results are even worse for people of color . Starting in the 19805 and continuing into the century , some states passed employment nondiscrimination laws that offered some protections for people , although many of these laws applied only to sexual , leaving out protections for gender expression and identity . Legislative efforts at the federal level to provide protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity and expression were largely unsuccessful . The Employment tion Act , a bill that would protect lesbian , gay , bisexual , and der people from employment discrimination , was introduced in Congress every year from 1994 to 2013 . The bill came close to passing on at least one occasion , but the inclusion of transgender rights created divisions among both supporters and opponents . Moreover , as support for the bill increased , so too did the claims that these protections would violate the religious freedom of those who see homosexuality as a sin , resulting in the addition of language in versions of the bill . These exemptions concern many longtime advocates for rights , who argue that they effectively allow religious organizations to discriminate against individuals . Some groups , like Lambda Legal , have even pulled their support for the legislation for this reason . From 2015 on , rights advocates moved to support the Equality Act , a bill with a range of broader protections than the posed Employment Act , including protections related to gender identity . The Equality Act would prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity not only in employment but also in housing , public accommodations , public education , federal funding , credit , and jury service . However , this bill was referred to and never passed . In the absence of federal legislation , activists continued to press for justice through the courts . In June of 2020 , the US . Supreme

204 Introduction to Studies Court issued the Clayton County ruling , which determined that discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity was a form of sex discrimination and was a violation of the Civil Rights Act of The Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination in employment based on sex , race , color , national origin , and religion . According to the legal advocacy group Lambda Legal , this ruling swept away all the contrary precedent and protected all workers nationwide . It remains to be seen whether this decision will survive scrutiny of future , possibly more conservative , courts . ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE Prejudice can also have a negative impact on the quality of and access to health care for people . This can happen in several ways . The first way relates to access to employment , because a frequent of employment is access to health insurance . Some states have passed laws that protect people from health insurance discrimination , which can result in denial of certain services or coverage altogether . According to the Movement Advancement Project , as of 2021 sixteen states offer protections for both sexual orientation and gender identity states prohibit transgender in health insurance coverage six states offer health insurance protections for only gender identity , and states offer no protections for health Explore The Movement Advancement Project has a map of laws and policies related to equality ( Choose a state or territory , yours or another you are familiar with or interested in . Review first the state equality profile , including the quick facts about the state population , and then the range of issues on the website and the corresponding laws . What key issues lack supportive policies and laws or have negative laws ?

What key issues are covered by supportive policies and laws in this state ?

Are any local laws relevant to these issues ?

How does this state compare with the country as a whole or to other states ?

Have you had a personal experience in relation to one of these issues or laws ?

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 205 Beyond access to health care , prejudice can also affect the quality of health care a person receives . For example , in a 2017 survey conducted by the Center for American Progress , percent of gay , lesbian , and respondents reported being denied service by a doctor or health care provider percent reported that doctors had refused to recognize their family , such as a child or partner percent reported that had used abusive language and percent experienced unwanted physical contact by a doctor or health care provider . A larger percentage of transgender respondents reported being denied service ( 29 percent ) had doctors refuse to provide care related to gender transition ( 12 percent ) were intentionally by a doctor ( 23 percent ) experienced abusive language ( 21 percent ) or had unwanted physical contact ( 29 percent ) Efforts to reform the views and practices of the psychological and medical communities have a long history and are an ongoing project ( see chapters and ) For example , the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the list of mental illnesses documented in its Diagnostic and Manual in 1973 , and the American Association has taken a stance toward people since 1975 . Additionally , the American Academy of Pediatricians published a statement in 2013 saying that adolescents need health care that is and welcoming to sexual minority ' Nevertheless some mental and physical health practitioners still believe that homosexuality is a disorder , as do some members of the general PUBLIC OPINION POLLS According to US . public opinion polls from the last few decades , attitudes toward gay men and lesbians have become progressively more favorable . Although attitudes toward transgender individuals have not been surveyed for the same amount of time , results from the 2017 Global Attitudes toward ' I People survey suggest that a majority of Americans hold tive opinions toward transgender people . Questions that ism tend to reveal more dramatic shifts and suggest that the majority of residents see gay men and lesbians as deserving of equal and fair ( egalitarian ) treatment and are generally opposed to tion in employment , education , and housing . For example , in 1976 , when asked respondents how they felt about protecting homosexuals against employment discrimination in general , only a small majority ( 56 percent ) supported protections , but when they asked again in 2008 , the percentage supporting protections increased to 89 percent . Similarly , when asked respondents in 1979 if they thought homosexual relations public opinion polls Surveys to measure the views , attitudes , or opinions of the general public on topics , issues , or social problems . attitudes The positive and negative emotions , beliefs , and behaviors that a person holds or exhibits toward another person , group , object , or event . egalitarianism The political philosophy of believing in the equality of all and in the elimination of inequality .

206 Introduction to Studies reaction A response to another person or group that is motivated by the unconscious need to avoid disturbing or threatening thoughts , such as feelings of guilt . between consenting adults should or should not be legal , only 43 percent said they should be legal . When a similar question was asked in 2018 , 75 percent said yes , these relations should be legal , and only 23 percent said no . And when asked in 1973 if it was wrong for adults to have sexual relationships , 70 percent said it was always wrong . However , in 2018 that number dropped to 31 Although the overall direction of these public opinion polls since the is undeniable , they should still be viewed with some caution . Public opinion is not entirely stable from year to year , shifting in an direction for one or two years , then falling back , shifts in the cultural and political landscapes . In addition , the variety of factors that shape public opinion can result in inconsistent or ambivalent viewpoints . Although egalitarianism continues to have a favorable on heterosexuals overall evaluations of people , many values , negative stereotypes , and defensive reactions continue to exert a negative . For example , participants responses to questions about their comfort in employing homosexuals can vary depending on whether the question focuses on the fair treatment of people or the moral acceptance of Similarly , attitudes can vary on the basis of the potential for beliefs and the social values of others ( clergy are defenders of morality , elementary school teachers shape the of children , and service members may symbolize strength ) Finally , the duties associated with the job may trigger stereotypes ( the belief that gay men are all pedophiles and therefore be around children ) Visit shows historical support of rights in public opinion polls over the course of time see . The first graph depicts the historical trend for answers to a question about marriage . What does it tell us about public opinion in the over the years ?

Two different questions focus on whether lesbian and gay sexual relations should be legal , and whether lesbian and gay sexual relations are morally acceptable or morally wrong . Compare the two charts why might the results be different ?

Did anything in answers to the poll over the years surprise you ?

What was the topic , and why were you surprised ?

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 207 MEASURING Homophobia The clinical psychologist George is credited with coining the term He defined homophobia as the dread of being in close quarters with homosexuals and suggested that it was a of several factors , including religion , fear of being homosexual , repressed envy of the freedom from tradition that gay people seem to have , a threat to values , and fear of According to , some heterosexuals seek symbolic immortality through their children . Their belief that gay people do want or ca have children , and are thereby rejecting this route to immortality , leads to existential anxiety or fear of death . In his highly book Society and the Healthy Homosexual ( published in 1972 ) as well as in later interviews , he acknowledged the of the gay liberation movement on his Essays that eventually became chapters of Society and the Healthy Homosexual were published in Gay , a gay liberationist magazine edited by the gay ation pioneers ack Nichols and Clarke . Positioning himself solidly within gay liberationist philosophy , suggested that he would never consider a patient healthy unless he had overcome his prejudice of homosexuality . 23 The psychoanalyst Wainwright Churchill was also to scholarly thinking about sexual prejudice at the time . In his book Homosexual Behavior among Males ( 1967 ) he describes , a concept similar to homophobia , as the psychological consequence of living in an society , or one that is afraid of the After introduced a word for homophobia , research into the study of attitudes toward people expanded considerably . Kenneth Smith conducted the study attempting to measure attitudes toward gay men . His work questioned the nature of the homophobic individual . Smith homophobia scale , or scale , was an attempt to measure heterosexuals negative or fearful responding to homosexuality . Smith found that homophobic people were more status conscious , authoritarian , and sexually rigid than ple and concluded that homophobic people may not see homosexuals as belonging to a legitimate minority group that is deserving of Most of the items in the scale were in nature , assessing participants levels of discomfort with being near a homosexual . Items like It would be upsetting for me to out I was alone with a sexual , I find the thought of homosexual acts disgusting , and If a homosexual sat next to me on a bus I would get nervous all imply an aversive and affective response possibly due to repressed homophobia Negative or hostile attitudes toward people who identify as , or are perceived to be , lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , or queer . and are also used to describe negative or hostile attitudes toward people who identify , or are perceived to be , bisexual or transgender .

208 Introduction to Studies compulsory heterosexuality An idea , proposed by the feminist writer and scholar Adrienne Rich in 1980 , that patriarchy and cause society to assume and mandate heterosexuality in everyone . patriarchy A society , or belief system , that favors or privileges men at the expense of women , in which men hold most of the power and control most of the wealth , and in which women are marginalized . An attitude and belief based on the idea that everyone is heterosexual or that heterosexuality is the only acceptable sexual orientation . A societal belief that makes heterosexuality the default and assumes that everyone is heterosexual until proven otherwise a belief normalizing heterosexuality and any other identity or experience apart from heterosexuality . Figure . Lorde ( left ) Le ( center ) and Adrienne Rich ( right ) Kendall . and According to the lesbian feminist writer and theorist Adrienne Rich ( ure ) compulsory assumption that everyone is heterosexual and that heterosexuality is natural for men and maintained and reinforced by the This social and political system of male dominance is reinforced by , which Gregory describes as an ideological system that denies and any form of behavior , identity , relationship , or What results is , an attitude and practice that centers the world around heterosexuality , only that which conforms to the norms , practices , and institutions of Queer theory expands on the implications of . Combined , and shape the world in which people live , creating an everyday environment where they are ignored , invalidated , and sometimes punished for not living up to the standards of heterosexuality . Many of the traditional milestones of everyday life are by and . Think about gender roles and their corresponding attitudes and behaviors , body image , attire

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 209 and comportment , as well as developmental milestones such as dating , marriage , career , and parenthood . All these norms and events are by and a corresponding set of heteronormative sexual scripts . These scripts are mental constructions , shaped by culture , that guide individual understanding of relationships and sexual As people attempt to navigate these standards and expectations , they frequently encounter challenges to their . It is also ant to point out that , although the challenges are intense , many are able to meet these challenges successfully . and have cast als as morally vacuous , criminal threats , and mentally Social existed in most institutions , denying people access to faith communities , education institutions , and even families . Discrimination in employment was the norm , resulting in the need for people to deny or dissemble in places of employment , when seeking housing , or in public . And although the US . Supreme Court has determined that people can not be discriminated against in employment , efforts are underway to limit the scope of this ruling through the pursuit of religious exemptions . marriages were not recognized in the United States until 2015 , and that change occurred through the courts and not through legislation . In addition , marriage equality continues to be challenged , with legislative and judicial efforts to limit the extent to which unions must be recognized as valid . The rights of people to become or remain parents to children has also seen progress but remains under siege . For example , in 2018 , Oklahoma governor Mary Fallin signed a bill that allows private adoption agencies to discriminate against couples , allowing them to refuse to place children in families if it would violate the agency written religious or moral convictions or Not all acts of discrimination are overt and easily , either by the person who is targeted or by witnesses . The mental health of people who are marginalized because of race , ethnicity , gender , and sexuality can also be affected by brief , daily assaults on minority individuals , which can be social or environmental , verbal or nonverbal , as well as intentional or Because are slight , somewhat indirect , and sometimes dismissible , they can be and to address directly . have been found to negatively affect mental health , likelihood of accessing health care , and satisfaction with a workplace Common verbal , behavioral , or environmental insults , indignities , and slights that cause harm by communicating , intentionally or unintentionally , hostility and prejudice toward members of a marginalized group .

210 Introduction to Studies minority stress Social stress resulting from being a member of a social group or having a social identity that is stigmatized by society . internalized homophobia The acceptance or incorporation of prejudice or stereotypes by people . coming out Also known as coming out of the closet a process in the lives of people of disclosing one sexual orientation or gender identity to others . or educational setting . There are different kinds of . occur when someone makes a joke or makes a stereotypical generalization about a person based on their group membership . insults refer to rude and insensitive words and behavior that devalue or demean someone group . Finally , take place when someone is excluded because of their group or because their experience as the member of a group is Minority Stress Although most people deal effectively with the stress of everyday life , sometimes negative life events can be so severe ( what psychologists call major life stressors ) or continue for so long ( chronic stressors ) that they can negatively affect mental and physical health . Members of racial , sexual , and other minority groups who experience stressors as a result of prejudice and discrimination experience what psychologists call minority minority stress extends beyond the regular stress of day life or the stress that comes from unexpected life events . It is related to the external experiences that people encounter going through life in a world , such as discrimination , violence , and . Research on minority stress also explores the implication of those stressors on peoples sense of self and psychological , such as , depression , and guilt . Research documents how prejudice produces negative stressors such as isolation , lack of family acceptance , ostracization by peers , lack of resources and opportunities in schools , less attention from teachers , and less validation of peoples These stressors add up and negatively affect the mental and physical health of people . Internalized Homophobia and Because most people grow up in environments that are to some degree , most are also likely to internalize some of the messages they encounter along the way . This internalized homophobia can have mental health consequences , and addressing it is considered an important step in the coming out process . Variables such as community connectedness have been found to help in ing internalized homophobia . A survey of transgender individuals found that stigma relating to participants gender identity and expression contributed to their psychological distress , and that trans community and social support helped moderate the distress . A survey of 484 adults

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 211 found that parental support of a child authentic self was associated with lower internalized homophobia and shame as well as better overall psychological health in Modern and Aversive Prejudice New and approaches in the measurement of racism ( symbolic prejudice , modern prejudice , and aversive prejudice ) and attitudes toward women ( ambivalent sexism ) were introduced in the and . These approaches explained that , as it became more socially unacceptable to express prejudice , those forms did disappear entirely but went underground and were replaced by more subtle or indirect forms of prejudice . Similarly , in the face of growing social acceptance of people , prejudice is also often expressed subtly , indirectly , and in ways that avoid direct social condemnation . For example , a study of attitudes toward parenting found that people who score high on a measure of modern prejudice will evaluate the parenting of and parents similarly when both sets of parents are engaged in the same parenting behaviors . However , when both sets of parents engage in the same negative parenting behaviors ( losing their per , slapping their child hand , and yelling ) those same participants will evaluate the parenting of the couple more negatively than the parents , suggesting that the condemnation of the parents negative conduct provides a subtle and socially acceptable way to express existing Predicting Prejudice prejudice has been found to highly correlate with other variables , including age , education , location , religiosity , political party and ideology , and sexual conservatism . Personality has also been found to correlate with prejudice . People who score higher on measures of authoritarianism tend to be more deferential to authority , see the world in moral absolutes , and be punitive toward those who transgress social norms . These people also tend to hold more negative attitudes toward people . In addition , gender and beliefs have been found to predict attitudes toward people . People who support more traditional gender roles and traditional values concerning sexual behavior and family structure tend to express more prejudice . Similar correlates have been tied to trans symbolic prejudice A subtle and indirect form of prejudice toward a group that can manifest as the rejection of the policies and initiatives that are designed to help that group achieve equality while also expressing support for the equality of that group . modern prejudice Prejudice that is expressed toward an individual through subtle discriminatory behaviors , denial that ongoing discrimination against that group continues , or the suggestion that the marginalized group is trying to advance too far , too fast . aversive prejudice A theory of prejudice , originally proposed in the 19805 in the context of aversive racism , that suggests that negative attitudes toward marginalized groups are sometimes manifested indirectly through feelings of discomfort and the avoidance of members of those groups . authoritarianism A personality characteristic of individuals who easily submit and defer to leaders , or authority , they perceive as strong and legitimate they tend to adhere to social norms and hold negative attitudes toward anyone who challenges those norms , and they support the use of force to preserve norms and bring social order .

212 Introduction to Studies contact hypothesis A theory , introduced by the psychologist Gordon in the 19505 , suggesting that , under the right conditions , prejudice , stereotyping , and discrimination can be reduced or eliminated by encouraging interaction between members of the majority and the minority groups . Figure . Cologne , Germany , Pride Parade , 2014 . Similarly , a national probability sample of heterosexual adults found that more negative attitudes toward transgender people were associated with authoritarianism , political conservatism , religiosity ( only for women ) rigid views about gender , and lack of Contact with transgender people . They also noted that participants attitudes toward transgender people were more negative than their attitudes toward The Contact hypothesis is the idea that contact between groups can improve group relations and reduce prejudice it was introduced by in 1954 . argued that this contact needed to take place in particular situational in which the groups have equal status , that the groups share a set of common goals , are working , and have the opportunity to develop emotional connections and also suggested that there should be support for cooperation and acceptance from authorities or powers that be the contact must counter the negative beliefs about the group with information that is frequent , consistent , and can be generalized and the Contact should discourage rationalizing the new information as being a special case or subtype of the Although prejudice and the threat of discrimination can reduce the possibility of Contact between heterosexuals and members of the community , heterosexuals with more contact with people have been found to hold more favorable

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 213 THE BENEFITS AND RISKS OF COMING OUT The gay liberation movement of the advocated for coming out as an person as an important strategy of political change and personal . This concept is illustrated in this now famous 1978 quote by the late San Francisco supervisor , and hero of the rights ment , Harvey Milk ( Every gay person must come out . As as it is , you must tell your immediate family . You must tell your relatives . You must tell your friends if indeed they are your friends . You must tell your neighbors . You must tell the people you work with . You must tell the people in the stores you shop in . Once they realize that we are indeed their children , that we are indeed where , every myth , every lie , every innuendo will be destroyed once and all . And once you do , you will feel so much The and buffering effects of coming out have been well established in the literature . Meyer minority stress model connects minority with positive outcomes in terms of coping and having access to the social support resources necessary to address Figure . Harvey Milk at Gay Pride San Jose , 1978 . Ted , Kat Fitzgerald , Patrick , Lawrence , Darryl .

214 Introduction to Studies Building a supportive relationship with a marginalized or mistreated group of people that one is not a part of , an effort that continues even when that relationship threatens one comfort , status , or relationships with one group . minority stress . The model also highlights how minority is related to minority stressors within the individual such as expectations of rejection , concealment , and internalized homophobia . In addition , and community connectedness can increase visibility , which may increase vulnerability to things like employment discrimination , ment , and Historians and other social scientists have also suggested that the increased visibility of people was a critical element in the of communities and the progress of the rights movements . The contact hypothesis , Harvey Milk rallying cry of Come on out ! and research that highlights the importance of role models and positive representatives in various forms of media all suggest that coming out and increasing the visibility of people is an important and often positive strategy for improving social attitudes . As we stated earlier in this chapter , increased visibility does come with risks . However , contact between heterosexuals and people has been found to result not only in positive attitude change but also in the possibility of increasing the dominant group with the marginalized group , creating the possibility of mobilization of heterosexuals to work toward change the community . As and interpersonal contact , as well as subsequent social networks , continues to expand into the virtual world through online communities , social working , and hookup and dating apps , these forms of social interaction will likely continue to shape beliefs about and attitudes toward people , create new for minority stress , and expand possibilities for social support and the resources available to Watch A lesson , by Lillian , Harvey Milk Radical Vision of Equality , introduces Milk and his life ( Visit the Museum virtual exhibition about Harvey Milk ( What was the historical context within which Harvey Milk advocated coming out to family , friends , neighbors , and ers ?

What are the hallmarks of Milk political philosophy ?

How does the research discussed in this chapter help us why Milk was right in believing that coming out was important for gay rights ?

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 215 CONCLUSION Although progress in rights has been made and attitudes toward people have changed in the last few decades , the implications of prejudice and discrimination remain serious . It is critical that efforts to change these attitudes continue and that social scientists , educators , and practitioners continue to develop a robust knowledge base to guide these efforts . In addition , a related literature highlights the strength and resilience found in the community , even in the face of this adversity . historians and anthropologists like George , john , Elizabeth Kennedy and Madeline Davis , and Susan Stryker have helped make visible the courage and perseverance of individuals and communities who faced legal risks , social stigma , overt discrimination , and violence across the twentieth These are the voices and struggles of a resilient community the Society and Daughters of , which organized and built networks of people in the shadow of and witch hunts the and , drag queens , queer youth of color , street hustlers , butch dykes , and gay men who took a stand at the Stonewall Inn the people who , amid unimaginable death and sadness brought about by the AIDS epidemic , built organizations , took care of each other , acted up , and fought back against government disdain and neglect and the people with AIDS , many in the midst of the ravages of the disease , who still found meaning in helping others . These of resilience aren meant to minimize the dangers or potential for harm . In the words of Harvey Milk , they are simply stories of hope Hope for a better world , hope for a better tomorrow , hope for a better place to come to if the pressures at home are too great . Hope that all will be alright . and you and you and you , you have to give people PROFILE MINORITY STRESS AND COUPLES David Frost Sexual minority individuals continue to experience prejudice and crimination as a result of the social stigma that most societies place on sexual behavior and sexual identities outside heteronormative ideals . This stigma persists across many domains of life , including education and the workplace , but is arguably most pronounced in the domain of sexual minority individuals People who have sexual identities that are not straight , including but not limited to lesbian , gay , bisexual , queer , and pansexual .

216 Introduction to Studies relationships Sexual or romantic relationships involving two partners who share the sex assigned at birth and gender identity . disadvantaged social status A lower place within the social hierarchy of a society , often by a lower level of power , lower social value , and exclusion from full and equal access to material and symbolic forms of citizenship . social stress Stress that emanates from a person relationships with other people , other communities , and the general social environment . macy and romantic relationships . In this , I provide an overview of several studies my colleagues and I have conducted aimed at ing how sexual minority individuals and members of ships experience stigma in the context of their intimate relationships . demonstrate how experiences of stigma can lead to negative outcomes for members of relationships in terms of their mental health and in the quality of their relationships . This research illustrates how theories of minority stress can be used to understand how social stigma can be detrimental to the health and relationships of sexual minority individuals and couples . THE MINORITY STRESS MODEL The minority stress model , as proposed by Meyer , attempts to explain why sexual minority individuals , on average , experience higher rates of mental health problems relative to their straight peers . Noting that these inequalities in mental health are not likely to be caused by sexual orientation itself , the minority stress model contends that the reason for poorer mental health outcomes among sexual minority populations lies in sexual minority individuals having a disadvantaged status in society relative to their straight peers . This disadvantaged social status is by the stigma that societies place on sexual behavior and sexual minority identities , which does not apply to straight individuals given the of heterosexuality as As a result of this disadvantaged social status , sexual minority individuals are exposed to social stress that straight individuals are not . Social stressors include being from your job because you are bian ( prejudice ) being called names because you are bisexual ( harassment ) being socially avoided because you are gay ( everyday discrimination ) having to worry about when it is safe to disclose your sexual orientation ( stigma concealment ) and thinking you are not valued as a person as much as others are because of your sexual ( internalized stigma ) These are all examples of social stress that sexual minorities experience that their straight peers do not . As a result of excess exposure to these and other forms of minority stress , sexual minorities are more likely to experience mental health problems like elevated rates of depression , anxiety , substance use , and suicidal ideation . Thus , the minority stress model contends that sexual minority individuals experience higher rates of mental health problems than their straight peers because of excess exposure to social stress stemming from their stigmatized and disadvantaged social status .

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 217 STIGMA AND MINORITY STRESS IN RELATIONSHIPS As of 2020 , marriage is either performed or recognized in countries throughout the world , and attitudes toward sexuality and marriage are dramatically improved according to opinion polls in most Western However , it is important to recognize that the vast majority of countries across the globe do not legally recognize couples , and in some countries behavior continues to be criminalized . Even in countries with equal marriage laws , many couples experience stigma and nation from coworkers , peers , and family . Thus , the domain of intimacy and romantic relationships remains a part of sexual minority individuals lives in which they continue to experience social stigma . MINORITY STRESS AS A BARRIER TO ACHIEVING RELATIONSHIP GOALS To understand how experiences of minority stress in the relational domain might explain inequalities in mental health between sexual minority individuals and their straight peers , my colleagues and I conducted a survey of 431 lesbian , gay , and bisexual ( 55 percent ) individuals and ( 45 percent ) individuals living in the United States and Canada . We specifically wanted to examine the extent to which pants felt stress related to experiencing barriers to achieving their goals in romantic relationships ( getting married , buying a house , planning to have children , moving in together ) compared with other areas such as the workplace and education . Participants were asked to complete the Personal Project Inventory on the goals they were pursuing across these life domains and the intensity of perceived barriers to the achievement of these goals , which served as our measure of stress . We also asked participants to complete previously validated measures of depression and psychological We found that sexual minority individuals reported more depressive symptoms and lower levels of psychological than their straight peers . Sexual minorities also reported more barriers to goal pursuit than straight participants . People who reported more stress in the form of frustrated goal pursuit scored significantly poorer on mental health and outcomes , and their inclusion in models sexual orientation differences in mental health . Importantly , when we held constant the differences in the stress related to frustrated goal pursuit , differences between sexual minorities and straight individuals

218 Introduction to Studies in mental health and were much less pronounced . Thus , our research demonstrates that this frustrated goal pursuit is the critical factor explaining sexual minority differences in mental health and . These barriers to relationship projects came from interpersonal sources , like family , friends , and neighbors . These suggest that stigma in intimacy and relationships may prevent sexual minorities from achieving their goals for intimacy and relationships and in doing so contributes to mental health observed between sexual minority and straight individuals . These have relevance to the changing social context regarding equality . Interpersonal attitudes may affect the everyday relationship activities of sexual minority individuals in ways that are detrimental to their health and . THE PERSISTENCE OF MINORITY STRESS IN A EQUALITY CONTEXT To examine whether minority stress continues to affect the mental health of couples in the United States after access to equal marriage became available , my colleagues and I examined the degree to which the perception of unequal a minority variation in mental health above and beyond legal relationship tion . We predicted that members of couples with legal marital status would report more positive mental health outcomes compared with members of couples who were not legally married . We also that perceiving the social climate as not affording equal recognition to couples would be related to worse mental health for of couples , regardless of legal marital status . Dyadic data from both members of 106 in terms of couple gender , length of relationship , location in the United States , and collected and analyzed . The survey contained measures of legal marital status , perceived unequal social recognition , and mental health outcomes ( depressive symptoms , psychological distress , and problematic drinking behavior ) The results demonstrated that perceived unequal relationship predicted poorer mental health , whether or not members of couples were in a legally recognized relationship . Focusing on potential differences in mental health by levels of legal relationship , the study found that members of couples recognized as registered domestic partners or civil unions , but not as legal marriages , demonstrated lower levels of mental health compared with those with legal marriages and those with no legal relationship status . Those who were legally married reported the most positive mental health

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 219 outcomes but were not statistically distinguishable from those with no legal recognition for their relationship . These illustrate a consistent and robust pattern of with multiple indicators of mental health , suggesting that the degree to which members of couples perceive their relationship to have unequal recognition is a meaningful factor underlying mental health comes . In other words , although institutionalized forms of discrimination , such as unequal access to legal marriage , have documented associations with mental health in sexual minority populations , the lived experience of perceived inequality likely represents a more proximal form of minority stress . This form of minority stress is one that potentially exists as shared lived experience at the couple level and may even persist in where structural stigma has been reduced or eliminated . 53 These findings also highlight how equal access to legal marriage is an important social change but is not sufficient to eliminate social stigma as a risk for mental health problems faced by sexual minority individuals and members of couples . The constantly shifting social and policy climate facing sexual minorities and couples continues to warrant attention from social scientists , public health scholars , and policy makers in light of its potential impact on mental health . RESILIENCE AND RESISTANCE TO MINORITY STRESS IN RELATIONSHIPS It is important to qualify that the research discussed up to this point pertain to groups of sexual minority individuals and and the average experience of the participants . Not all minority individuals and members of couples experience minority stress and not all who do are affected by it in the same way . In fact , many sexual minority individuals and members of couples live healthy lives in rewarding relationships . Recognizing this variability in individual experience highlights how sexual minority individuals and members of relationships are resilient in the face of minority stress . An example of this resilience can be seen in a study of the processes couples use in negotiating minority stress in their To explore how members of couples potentially exercise resilience in the face of minority stress , I asked people in relationships to write about their relational high points , low points , decisions , and goals , as well as their experiences of stigma directly related to their relationships . Narrative analysis of these stories revealed that participants had several psychological strategies for making meaning of their experiences of stigma . Some strategies

220 Introduction to Studies sized a negative , and contaminating effect of stigma on , as is commonly found in existing research . However , other strategies emphasized how stigma can be made sense of in ways that allow individuals to overcome its negative effects . For example , some couples who participated in this research constructed meanings of stressors as challenges that firmed their commitment to and bond with their partners . Others saw stigma as providing an opportunity to redefine notions of commitment and relational legitimacy . These narrative strategies for making meaning of stressors represent more than simply coping strategies for minority stress . They represent attempts to reclaim experiences of being stigmatized in ways that allow individuals to resist and even thrive in the face of social stigma . Thus , through individual and processes of minority stressors , social stigma can , result in positive outcomes for sexual minorities and relationships . SUMMARY My colleagues and I have conducted studies that collectively how social stigma can affect the health and relationships of sexual minority individuals and couples . These are by no means the only studies on this It is my hope that the details of these studies illustrate the potential utility of minority stress theory to highlight that the continued stigmatization of couples , even in areas that have progressive laws and policies , puts sexual minority individuals and couples at risk for negative health and relationship outcomes . This research has been useful for efforts to change laws and policies to be more inclusive of couples rights and to eliminate nation against couples , efforts that are by no means complete and will continue for years to come . However , research on minority stress can also be useful in informing the work of community health workers , counselors , and working with sexual minority communities to help them cope with , overcome , and resist the potential negative impact of social KEY QUESTIONS What prejudices do people face , and how does affect their lives and experiences ?

What other structures of inequality , such as race , shape the experience of violence and prejudice toward people ?

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 221 How does the history of research on homophobia and against people relate to political struggles for equality ?

How does the minority stress model help us understand both the negative impacts and the more positive outcomes of on people ?

RESEARCH RESOURCES Compiled by Jessica and Rachel Discuss Choose one or two resources listed in this chapter , and discuss them in relation to what you have learned about discrimination , prejudice , and minority stress as it affects people . Present Choose a key topic or event found in this chapter . Then locate one or two resources from the Quick Dip and Deep Dive sections and develop a presentation for the class . Explain the of the topic , and provide additional details that support your explanation . Create What idea , person , or event from this chapter really moved you ?

Do more research on that idea , person , or event based on the resources in this chapter . Then create your own artistic response . Consider writing a poem , drawing a picture , or editing a photograph in a way that demonstrates both what you have learned and how you feel about the issue or person . Debate Find a partner or split into groups , and choose a topic , idea , or controversy from this chapter . Have each partner or group present an opposing perspective on it . Use at least two of the resources in this chapter to support your argument . QUICK DIP ONLINE RESOURCES Discrimination in America Experiences and Views of Americans Discrimination in America is a series developed by National Public Radio , the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation , and the Harvard Chan School of Public Health and based on a 2017 survey of adults living in the

222 Introduction to Studies United States . The survey captured the wide range of personal experiences that Americans have had with discrimination based on age , race , gender , sexual orientation , gender identity , disability , and other factors . Data and analysis of the data from this report are authoritative evidence for research papers or other research projects about discrimination . View the report at . is a collaborative knowledge base , similar to Wikipedia , for rights around the world . Information maps provide legal status of discrimination , homosexual ity , marriage , changing gender , adoption , employment , housing , military service , age of consent , donating blood , and conversion therapy in every country around the world . One can review each map , locate a map , or compare two or more different regions . This extremely useful resource for basic , information about laws in any country includes a growing list of advocacy organizations from around the world . Equality Maps , from the Movement Advancement Project The Movement Advancement Project ( MAP ) is an independent , organization that provides research reports and data to organizations , journalists , and lawmakers for equal rights . MAP equality maps ( display policies and laws in the United States . Researchers can click on a state to review research , laws , and data on nondiscrimination laws religious exemptions relationship and parental recognition of youth health care for people criminal justice systems and people and the corrections to identity documents that are allowed . Human Rights Campaign Founded in 1980 , the Human Rights Campaign is the political advocacy group in the United States . Its website ( includes annual reports of the group activities , articles focused on sixteen advocacy topics , a link to professional resources developed by the allied Human Rights Foundation , and information on how to get involved with the Human Rights Campaign to promote issues .

Prejudice and Discrimination against People Lambda Legal Lambda Legal ( is a national organization committed to achieving full recognition of the civil rights of lesbians , gay men , bisexuals , transgender people , and those with HIV through impact litigation , education , and public policy work . National Coalition of Programs This national coalition of local programs , affiliate organizations , and individuals works to prevent , respond to , and end all forms of violence against and within communities . The coalition ( is coordinated by the Project , founded in New York City in 1980 . OutRight International OutRight International is a leading international human rights organization focused on rights advocacy around the world . It for legal equality , freedom of assembly , privacy , personal security , online safety , and transgender and rights . Its representatives work with the United Nations , nongovernmental organizations , and local and national support organizations to advance its work ( The Where We Work page has a link to a global overview of legal and societal situations of people . Sylvia Rivera Law Project The Sylvia Rivera Law Project ( works to guarantee that all people are free to gender identity and expression , less of income or race and without facing harassment , discrimination , or violence . The project provides legal help , training , and advocacy tools . DEEP DIVE BOOKS AND FILM Captive Genders Embodiment and the Prison Industrial Complex , edited by Eric Stanley and Nat smith The first book to address trans people , and the intersection of race and gender identity , in the complex contains

224 Introduction to Studies chapters contributed by trans people who are currently incarcerated , legal experts , and activists . They present clear evidence that the criminal justice system discriminates against , and endangers transgender and people through unequal , unsafe tion practices . The section provides talking points and organizing strategies to abolish the complex . It was a Lambda Literary Award and winner of the Sylvia Rivera Award for Transgender Studies . Originally published in 2011 , the 2015 edition of this book includes a foreword by CeCe ( Oakland , CA AK Press ) and the Law Why Sex Matters , by Internationally acclaimed rights lawyer a thorough survey of discrimination against intersex people , which often begins at birth the state and federal laws that affect their rights and how legal institutions can collaborate with disability rights cates , feminist groups , organizations , and other groups to intersex discrimination in health care , marriage rights , employment , and other environments . The book won the 2013 Award , presented by the Foundation for the Study of Sexuality ( New York New York University Press , 2012 ) The Nature Prejudice , by Gordon Published in 1954 , this book was the landmark study on the gins of prejudice and discrimination . The anniversary edition is unabridged and goes into great detail about how prejudice and crimination become institutionalized . A frequently cited theoretical work applicable to all nations and cultures , it has provided the foundations for future studies on the topic ( New York Books , 1979 ) Sister Essays and Speeches , by Lorde Fifteen essays and speeches from the Lorde about the way Black women and women of resilience and overcome racism , sexism , ageism , homophobia , and class discrimination are gathered in this volume . First published in 1984 , the 2007 edition includes a foreword written by Black munity activist and Lorde scholar Cheryl Clarke . This classic collection is a frequently cited , foundational resource that built theories of Black feminism , postcolonial feminism , studies , and critical psychology

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 225 ( Berkeley , CA Crossing Press ) So Gay ! and the Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and , by Kevin Each chapter in this review of the scholarly literature on and prejudice shown toward people includes case examples with corresponding analysis and discussion questions . The book also includes guidance and best practices for students , educators , mental health , health care workers , and organizational leaders who want to build welcoming , inclusive spaces ( Washington , American Psychological Association , 2013 ) GLOSSARY . Building a supportive relationship with a marginalized or treated group of people that one is not a part of , an effort that even when that relationship threatens one comfort , status , or relationships with one group . attitudes . The positive and negative emotions , beliefs , and behaviors that a person holds or exhibits toward another person , group , object , or event . aversive prejudice . A theory of prejudice , originally proposed in the in the context of aversive racism , that suggests that negative attitudes toward marginalized groups are sometimes manifested through feelings of discomfort and the avoidance of members of those groups . coming out . Also known as coming out of the closet a process in the lives of people of disclosing one sexual orientation or gender identity to others . compulsory heterosexuality . An idea , proposed by the feminist writer and scholar Adrienne Rich in 1980 , that patriarchy and cause society to assume and mandate heterosexuality in everyone . contact hypothesis . A theory , introduced by the psychologist Gordon in the , suggesting that , under the right conditions , prejudice , stereotyping , and discrimination can be reduced or by encouraging interaction between members of the majority and the minority groups . Dignity for All Students Act . A law in New York State passed in 2010 that seeks to eliminate discrimination and bullying ( based on race , physical size , national origin , ethnicity , religion , ability , sexual

226 Introduction to Studies , gender identity , and sex ) in schools through education , of district codes of conduct , and the mandated collection and reporting of incident data . disadvantaged social status . A lower place within the social hierarchy of a society , often by a lower level of power , lower social value , and exclusion from full and equal access to material and symbolic forms of citizenship . discrimination . The unjust or prejudicial treatment of an individual or group based on their actual or perceived membership in a group or class of people ( race , gender identity , or sexual orientation ) egalitarianism . The political philosophy of believing in the equality of all and in the elimination of inequality . reaction . A response to another person or group that is motivated by the unconscious need to avoid disturbing or ing thoughts , such as feelings of guilt . hate crimes . Crimes , such as assault , bullying , harassment , vandalism , and abuse , that are motivated by prejudice toward a certain group and that in some jurisdictions incur harsher penalties . A societal belief that makes heterosexuality the default and assumes that everyone is heterosexual until proven a belief normalizing heterosexuality and any other identity or experience apart from heterosexuality . An attitude and belief based on the idea that everyone is heterosexual or that heterosexuality is the only acceptable sexual orientation . homophobia . Negative or hostile attitudes toward people who identify as , or are perceived to be , lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , or queer . and are also used to describe negative or hostile attitudes toward people who identify , or are perceived to be , bisexual or transgender . internalized homophobia . The acceptance or incorporation of prejudice or stereotypes by people . Common verbal , behavioral , or environmental insults , indignities , and slights that cause harm by communicating , or unintentionally , hostility and prejudice toward members of a marginalized group . minority stress . Social stress resulting from being a member of a social group or having a social identity that is stigmatized by society . modern prejudice . Prejudice that is expressed toward an individual through subtle discriminatory behaviors , denial that ongoing crimination against that group continues , or the suggestion that the

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 227 marginalized group is trying to advance too far , too fast . patriarchy . A society , or belief system , that favors or privileges men at the expense of women , in which men hold most of the power and control most of the wealth , and in which women are marginalized . prejudice . Negative emotions , beliefs , or behaviors toward an individual , based on the person group membership and not based on prior knowledge or experience with that individual . public opinion polls . Surveys to measure the views , attitudes , or ions of the general public on topics , issues , or social problems . resilience . An individual ability to recover , or bounce back , from a stressful or traumatic experience . resistance . The effort of a social group or social movement to challenge or struggle against another group , policy , or government that is oppressing them . authoritarianism . A personality characteristic of individuals who easily submit and defer to leaders , or authority , they perceive as strong and legitimate they tend to adhere to social norms and hold negative attitudes toward anyone who challenges those norms , and they support the use of force to preserve norms and bring social order . relationships . Sexual or romantic relationships involving two partners who share the sex assigned at birth and gender identity . sexual minority individuals . People who have sexual identities that are not straight , including but not limited to lesbian , gay , bisexual , queer , and pansexual . social stress . Stress that emanates from a person relationships with other people , other communities , and the general social environment . symbolic prejudice . A subtle and indirect form of prejudice toward a group that can manifest as the rejection of the policies and that are designed to help that group achieve equality while also expressing support for the equality of that group . NOTES . Robert Wood johnson Foundation , and Harvard Chan School of Public Health , Discrimination in America Experiences and Views of Americans , 2017 , The Nature ( New York Addison Wesley , 1954 ) and , Prejudice , stereotyping and Discrimination Theoretical and Empirical Overview , in The SAGE Handbook

228 Introduction to Studies of Prejudice , and Discrimination , ed . and ( London SAGE , 2010 ) National Coalition of Programs , Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Queer , and Hate Violence in 2016 ( New York , 2016 ) Hate Crime Map , and Keller , The Dark Figure of Hate Crime , American Behavioral Scientist , 2019 , Wilson , Hate Crime Victimization , 2012 Statistical Tables , 2014 , 4883 . For lower , see . Palmer , and , The Effect of Negative School Climate on Academic Outcomes for Youth and the Role of Supports , journal of School Violence 12 , no . 2013 ) for feeling less connection , see . Pearson , Muller , and Wilkinson , Adolescent Attraction and Academic Outcomes The Role of School Attachment and Engagement , Social Problems 54 ( 2007 ) and for mental health , see , Ryan , Diaz , A . Card , and Russell , Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and Transgender Youth School Victimization and Young Adult Psychosocial ment , Developmental Psychology 46 ( 2010 ) New York State Department of Education , The Dignity Act , updated 20 , 2020 , New York State Comptroller , Some NY Schools Not Reporting Bullying or Harassment , news release , October 13 , 2017 , 10 . It Gets Better Project ( website ) accessed April 24 , 2021 , 11 . et , Discrimination in America . 12 . Clayton County , 590 ( 2020 ) 13 . Lambda Legal , Clayton County , GA Altitude Express St Harris Funeral Homes Inc , accessed November 21 , 2021 , 14 . Movement Advancement Project , Equality Maps Healthcare Laws and Policies , accessed April 24 , 2021 , 15 . Mirza and , Discrimination Prevents ple from Accessing Health Care , Center for American Progress , January 18 , 2018 , 16 . For removal of homosexuality from the American Psychiatric Association list of mental illnesses , see . Homosexuality and American The Politics Diagnosis ( Princeton , Princeton University Press , 1981 ) for the American Psychological Association stance , see American ical Association , Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality ( Washington , APA , 2008 ) and for the American emy of Pediatricians statement , see Committee on Adolescence , Policy ment Care for Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Transgender , and Questioning Youth , Pediatrics 132 , no . 2013 )

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 229 17 . Institutes of Medicine , The Health of Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and gender Patients Building a Foundation for a Better Understanding ( Washington , National Academies Press , 2011 ) 18 . For attitudes toward gay men and lesbians and survey answers about employment discrimination , see , Gay and Lesbian Rights , accessed April 24 , 2021 , for attitudes toward transgender people , see , Brown , and Flores , Public ion of Rights in the US ( Los Angeles , CA Williams Institute , 2017 ) Note that in the , at the time of the survey , homosexual was widely used to describe gay and lesbian people . However , because of its origins in medical and psychiatric discourse , it is today considered by many to be offensive . 19 . Gay and Lesbian 20 . Oxford English Dictionary , ed . 1991 ) homophobia . 21 . Society and the Healthy Homosexual ( New York tin Press , 1972 ) 22 . George Love Is conspiratorial , Deviant , and ical , November , 2002 , 23 . Society and the Healthy Homosexual , 24 . Churchill , Homosexual Behavior among Males A and Investigation ( New York Hawthorn Books , 1967 ) 25 . Smith , Homophobia A Tentative Personality , ical Reports 29 ( 1971 ) 1089 , 1093 . 26 . Smith , 1094 . 27 . A . Rich , Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence , Signs A journal Women in Culture and Society ( 1980 ) 28 . The Context of Violence Notes on Cultural and Psychological , of Interpersonal Violence , no . 1990 ) 316 . 29 . Cohen , Punks , and Welfare Queen The Radical of Queer Politics ?

in Black Queer Studies , ed . Johnson and Henderson ( Duke University Press , 2005 ) Warner , tion Fear of a Queer Planet Social Text 29 ( 1991 ) 30 . The Explicit and Implicit Use of the Scripting Perspective in Sex Research , Annual Review Sex Research , no . 1990 ) Simon and . Sexual Scripts , in Culture , Society and Sexuality , ed . Parker and ( New York , 1984 ) 31 . Fortin , Oklahoma Passes Adoption Law That . Groups Call Discriminatory , New York Times , May 12 , 2018 , 32 . Balsam , and Walters , ing Multiple Minority Stress The People of Color Scale , Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 17 , no . 2011 ) 163 , 103 . 33 . Sue , Torino , Holder , and , Racial in Everyday Life for Clinical Practice , American Psychologist 62 , no . 2007 ) 34 . For general negative life events , see , Adversity , Stress , and Psychopathology ( New York Oxford University Press ) and wend , The Role of Adversity and Stress in Psychopathology Some Evidence

230 Introduction to Studies and Its Implications for Theory and Research , of Health and Social Behavior 41 ( 2000 ) and for minority stress , see Meyer , Prejudice , Social Stress , and Mental Health in Lesbian , Gay , and Bisexual Populations Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence , Psychological Bulletin 129 , no . 2003 ) 35 . Valued Differences or Benevolent Stereotypes ?

Exploring the of Positive Beliefs on and Attitudes , and Sexuality , no . 2010 ) 36 . For internalized homophobia , see Meyer and Dean , Internalized Homophobia , Intimacy , and Sexual Behavior among Gay and Bisexual Men , in Stigma and Sexual Orientation Understanding Prejudice against Lesbians , Gay Men , and Bisexuals ( Thousand Oaks , CA SAGE , 1998 ) for community connectedness , see Frost and Meyer , Measuring Community among Diverse Sexual Minority Populations , journal Research 49 , no . 2012 ) for the transgender survey , see , Miner , Hamilton , and Coleman , Stigma , Mental Health , and Resilience in an Online Sample of the US Transgender Population , can journal of Public Health 103 , no . 2013 ) and for the survey of adults , see Legate , Ryan , and Ryan , Parental Autonomy Support Predicts Lower Internalized Homophobia and Better Psychological Health Indirectly through Lower Shame in Lesbian , Gay and Bisexual Adults , Stigma and Health , no . 2019 ) 37 . For aversive racism , see and . The Aversive Form of Racism , in Prejudice , Discrimination , and Racism , ed . and ( Orlando , Academic Press , 1986 ) for new and approaches , see and . The Subtlety of White Racism , Arousal , and Helping Behavior , journal Of Personality and Social Psychology 35 , no . 10 ( 1977 ) and , The Sexism Inventory Differentiating Hostile and Benevolent Sexism , journal of Personality and Social 70 , no . 1996 ) and , Racial Ambivalence and American Value Correlational and Priming Studies of Dual Cognitive Structures , of Personality and Social Psychology 55 ( 1988 ) Modern Racism , Ambivalence , and the Modern Racism Scale , Prejudice , Discrimination , and Racism ( Orlando , Academic Press , 1986 ) Sears , Symbolic Racism , in Eliminating ism in Controversy , ed . and Taylor ( New York Plenum Press , 1988 ) Swim , Hall , and . A . Hunter , Sexism and ism and Modern Prejudices , Of Personality and Social Psychology 68 , no . 1995 ) and , Brown , and oly , Plus ga change , plus , Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21 , no . 1995 ) and for attitudes on parenting , see , and . Garcia , Modern Prejudice and Parenting Shifting judgments in Positive and Negative Parenting Situations , journal of Family Studies , no . 2013 ) 38 . For prejudice correlations and predicted attitudes toward people , see , Confronting Sexual Stigma and Prejudice ory and Practice , of Social Issues 63 , no . 2007 ) for wing authoritarianism scores , see and Lee , The Relationship of Authoritarianism and Related Constructs to Attitudes toward Homosexuality ,

Prejudice and Discrimination against People 231 journal Applied Social Psychology 30 , no . 2000 ) for ers of traditional gender roles and values , see and , Sexual Prejudice , Annual Review of 64 ( 2013 ) and , Core American Values and the Structure of Prejudice , journal of Homosexuality 58 ( 2011 ) and Goodman and , Attitudes and Behaviors toward Lesbian and Gay Persons ical Correlates and Mediated Relations , journal of Counseling 55 ( 2008 ) and for attitudes , see Norton and , Heterosexuals ' Attitudes toward Transgender People Findings from a National Probability Sample of US Adults , Sex Roles A journal of Research 68 , nos . 2013 ) 39 . Norton and , Heterosexuals Attitudes toward People . 40 . Pettigrew , Contact Theory , Annual Review of Psychology 49 ( 1998 ) Hill Collins , Black Feminist Thought Knowledge ness , and the Politics of Empowerment ( Boston , MA , 1990 ) 41 . Pettigrew , Contact Theory and ohn , Social Categorization and Behavioral Episodes A Cognitive Analysis of the Effects of Contact , journal of Social Issues 41 , no . 1985 ) 42 . Pettigrew and , A Test of tact Theory , journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 ( 2006 ) and , Sexual 43 . From Harvey Milk to 58 Percent , Washington Post , March 18 , 2013 , 44 . For the effects of coming out , see Michael . Meyer , Suzanne , and Michael Gara , Measuring Identity and Hierarchical Classes Analysis ( of Sexual , Racial , and Gender , Sey and Identity , no . 2007 ) Cass , Homosexual Identity Formation Testing a Theoretical Model , of Sex Research 20 , no . 1984 ) and , The Formation of Homosexual , in Gay and Lesbian Youth , ed . New York Park Press , 1989 ) and for the minority stress model , see Meyer , Prejudice , Social Stress , and Mental Health in Lesbian , Gay , and Bisexual 45 . For formation of rights movements , see . Emilio , Sexual Politics , Sexual Communities The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States , Chicago University of Chicago Press , 1983 ) and , Gay New York Gender Urban Culture , and the Making of the Gay Male World , New York Basic Books , 1995 ) for the contact hypothesis , see and . Some of My Best Friends Contact , Concealable Stigma , and Heterosexuals ' Attitudes toward Gay Men and Lesbians , Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22 , no . 1996 ) and , Nature Prejudice for Harvey Milk , see , The Mayor of Castro Street ( New York Martin Press , 1982 ) for role models and positive representatives in media , see , Media Reference Guide , ed . New York , 2016 ) Craig , and , Media A Catalyst for Resilience in Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Transgender , and Queer Youth , journal Youth

232 Introduction to Studies 12 , no . 2015 ) and , Exploring the Role of Gay Icons in Coming Out , Popular Media Culture , no . 2017 ) for improving social attitudes , see , Waldo , Fitzgerald , We Here , We re Queer , We on The Effects of Visual Media on Heterosexuals ' Attitudes toward Gay Men and Lesbians , journal of Applied Social Psychology 30 , no . 2000 ) and for , see , Becker , Benz , Christ , et , Contact and Social Change Implications of Negative and Positive Contact for Collective Action in Advantaged and Disadvantaged Groups , and Social Psychology Bulletin 43 , no . 2017 ) 46 . Gay New York Emilio , Sexual Politics , Sexual Kennedy and Davis , Boots of Leather , Slippers of Gold The History of a Lesbian Community ( New York Penguin Books , 1993 ) Stryker , History ( Berkeley , CA Seal Press , 2008 ) 47 . Milk , The Hope Speech , une 25 , 1978 , 48 . Meyer , Prejudice , Social Stress , and Mental Health in Lesbian , Gay , and Bisexual 49 . For social stress , see Meyer , Schwartz , and Frost , Social Patterning of Stress and Coping Does Disadvantaged Social Statuses Confer More Stress and Fewer Coping Resources ?

Social Science and Medicine 67 , no . 2008 ) and for minority stress , see Meyer , Prejudice , Social Stress , and Mental Health in Lesbian , Gay , and Bisexual Populations . 50 . and . Getting the Message Out Media Context and Global Changes in Attitudes toward Homosexuality , Comparative Political Studies 50 , no . 2017 ) US Attitudes toward Lesbian and Gay People Are Better than Ever , 15 , no . 2016 ) 51 . Frost and A . Stress Contributes to Mental Health Disparities Based on Sexual Orientation Evidence from a Personal Projects Analysis , American of 84 ( 2014 ) 52 . A . Frost , and , Legal Marriage , Unequal Recognition , and Mental Health among Couples , journal of Marriage and Family 80 , no . 2018 ) 53 . Frost , and , Legal Marriage , Unequal Recognition , and Mental Health among Couples , 405 for minority stress , see Meyer , Prejudice , Social Stress , and Mental Health in Lesbian , Gay , and Bisexual 54 . Frost , Stigma and Intimacy in Relationships A Approach , journal of Family 25 , no . 2011 ) 55 . For a review , see and , ships and Minority Stress , Current Opinion in 13 ( 2017 ) and for a , see Doyle and , Social Stigma and Sexual Minorities Romantic Relationship Functioning A Review , and Social Psychology Bulletin 41 , no . 10 ( 2015 ) 56 . Meyer and Frost , Minority Stress and the Health of Sexual Minorities , in Handbook and Sexual Orientation , ed . son and ( New York Oxford University Press , 2013 )