Introduction to LGBTQ+ Studies A Cross-Disciplinary Approach Global Sexualities

Part 11 Global Histories Global Anthropology , Past , Present , and Future Joseph Russo LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter , students will be able to do the following Identify key approaches used in studies , including anthropology . key terms relevant to particular methods of people and issues , such as anthropology and ethnography . Identify examples of desire and temporary lives . Describe the connections between identities and embodied experiences . Describe from an perspective . Analyze how key social institutions shape , define , and enforce structures of inequality . Describe how people struggle for social justice within ical of inequality . Identify forms of activism globally .

Global 51 INTRODUCTION Sexuality has long been an interest of sociocultural anthropological research . When anthropologists study sexuality , they examine how the values of a culture are expressed through sexuality practices by analyzing things like kinship systems , hierarchy , and social roles . Anthropologists are interested in not only categories of sexuality but also the purpose or function sexuality serves within a particular culture , as well as across cultures . Heterosexuality was the presumed norm in sexuality ies until the century . Because of its widespread practice and its association with the reproduction of human life , heterosexuality has also been connected to the sustainment of human culture . Although widespread , heterosexuality varies across cultures , and anthropology has significantly contributed to understanding these differences . This chapter discusses anthropological studies of and Indigenous that question the status of as a global model of social organization . Questioning the status of , however , does not mean that heterosexual kinship and the reproductive unit are not prominent features of nearly all cultures . Rather , this study of global shows the pertinence of questioning the imperative to be heterosexual . An understanding of sexual difference is enriched by putting sexuality practices in conversation with concepts of gender , race , and class and even with capital , industry , colonialism , and statecraft Instead of dismissing sexuality as an outlier or anomaly , this chapter pursues culturally and historically data on different cultures across the globe to examine how anthropology posits the integral social function of these other . Anthropology is the study of human societies and cultures . One of its is sociocultural anthropology , which explores cultural variation , norms , and values . This is the focus of this chapter , with an emphasis on sociocultural ethnographic studies of gender and sexuality . Ethnography is the systematic study of human cultures and is the primary qualitative research method used by anthropologists . cultural anthropologists use ethnography immersive , experiential to glean valuable knowledge about human behavior . For instance , they usually live in the communities they study , among the people who reside there , for a length of time , to understand life from the point of view of those being studied . Previous distinctions between sexuality and gender and previous understandings of gender as a binary system do not stand up to scrutiny . The anthropology of explores the intertwining of gender and sexuality in a culture and the variations among cultures . Studies have sexuality The way people experience and express themselves sexually and involving biological , erotic , physical , emotional , social , or spiritual feelings and behaviors . heterosexuality Romantic attraction , sexual attraction , or sexual behavior between persons of the opposite sex or gender . sociocultural anthropology Refers to social anthropology and cultural anthropology together , focusing on the study of human culture and society . ethnography An account of social life and culture in a particular time and place , written by an anthropologist . The account is based on detailed observations of people interacting in a particular social setting over time .

52 Introduction to Studies gender The range of characteristics pertaining to , and differentiating between , masculinity and femininity . Depending on the context , these characteristics may include biological sex ( the state of being male , female , or an intersex variation ) social structures ( gender roles ) or gender identity . Some societies have genders that are in addition to male and female and are neither , such as the of South Asia these are often referred to as third genders . Some anthropologists and sociologists have described fourth and genders . identity In psychology , the qualities , beliefs , personality , looks , or expressions that make up a person ( or group ( particular social category or social group ) gender binary The of gender into two distinct , opposite , and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine , whether by social system or cultural belief . third gender A concept in which individuals are categorized , either by themselves or by society , as neither man nor woman . Figure . 2013 Rally for Transgender Equality . Ted . found several ways that sex , sexuality , and gender relate to one another in different global cultures . They can form discrete yet related categories , have closely interwoven qualities , and even have qualities that directly inform one another and are occasionally interchangeable or . Gender refers to the characteristics of femininity and masculinity that emerge as social norms and manifest in sociocultural practices and . Some theorists maintain that there are boundaries between gender identity and sexuality , but boundaries are not evident in all cultures and throughout all historical periods . Further , sexuality and gender as identity formations is not a universal practice . Some cultural conceptions of sexuality and gender see them as a collection of practices or functions . Additionally , the commonly held belief in a gender binary is not a universal belief . Many cultures have a third gender , a fourth gender , and even a gender . Other cultures understand certain individuals as neither male nor female , either because they embody both genders , moving between gender ( gender ) or they embody neither ( gender neutrality ) Most research on gender and sexuality practices focuses on individuals who were assigned male at birth , but attention to other genders and is growing . Some other examples are individuals who were assigned female at birth and queer , such as female two spirit , queerness , and lesbianism . As discussed later , Native studies have traced this oversight to colonization and the effort of the colonizer to eradicate Native ?

Under colonialism , the Native body was seen as sexually deviant . This belief helped justify the elimination and Global 53 disappearance of Native people and was part of the systematic oppression inherent in colonialism . Edward Carpenter was an outspoken socialist , philosopher , and ist early in the struggle for rights for homosexuals . pioneering work Intermediate among , published in 1914 , explores the integral social function of and der This work is a combination of archival historical research and armchair ethnography that compiles notes , travel writings , and anecdotes of settlers , explorers , and missionaries in their encounters with sexuality and gender practices around the world . In the book , Carpenter developed the theory of intermediacy , which subjects ( previously referred to as or ) to an ambiguously middle ground . They occupy special positions , such as ritual practitioners or creators of arts and crafts . Carpenter includes in his account the samurai code of Japan and military practices in ancient Greece . Military histories from previous eras record pair bonds and sex acts between warriors . These were often societally enforced sexual and romantic bonds between men in ship and initiation , although the reasoning behind such activities and the way societies treated them is still a matter of debate . Carpenter calls these , an umbrella term for any person who falls outside the normative of sexuality or gender practices . During the century , visibility and political organization in Europe and the United States increased , leading to a deeper engagement with Western culture by anthropologists . Esther Newton 1972 Mother Camp Female Impersonators in America is often cited as the first ethnography on sexuality and gender . Its subject is drag performance by drag queens ( called female impersonators at the time ) in the United Newton work encouraged other anthropologists to pursue research of in the United States and around the world . Evelyn Blackwood pioneering edited volume The Many Faces of Homosexuality Anthropological Approaches to Homosexual presented in 1986 a global ethnography of forms of homosexuality ?

Feminist and gender theory , as well as the rise of queer theory , added complexity to some anthropological concepts . These theories continue to challenge the today to address ethnographic research that supports people and feminist , and and perspectives . For example , one of anthropology main theories in studies on global is the adverse effects European colonialism has continues to the textures and conceptions of Indigenous and gender worldwide . These violent , Used by , primarily in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , to refer to homosexuals . Sexual inversion was believed to be an inborn reversal of gender traits male were inclined to traditionally female pursuits and dress and vice versa for female . drag queens People who use stereotypically clothing and makeup to imitate and often exaggerate gender and gender roles in an entertainment performance . Drag queens are associated with gay men and gay culture . queer theory A of critical theory that emerged in the early out of the of lesbian and gay studies and women studies . Queer theory seeks to challenge and overturn sex and gender and the normative expectations that support those .

54 Introduction to Studies Explore Read about the history of the Association for Queer Anthropology and explore the associations website ( Why did it take eight years from the introduction of the on homosexuality to the first meeting of the Anthropology Research Group on Homosexuality ?

On the Resources page , members share syllabi for classes on anthropology . Which class would you most like to take , and why ?

On the Awards page is a link to the Ruth Benedict Prize , which is awarded annually for a scholarly book written from an anthropological perspective about a lesbian , gay , bisexual , or transgender Choose one of the books that have won the prize and determine the author main argument in the book . How does its central idea expand or challenge your understanding of sexuality , gender , or both ?

colonial encounters were rooted in racist , heteronormative religious that sought to erase Indigenous Will Roscoe study of people and the development of activism in North America brought an Indigenous tive to the idea of the erotic ?

This refraining of the erotic accounted for sexuality on its own terms rather than in constant comparison to a norm from which sexual and gender practices deviate . Some queer Indigenous scholars developed the is , gay , lesbian , bisexual , transgender , queer , two describe the spectrum of and gender included in Indigenous of sex and gender . Embracing the terms queer and two , these scholars argue for the of Indigenous , and they critique , finding it a product of colonialism . In so doing , these scholars insist on the autonomy of Indigenous people in controlling and contributing to knowledge production about themselves . Anthropologists study sexuality and sexual practices , both today globalization of Western and community and global sexuality and gender . The encounter of cultures with Western models of identity has had effects on identity politics and notions of identity and community . Governments and organizations even

Global 55 use , or people presence or themes , to downplay or distract from other unethical or illegal , oppressive , and violent behavior . Henry and ohn have suggested that modern sexual identities such as and ( addressing gay male and lesbian identity and community formation ) coincide with the rise of industry and capitalism of the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries in the West . connects the rise of lesbian and gay identities to the reduced centrality of the heteronormative family unit as a productive labor force necessary for and survival . A thread in historical studies and cultural critique traces the now relatively common presence of globally through capitalism and industry , largely in urban . Anthropological contributions to this theory describe and document local , regional , and cultural variations , noting that queerness as such ( individuals engaging in sexual practices and gender ) precedes these modern historical developments , often back to ancient periods . Anthropological work emphasizes that Indigenous concepts and more accurately describe the nuanced differences of Indigenous gender and sexuality than do Western models . For instance , the word for a partner is and is used as an for identity in modern culture . However , the term has a meaning beyond the mainstream Western of identity . It describes identity generally as well as men who have sex with men but do not identify as In Hawaiian culture , is another culturally term that describes men and women who have relationships . Historically , this was a socially accepted role in Hawaiian culture . people may describe someone as at today , but the term retains nuances that the lesbian or gay might not capture . Both terms were common in usage . has become in society and is used as a marker to create a distinction between Indigenous modes of queerness and mainstream models of identity . THE AMERICAS North America North American Indigenous conceptions of ity and gender practices were documented by settlers , missionaries , and The word meaning a devoted partner of the same sex . A Hawaiian term used in times for relationships between men .

56 Introduction to Studies berdache Before the late twentieth century , a term bestowed by anthropologists who were not Native American , or First Nations in Canada , people to broadly identify an Indigenous individual one of many roles in a tribe . Anthropologists often applied this term to any male whom they perceived to be homosexual , bisexual , or effeminate by Western social standards , leading to a wide variety of individuals being categorized under what is now considered a pejorative term . two spirit A modern umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who a traditional gender ( or other variant ) ceremonial role in their cultures . A Cherokee term for spirit people . Figure . Dance to the Berdache ( by George Catlin . Public domain . explorers . The individuals engaging in these practices traditionally held integral social roles that particular social and ceremonial functions within their respective tribes . and white French settlers and missionaries labeled such a person a berdache ( the term , denoting a passive homosexual partner or slave , is now usually rejected as a slur ) Settler eventually discouraged these roles and violently eliminated those in them . Indigenous groups in the adopted the term two spirit to emphasize an individual of dual gender and spiritual . embodiment , while holding meaning and terminology , commonly a religious or healer role . In Cherokee , the term translates to strange and is used by some as the modern connotation of queer . The origin of the berdache role is unclear , and various reasons for the presence of individuals have been offered . Some scholars historical material as showing that communities probably assigned this social role , possibly foisting it on a feminine boy or extraneous son to be a passive sex partner , to bolster and reinforce a ever , this interpretation is largely rejected by the community and is contradicted by the accounts of individuals , such as . Also known as Finds Them and Kills Them ,

Global 57 Watch Learn more about the history of the word two from Geo Neptune on this episode in the series ( Describe the history of the term two spirit . Why was it for Native American activists to create this umbrella term ?

In what ways is the meaning of two spirit similar to , and different from , gay and queer ?

Were there elements of the history of the development of the term two that surprised you ?

What were they , and why were you surprised ?

was a Crow ( or bate a person who performs some of the social and ceremonial roles usually by women ) who lived from 1854 to 1929 and famously fought in the Battle of the bud . The story of ' I suggests two major points about agency in Crow social roles ( the role was a cultural institution and chosen by individuals who exhibited exemplary traits , such as excelling at women work , and ( individuals could also perform the roles of traditionally males or females , as ' I part in the Battle of the Rosebud suggests . Similarly , the idea that demographic necessity dictated who would be a person is not to explain female two spirits . Many Crow women took on the traditionally male warrior role , making it difficult to classify two spirits as a response Figure . Bay Area American Indian marchers at San Francisco Pride in 2014 . Sarah .

58 Introduction to Studies or In cultures of ( southern Mexico ) a person who is assigned male at birth but who dresses and behaves in ways otherwise associated with women the person may be seen as a third gender . ah A term similar to the describing a individual who acts and dresses in feminine ways . gender dysphoria The distress some individuals feel if their gender identity does not match their sex assigned at birth . gender variance Behavior or gender expression by an individual that does not match masculine or feminine gender norms . Also called gender nonconformity . to a shortage of men . A instance is ( Woman Chief ) of the Crow , presence has been noted in more than 130 Native ican tribes . Among the Great Plains Indians alone are instances in the , Blackfoot , Cheyennes , Comanches , Plains Crees , Crows , Gros , Kansas , Plains , and the tribes ( Lakota or Dakota ) Female two spirits , although documented among the Cheyennes , were more spread among western North American These practices were often , but not always , associated with sexuality as well as gender . Some people engaged in or queer sexual or romantic and marriage relations . The most common explanation for embodiment suggests that the person prefers traditionally associated with the site sex , experiences cosmological dreams and visions , or both . The of gender as a binary is challenged by notions of being neither male nor female or being both male and female . Further , culturally similar Indigenous peoples of the circumpolar North , Arctic Canada , Alaska , and ) conceptions of der and sexuality were often connected to the Shamanic role of an . Although an is not always or even usually , inclusion of people in its traditional social role shows an association with ways of being . people have also been noted in other Arctic cultural , such as among the Aleutians , in Western Canada , and in Latin America and Central America The in Mexico call themselves Ben , cloud people . They are Indigenous peoples concentrated in southern Mexico and especially in . roles such as or in and in del receive more respect in regions where the Catholic faith has less than elsewhere and are believed to bring good luck to their communities . They are often thought of as takers of the community and of their families ( The Western notion of gender dysphoria does not describe the ence . are culturally accepted as not being in an position . They are not placed on only one side of the gender binary . axes have Various that are not necessarily determined by their gender variance , which has local categories based on dress , ing ( wearing women clothing ) and ( wearing men

Global 59 Figure . Lukas , a who is an artist and anthropologist from Mexico . Mario . clothing , sometimes wearing makeup ) Also , if a chooses a male partner ( called a ma ) neither is necessarily thought of as a gay man or homosexual male . South America In South America , are a group . The term is shared among Peruvian , Argentinian , and Brazilian cultures . tis are individuals who use female pronouns and on a gender spectrum . This spectrum runs the gamut from transgender to a type of role that is distinct from der identity . are often sex workers . Their societal positions are precarious but also openly recognized . They are open to body and transitional surgeries and tend to favor ket industrial silicone enhancements and intensive hormone therapies . Don study of Brazilian , however , found that they had generally negative attitudes about surgery , preferring to retain their penises for their sex work . They also View itself as In South America , a gender identity describing people assigned male at birth who take on a feminine gender role and gender expression , especially through the use of body such as hormone replacement therapy , breast implants , and silicone injections .

60 Introduction to Studies A eunuch , intersex , or transgender person . ras are recognized as a third gender in countries on the Indian subcontinent and considered neither completely male nor female . or The preferred term of members of the community in India , referring to the mythological beings that excel at song and dance . intersex Individuals born with any of several combinations in sex characteristics , including chromosomes , gonads , sex hormones , or genitals . abnormal to some For these urban Brazilian , gender was a men binary , in which the category encompassed women , homosexuals , and . The category describes a wide spectrum of individuals , a spectrum that often shifts with changes in politics , legislation , gender , medical science , and cultural conceptions of self . Asia and SOUTH ASIA The Indian subcontinent transgender or category , referred to in different regions as , and ) is perhaps one of the more ( by anthropology ) gender . is a social category that has been mobilized for political organizing , advocacy , and debate . people refer to themselves as or reference to the Hindu celestial dance of the hybrid figure . From Indian antiquity to now , people have been considered closer to categories than to modern Western binary notions of In recent ical developments , India and have legally recognized as individuals . Interestingly , the word derives from a word that translates to eunuch and is used to designate actual eunuchs ( people throughout commonly genitals were mutilated or removed , often for social functions such as guarding women , singing , or religious purposes ) and intersex people Watch What does wearing a sari mean to ras ?

Find out in the video India Transgender Community The , by ( Why is it so important for to be able to wear a sari ?

What does the Kala Samskara ceremony symbolize for them ?

The host of the video states , Fashion is our most ready means available to us to express in a visual statement our How do you see this play out in your own society ?

What similarities and differences do you see between the identity and people ?

Global 61 ( those born with bodies that appear neither completely male nor female ) Therefore , many people in India the term offensive and have created more accurate and appropriate such as . In India and Pakistan , people usually are employed in sex work . In this precarious and often violent occupation , they experience higher rates of violence , higher rates of HIV infection , and higher rates of homelessness , displacement , and depression . SOUTHEAST ASIA Southeast Asian have also been by globalization and capitalism . individuals are popularly associated with industries that value their distinct cultural traits . In the Philippines , are referred to as ( in the language ) and ) or ( and ) individuals are incorporated into the social and cultural structures of Filipino life and often work in the beauty and industries . Anthropologists such as Martin have documented how modern life is lived in the context of the , immigration , globalization , and community , noting that presence challenges Western notions of gay identity and the assumed connection between people and progressive In Indonesia , Evelyn Blackwood has explored identity among women who identify more closely with masculine cultural traits and enact masculinity in particular ways , thereby blurring the distinctions between male and female social In Thailand , and are described by the identifying term ( or boy ) These are distinctive identities , often understood as contrasting with trans identity in Thailand , but not exclusively . Scholars have noted that can describe a spectrum of gender and , ranging from trans woman to effeminate gay man , and opinions on what identity differ ( The historical connotation of was much wider before the , it referred to anyone ing outside heteronormative sexuality or gender categories . The English translation of ' as ladyboy has been adopted across other east Asian countries as well . AND PACIFIC ISLANDS Polynesian language and culture have terms for ties and for or individuals . These individuals are understood as embodying characteristics that lead In the Philippines , a person who was assigned male at birth but , usually , adopts feminine mannerisms and dresses as a woman . are often considered a third gender . Many are exclusively attracted to men but are not necessarily gay . Some as women . A West term for women who dress like men and have relationships with women . In Thailand , describes a transgender person or person of a third gender or an effeminate homosexual male . ladyboy Another term for .

62 Introduction to Studies fa or fa People who identify themselves as having a or role in , American , and the Samoan . It is a recognized gender identity or gender role in traditional Samoan society and an integral part of Samoan culture . are assigned male at birth and explicitly embody both masculine and feminine gender traits in a way unique to . Figure . The Muay Thai boxer , actress , and model ( also known as Nong Thoom ) is a , pictured here at Gym in Bangkok . from Thailand . them to or to be socialized as women . In , the fa ( meaning in the manner of a woman in Samoan ) or nary role , similar to the , has cultural associations with the family and hard work ( Fa is distinct from fa ( trans individuals ) and the designations origin is disputed . The term may have been introduced in the nineteenth century with the advent of British colonialism and the introduction of Bibles translated into This suggests that before the introduction of Christianity , individuals may have simply been referred to as ( women ) express along a spectrum , from male to female partners , although literature has suggested that do not form sexual relationships with one another . As in other cultures with or individuals , fa celebrate their cultural heritage and gender variance in pageantry . The is cognate with other Polynesian language words in , Cook Islands , and describing and roles . In

Global 63 Hawaiian and Tahitian , the word is . or individuals in can be referred to also as fa . Dan , a scholar , argues that the shared history of the words fa ' and and those als integral role in society demonstrate that Samoan culture lacks structures . He further observes that daughterless Samoan families choosing a son to become a fa ' is an anthropological myth . notes that Western anthropological work on Samoan culture that is seen as authoritative gender and sexual in order to make false statements about the status of fa Watch Watch this video about in New Zealand , What Is a ?

by Beat ( How would you describe what it means to after watching the video ?

talks about the difference between tolerance and acceptance . What are some examples of the difference tween these attitudes ?

uses both fa and transgender to describe herself , but she also describes her gender identity as ing neither male nor female . Does her explanation of her identity change how you understand what it means to be transgender ?

Why or why not ?

Figure . Fa Association marches in Pride Parade in 2016 . Universal Public Domain Dedication . He . The word for in the middle in ( Hawaiian ) and ( Tahitian ) cultures describing persons with traditional spiritual and social roles within the culture .

64 Introduction to Studies The Japanese term for young person ( although never used for girls ) it is a historical Japanese term indicating an adolescent boy , and in Japan , considered as suitable objects of erotic desire for young women , older women , and older men . Literally meaning male colors in Japanese and widely used to refer to sex in premodern Japan . Further , the suppression of gender Variance in the Islands in the nineteenth century was a direct and Violent result of British colonialism and missionary work . identities of Samoan migrants to the United States and Europe were also repressed . EAST ASIA Japanese cultural norms around sexuality and der practices have shifted over time . Historians have focused on the of men . These are traced through ancient homoerotic military and warrior practices of samurai and gender used in ancient times for sacred and erotic purposes . For example , adolescent boys dressed as traditional geishas in the role ( Male homosexuality in ancient and premodern Japan is separated into the categories of ( translating to male Figure . Samurai and by depicts Kabuki actors of the portraying a ( left ) and an adult male ( Public domain , Metropolitan Museum of Art .

Global 65 colors and referring to practices of sex between men ) and of and ( translating to the ways of teenage and adolescent boys ) The decline of these terms use and the discouragement of these practices began with the rise of sexology in in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries ( period ) when Western notions of sex and sexuality started to replace traditional norms . Homosexual practices were relegated to areas of society in which certain transgressions were tolerated , such as among Kabuki performers , some of whom dressed as women . Kabuki and Noh theater barred women from performing , and males played female roles . Today , homosexuality practices in Japan are similar to the Western model , with culturally variations . Homosexuality is not illegal , but as of 2022 , marriage was still not legal at the national level . partnerships are recognized in some cities , and nation laws vary according to region , much as in the United States and Europe . The community is especially visible in urban centers like Tokyo and Osaka , and modern terms for gay and lesbian identities exist . Also , gender categories exist , such as the genderless . These are generally young men who adopt and androgynous elements ( makeup ) but who often themselves using and heterosexual markers . are often public example , fan base is mostly adolescent girls . Some gay erotica and media in , such as the genre , depict adolescent boys in romantic or erotic relationships . is generally authored by women and read by adolescent females . Conversely , bara , another form of gay erotica , is made primarily by gay men and has a male audience . Among the audience are men who love men ( and men who have sex with men ( both types may or may not as gay . Africa African formations of sexuality and gender include culturally norms of Indigenous groups in urban , rural , and religious . Rudolf work on yan ( or effeminate men in the language ) in the northern city of differences between sexual identity and sexual practices . Yan are thought of , by selves and by the public at large , as effeminate male sex workers who are not necessarily homosexual , even though they regularly have sex with men . They also occupy a socially ambiguous space with regard to their Islamic studied female husbands among the Nandi of Kenya . She describes a cultural position occupied by older , childless ( or more , without a son ) women who marry other women . and The words for the ways of teenage and adolescent boys , respectively . A Japanese term literally meaning herbivore men , describing men who have no interest in getting married or a girlfriend . Herbivore men also describes young men who have lost their manliness . yan A Nigerian term meaning men who act like female husbands Describes the union of two women in marriage in many African cultures , including the Nandi of Kenya .

66 Introduction to Studies A term referring to males who adopt the behavior and roles of women . A member of a population of homosexual males with markedly feminine gender expression in traditional Neapolitan culture . The plural is . They take on wives , receive , and perform male duties , while not necessarily making their position part of their or gender . argues that maleness and the bond is understood as a matter of necessity and function in Nandi patrilineal Some authors argue that did not sufficiently explore the possibilities of a sexual relationship between the Ifi similarly explores female husbands in culture , as does Kenneth Among the , a ethnic group in Madagascar , individuals are referred to as . They have been described as occupying a cultural position like that of Native American two spirits . The on the East African coast also have or identities . In the late twentieth century , leaders of new African states typically derided homosexuality as , and they supported the tion of lesbians and gay men . Nonetheless , after decades of struggle against apartheid in South Africa , the new South African constitution in 1996 enshrined protections against discrimination on the basis of orientation . The increase in studies on postcolonial rights and gender nonconformity and sexual minorities in Africa constitutes a relatively recent political movement . In postcolonial African cities , sexual violence against lesbians in South Africa and or oppression and violence have Scholars have focused on a variety of topics , including sexual violence against lesbians in South Africa and women , a term for women in southern who share friendship and The century has witnessed a surge of activism by gender and sexual ties across Africa . This activism promotes both Indigenous terms and histories of sexuality and gender . It also draws on international culture and activism in creating identities that resist and critique colonial and ( Europe Binary formations of sexuality and gender are widely characterized as Western , European , or American . European cultures , however , also have multiple instances of or der formations . For example , Italy traditional Neapolitan culture has the ( the plural form is ) an birth homosexual with expression ( Members of this group play prominent roles in cultural festivities . These have specific roles in religious parades , are often asked to hold newborn infants , and participate in games such as bingo and

Global 67 Figure . The 2013 winners of the annual Miss Gay pageant in , a township in East Rand , South Africa . Mann . A , Fig . 155 . do . beim . of , Africa Is a Country . Figure . Portrait of de , a . Public domain , Abele de . Moreover , recent studies suggest that today Neapolitan culture is more accepting of ' than mainstream notions of sexuality and gender ?

This assignation as is with the references to gender ambiguity ( androgyny ) and intersex individuals in Italian custom , going back to ancient myths about ( the intersex son of and Hermes ) and . The cult of traces back to ancient rites in which men and women exchanged clothing before the statue of a bearded . Norton chronicles and England molly houses , meeting places for gay men , or molly house A meeting place in and England , generally taverns , public houses , although it is unclear whether this term was a pejorative one or used or Coffeehouses , where as a Socializing , romancing , and sexual mum encounters took place there , as well as activities such socialize or meet sexual as rituals between men and mock births ( partners .

68 Introduction to Studies Figure . A man and a woman in dishabille swapping clothes . Public domain , Yale Center for British Art . of SEXES . These venues were illegal , and homosexuality of any kind was a tal offense in England until the late nineteenth century . Police regularly raided molly houses , and the homosexuals who frequented them were recognizable social types . This complicates Michel suggestion

Global 69 View On the Travel gallery , Naples Beloved Third Sex Wedding ( explores a play , a local ritual , that takes place in the Italian town of . Although the ritual dates back to the seventeenth century , it is kept alive today by the gay community . The play , The Wedding of , features a marriage between a and a straight man . Do miss the video on page of the slideshow . What does The Wedding show us about this region in Italy past , present , and future ?

Why do you think the gay community keeps this tradition alive ?

Discuss why the tradition of the characters taking off their costumes at the end of the play is an integral part of this celebration . that the public categorizing and punishment of homosexuals and sexuality did not begin until CONCLUSION Throughout history and all around the world , many peoples engaged in relations . In many societies these practices were accepted and even celebrated . Christianity and colonialism were two key forces that brought homophobia to many societies and local social of gender and sexuality . The study of global is an discipline . This chapter describes the range of gender and sexual practices that have existed in different places and times and that continue to evolve . In the century , globalization continues to spread Western notions of liberation , and in turn , local and regional cultural practices affect contemporary Western expressions and struggles over gender and sexuality .

70 Introduction to Studies Read The article In Han Dynasty China , Bisexuality Was the Norm , by Sarah , explores studies that document China long history of dynastic homosexuality . See . What are some catchphrases that refer to love between men in ancient China ?

Where do they come from ?

What evidence does the author present that bisexuality ( and not heterosexuality or homosexuality ) was the norm in na Han dynasty ?

Do you agree or disagree with this ?

What is one of the only references to love between women in ancient China ?

Why is there more documentation of women sexuality ?

PROFILE LUKAS REFLECTIONS FROM Rita Lukas ( is a artist and anthropologist from the isthmus in , Mexico . In his work , he explores notions of sexual , gender , and ethnic identity through . describes as un hecho social total , a total social fact , performed by people born as men who roles that are not typically considered masculine . Though it would be easy to make an equivalency between gay and more or between transgender and , it can best be described as a third gender to Za ' a ( culture . axes are a community of Indigenous people who are assigned male at birth and take on traditional women roles , presenting not as women but as . work is a on , sexuality , eroticism , and the tensions that exist around it . Though is understood and generally accepted as part of Za a society , it exists within a structure that privileges roles for men and women , respectively . It is important to note that his work provides a on from within rather than is , he critically explores what it means to be as himself , providing an alternative to academic analyses that can .

Global Figure . Lukas . Mario . Courtesy of . In para an , on traditional women roles , particularly in rites and ceremonies of the region ( a wedding , mourning , a funeral ) many of which are denied to . For the wedding ceremony , the artist prepares the stage by for the occasion and then , blindfolded , selects a member of the audience who presents as male to marry him . Such a union would not be well regarded in traditional Za a society , even though marriage was recently legalized in , an initiative spearheaded by a scholar and activist , Gomez , in August 2019 . On May 10 , 2018 , in , younger brother , Bruno , disappeared during a brief vacation from his duties in the navy . He has been found since , and the artist has used his platform as an international artist to bring attention to the issue of the disappeared in Mexico . Other artists and activists join him as he travels 71

72 Introduction to Studies Figure . Lukas performing . Mario . Courtesy of . around the world to show his work and create spaces where he can ask for answers at Mexican consulates and embassies for his brother as well as the more than sixty thousand individuals who have disappeared in Mexico in the last decade and a half .

Global Figure . Lukas , artist . Mario . Courtesy of . PROFILE van The recent of lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( identities and rights in many parts of Africa has given rise to a renewed emergence of thought in two First , there is the narrative of , invoked by many can statesmen , clergy , and opinion leaders . It uses sexuality as a key site to defend and preserve African values and identities perceived foreign imperialism . are framed here as , and violence against sexual minorities is legitimized in the name of can pride . The human rights lawyer Adrian summarizes

74 Introduction to Studies this as the rise of a conservative streak of Second , and of greater interest here , activists and allies across the resist this popular narrative through a discursive in which they deploy progressive Black and , ideas , and symbols . One key example of this emerging discourse is the African Manifesto , drafted at a meeting in in April 2010 by activists from across the It opens with a strong , explicitly vision As Africans , we all have potential . We stand for an African revolution which encompasses the demand for a of our lives outside categories of identity and power . The manifesto then explicitly states its concern with sexuality but links it to the project of total liberation of the African continent and its peoples We are committed to the transformation of the politics of sexuality in our . As long as African people are oppressed , the whole of Africa is oppressed . A similar emphasis on mainstreaming sexuality in a broader project of is found in the emerging body of literature in African queer studies . For instance , and Abbas state that at the root of queer resistance in Africa , is a carrying forward of the struggle for African liberation and . African queer politics is a project concerned not just with identities and rights but with the struggle against patriarchy , homophobia , and capitalism . It aims at a comprehensive liberation of can peoples and societies from the multiple structures of domination and oppression . As much as the queer African project is about the future of the continent , there is a critical sense of retrieving something that has been lost in the course of history and that can be recovered for political purposes . In the talk titled Conversations with Baba , the late literary writer uses an inclusive we to reclaim Africa as a continent that has always been characterized by diversity , and he thus sets an example to the rest of the world We , the oldest and the most diverse continent there has been . We , where humanity came from . We , the moral reservoir of human diversity , human aid , human 37 In commentary , this rich and strong tradition of diversity characterizing African societies was only interrupted by those people who came from that time of colonization to split us apart , until our splitting apart came from our own Thus , he suggests that the interruption came from the forces of colonialism and Christianity he further suggests that moral conservatism and

Global 75 rigidity have been adopted and internalized by certain sections of society in postcolonial Africa , in particular conservative religious actors such as Pentecostal Christian pastors . such forces , calls for a reclaiming of indigenous African moral traditions that recognize human diversity . In part two of his video We Must Free Our Imaginations , describes sociopolitical and religious homophobia in Africa as the bankruptcy of a certain kind of imagination . He urges fellow Africans to engage in creative , liberating , and imaginary thinking , reclaiming the past in order to reimagine the future free from oppressive modes of thought . In a more popularized form , the same narrative is found in the Same Love music Released in 2016 by the band Art Attack under the leadership of the openly gay musician and activist George , the video was presented as a song about rights , struggles , and civil liberties for all sexual The lyrics and imagery present a progressive vision , which unfolds in two steps . First , the video draws critical attention to the recent politics against homosexuality across the continent , showing newspapers with strong and sensationalist messages and images of political protests . This part of the song concludes by stating , Homophobia is the new African culture Everyone the police , Everyone a court judge , mob law , street justice Kill when you see Blame it on the west , never blame it on love , to try and show a brother some love . In the next part , the lyrics refer to and , the two countries that in 2015 became internationally known for passing new legislation . Then the song calls upon Africa as a whole , saying , stand strong , Africa , its time for new laws , not time for new wars We come from the same God , cut from the same cord , share the same pain and share the same skin . A positive vision is presented here , emphasizing the unity and common history of African peoples . The basis for this vision is a religious one the idea of African peoples as created by God . This echoes an important tradition of religiously inspired thought , on the belief that Africa destiny is God given . In the words of Marcus Garvey , God Almighty created us all to be Originally , this religious notion allowed for resisting racial discrimination and

76 Introduction to Studies Figure . tweets about James Baldwin in coming the inferiority of people of African descent white . Same Love it to resist sexual discrimination and to overcome divisions that exist today about who counts as truly African . In its opening This song goes out to the new slaves , the new blacks Same Love the experience of ing people in Africa in a longer history of racial and ethnic oppression . The lyrics suggest continuity between the civil rights movement in the United States and the contemporary rights movement in Africa . This is acknowledged later in the video when images of some prominent African queer individuals appear on the screen , while the vocals in the song state that Luther spirit lives The suggestion is that the spirit of Martin Luther King lives on in those Africans campaigning for the human rights of sexual minorities today . This allows the producers of the video to claim a moral high ground , implicitly appropriating prophetic dream of racial liberation in the United States and applying it to the struggle for queer freedom in Africa . James Baldwin wrote new scriptures . Feb , 2014 Twitter Web Client That name Baldwin , is black , African , ours , the world . do fear those who put our values in the center of changing the world . Mar , 2014 Twitter Web Client The Baldwin who was a gay icon of freedom , an icon of many now forgotten freedoms . do get to just choose . now . coz it is separate Mar 25 , 2014 Twitter Web Client

Global 77 May , 2015 The Jesus of James Baldwin and Martin Luther King is a dead man in Africa . Jesus Christ sold to Africans ( often for weekly cash money ) is a rich white man reimagined by Black haters who promises 30 percent reward if you put your money in the church . He is not the Jesus who overturned the political party of the Pharisees who were determined to keep the most marginalized of the people of poor and broken down . Remember Jesus was against the stale reactionary state . The Pharisees who looked to let people suffer under their King and Rome by paying money like we are made to do . The Jesus sold to Africans for tithe owns a church in and wants their Jesus to only pray for the Mary Magdalene who has three tittle deeds , mercedes and a driver . The Jesus who looks more like a Somali ( they are neighbors after all ) is seen as evil . We want the Jesus that looks like the Colonial District Officer with blue eyes , guns , power and a four bedroom in , so we can make ourselves govern with hate like him . If Jesus was the Jamaican maroon of his times , hiding from government like , speaking truth where it was needed , we have abandoned him . Our Jesus wants a gated community , wants diversity deleted , our Jesus wants us to condemn ourselves , tear out hearts apart , beat up our lesbian sister , attack our Muslim neighbor . Our Jesus wants to say our church of ver . In our times , you will never see a single African emissary of Jesus go to wash the feet of a young man torn and chased from his home by pharisee parents , offer him love . Catholic , Anglican , they will visit no Somali refugees . They will be silent until they rush to the media to say No Homosexuality and offer no homosexual sanctuary or love . None of them no Bishop , No Cardinal , no priest will say if you have been brutalized , African , any and all of you , come to my church for January , we will pray for you , feed you , house you , God only will judge you for I , Cardinal am a sinner also , and will defend your right to choose on this earth . You hear not one . Maybe three lovers of the real Jesus in the churches of , and silence from the tens of thousands of self advancing pharisee emissaries of God too terrified to love , and most of them prosperous and institutionally powerful . If the real returning Jesus spoke what they spoke he would bleed in the streets as pastors , priests , bishops , would come in their mercedes , followed by the politicians they cultivate and fund and who fund them and they will watch Baldwin , Martin Luther King beaten with stones and spat on by their congregations . They will tell the black people of Baltimore to get a job and build a home like white people . They will evict . They will sponsor bills in every African parliament secretly . They will make of sincere dreams . They will feast on and say love is prosperity . Me , I want love . has also invoked the name of King , and of the African American literary writer Baldwin , as part of his queer imagination . He referred to Baldwin as a source of inspiration , recognizing him as black , African , ours , as a gay icon of freedom , and him as a writer of new scriptures ( 214 ) While commenting on the bill in , he further stated that the pastor of the former president George Bush has had more on the imagination of Africans than Martin Luther King and James Elaborating on this , invoked the tradition of progressive Black religious thought , explicitly referring to the of ames Baldwin and Martin Luther King , which , he critically observes , is a dead man in Africa ( Describing as a liberating , who is in solidarity with the marginalized , criticized the church in Africa for maintaining structures of oppression and exclusion . The invocation of progressive traditions of Black religious thought is particularly in light of popular discourses that denounce Figure . 2015 Facebook post invoking the tradition of progressive Black religious thought .

78 Introduction to Studies sexuality as both and . The question of whether religion , in particular Christianity , can make a constructive contribution to queer discourse is a debatable one . Many African queer scholars and activists tend to see Christianity as a colonial and religion from which Africa and Africans need to be liberated . This is understandable , but one could ask whether it not also the of Western queer scholarship and politics with its secular inclination and tendencies . Both and the Same Love video agree with the postcolonial critique of Christianity . Yet they also suggest that progressive traditions of Christian thought can inspire the Black African queer imagination . Hence , they invite us to engage creatively and constructively with the resources within religious traditions toward Black queer liberation . KEY QUESTIONS What is anthropology and how has it contributed to our of sex , gender , and sexuality ?

What are some examples of desire and identities from different parts of the world ?

What do we mean by third gender , and what are some of identities ?

How are the new identities you learned about in this chapter both the same as and different from your understanding of gay , lesbian , bisexual , transgender , and queer identities in your own culture ?

How has anthropology played a role in the struggle for rights in the United States and around the world ?

RESEARCH RESOURCES Compiled by Rachel Discuss Choose one or two resources listed in this chapter , and discuss them in relation to what you have learned about queer anthropology . Present Choose a key topic or event found in this chapter . Then locate one or two resources from the Quick Dip and Deep Dive sections and develop a presentation for the class .

Global 79 Explain the of the topic , and provide additional details that support your explanation . Create What idea , person , or event from this chapter really moved you ?

Do more research on that idea , person , or event based on the resources in this chapter . Then create your own artistic response . Consider writing a poem , drawing a picture , or editing a photograph in a way that demonstrates both what you have learned and how you feel about the issue or person . Debate Find a partner or split into groups , and choose a topic , idea , or controversy from this chapter and have each partner or group present an opposing perspective on it . Use at least two of the resources in this chapter to support your argument . QUICK DIP ONLINE RESOURCES The Asia Transgender Network The Asia Transgender Network ( is an advocacy and community network for transgender rights in China , stan , India , and Nepal . The network releases reports and other to guide social and public policy . Digital Transgender Archive The Digital Transgender Archive ( is an online hub for digitized archival materials on gender practices from around the world . Jen en is a citizen of the Cherokee Nation and has written on Medium ( and ( about the of Indigenous or Native identity and queer or two spirit in North America . A Map of Cultures An interactive Google map displays Indigenous cultures around the world that have gender and sexual identities distinct from those of Western

80 Introduction to Studies cultures ( This map ties in with other supplementary materials ( linked on the web page ) to support the documentary , about the ian . See the Instagram account of the performer Lukas , who advocates for rights and awareness ( This chapter by Rita describes work . OutRight Action International Action International ( founded in 1990 , works internationally to support the rights of people . They advocate for human rights and equality , and they provide technical assistance , training , and funding to local grassroots groups around the world . They also publish reports and papers on key topics that affect people . A Resource Hub This resource guide and podcast series is about and for people and their families ( DEEP DIVE BOOKS AND ARTICLES Wives and Female Husbands Studies in , edited by Stephen . Murray and Will Roscoe This book was first published in 1996 and provided the first study of sexuality and gender diversity in Africa . It includes graphic essays based on research conducted in the and oral and translations of early ethnographic reports by German and French authors . The book was as an open educational resource in 2021 ( Press , with a new foreword by Marc that the book in the history of studies of indigenous African and genders .

Global 81 Colouring the Rainbow Queer and Trans Perspectives Stories and Essays by First Nations People of A , edited by Dino Hodge The experiences of Indigenous Australians with diverse sexual and der identities are revealed through personal stories and academic essays . Dino Hodge is an Australian studies scholar who is known in his country for his histories of existences in Australia and his work with Indigenous communities in ment , audiology , career development , and education ( Mile End , Australia Press , 2018 ) The Complicated Terrain of Latin American Homosexuality , by Martin In this 2001 article in Hispanic American Historical Review ( volume 81 , numbers , pages ) provides a comprehensive , history of Latin American and the impact of Spanish colonialism and Catholicism on these identities . Gender and Sexual Identity in the and Introduction This constantly updated research guide includes clear of terms for queer identities in the and Hawaii and links to resources and groups supporting Islander gender and organizations ( identity ) The guide was originally created by Eleanor , a librarian at the University of Hawaii at , Collection Librarian , and i MacKenzie , during his internship with the UHM library Hawaiian and Collection in 2012 . Invisible Stories from Kenya Queer Community , by Kevin This collection of short stories and essays about the queer experience in Kenya includes perspectives from both rural and urban queer folks . The author is a renowned gay rights activist ( Kenya Kenya , 2014 )

82 Introduction to Studies Lady Boys , Tom Boys , Rent Boys Male and Female in Contemporary Thailand , edited by Peter Jackson and Gerard Sullivan Academic essays in this book cover portions of the populations of land that the Western world would label . These case studies reveal the challenges that lady boys , tom boys , rent boys , and other populations in Thailand face . Essay authors challenge Western theories and models of queerness in their interpretation of Thai identities ( NY Press , 2000 ) is a specialist in Thai history at Australian National University and conducts research on gender and sexual identities in Thailand . The Many Faces Anthropological Approaches to Homosexual Behavior , by Evelyn Blackwood Originally published in 1986 , this book is one of the collections of ethnographic materials on relations from different cultures and historical periods . It also provides an early critique of traditional approaches to studying homosexuality ( New York , 2010 ) Relations and Female Desires Transgender Practices across Cultures , edited by Evelyn Blackwood and In this collection of essays , historians , sociologists , and anthropologists offer evidence that women have autonomy over their and that female desire exists independently of Western colonialism and globalization . The book won the Ruth Benedict Book Award in Anthropology ( New York Columbia University Press , 1999 ) and Genders in , by Lynn Stephen This ethnography of sexual identities provides an overview of the tory and culture of sexual and gender identities in , including an examination of the role of . The 2002 article is published in Latin American Perspectives ( volume 29 , number ) and Translation in World Politics , edited by Caroline and Manuela Caroline and Manuela brought together essays from authors around the world to demonstrate that Western imposition of

Global 83 on populations obstruct these civil rights movements and erase traditional cultures ( Bristol , UK Relations ) Stories Lives Queer Narratives Kenya , from NEST Collective In une 2013 , the group NEST Collective traveled across Kenya to record over 250 personal accounts of persons identifying as gay , lesbian , bisexual , transgender , and intersex . This book presents a selection from the resulting archive to explore the consciousness , tion , and expression of many queer in their daily interactions with family , friends , schools , workplaces , religion , and ideas of the future and in diverse social ( Kenya NEST Arts , 2015 ) Tommy Boys , Lesbian Men , and Ancestral Wives Female Practices in , by Ruth Morgan and This pioneering work on lesbian identities in six African countries is based on an oral history project and presents the voices of African women from Kenya , South Africa , and talking about their lives and loves . Reviewers have noted the problematic nature of two white women as authors of such a as well as how they collected the stories from the this book remains valuable ( South Africa acana Media , 2005 ) People Native American Gender Identity , Sexuality , and , edited by Jacob , Wesley Thomas , and Sabine Lang The major contemporary work about the North American Indigenous identity , this book covers how people identify selves and describe their lived experiences , how other Native Americans treat them , and how anthropologists and other scholars interpret and depict them . The Society of Lesbian and Gay Anthropologists ( now the Association for Queer Anthropology ) granted this book the Ruth Benedict Prize in 1997 ( Champaign University of Illinois Press , 1997 ) With Respect to Sex Negotiating in South India , by Gayatri Reddy This is the definitive work on ( traditionally , South Asian men who sacrifice their genitals to a goddess in order to bless newlyweds with

84 Introduction to Studies fertility ) live as the third sex in India and Pakistan , usually in segregated , stigmatized communities . This ethnography focuses on how navigate the complexities of identity , sexuality , morality , and local and global economies ( Chicago University of Chicago Press , 2005 ) GLOSSARY . A Hawaiian term used in times for between men . A Cherokee term for people . In the Philippines , a person who was assigned male at birth but , usually , adopts feminine mannerisms and dresses as a woman . are often considered a third gender . Many are exclusively attracted to men but are not necessarily gay . Some as women . berdache . Before the late twentieth century , a term bestowed by who were not Native American , or First Nations in ada , people to broadly identify an Indigenous individual one of many roles in a tribe . Anthropologists often applied this term to any male whom they perceived to be , bisexual , or effeminate by Western social standards , leading to a wide variety of individuals being categorized under what is now considered a pejorative term . A term similar to the describing a individual who acts and dresses in feminine ways . A term literally meaning herbivore men , ing men who have no interest in getting married or a friend . Herbivore men also describes young men who have lost their manliness . drag queens . People who use stereotypically clothing and makeup to imitate and often exaggerate gender and gender roles in an entertainment performance . Drag queens are associated with gay men and gay culture . ethnography . An account of social life and culture in a particular time and place , written by an anthropologist . The account is based on detailed observations of people interacting in a particular social ting over time . fa or fa . People who identify themselves as having a or role in , American , and the Samoan . It is a recognized gender identity or gender role in

Global 85 traditional Samoan society and an integral part of Samoan culture . Fa are assigned male at birth and explicitly embody both masculine and feminine gender traits in a way unique to . female husbands . Describes the union of two women in marriage in many African cultures , including the Nandi of Kenya . A member of a population of homosexual males with feminine gender expression in traditional Neapolitan culture . The plural is ' gender . The range of characteristics pertaining to , and differentiating between , masculinity and femininity . Depending on the context , these characteristics may include biological sex ( the state of being male , female , or an intersex variation ) social structures ( gender roles ) or gender identity . Some societies have genders that are in addition to male and female and are neither , such as the of South Asia these are often referred to as third genders . Some and sociologists have described fourth and fifth genders . gender binary . The of gender into two distinct , opposite , and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine , whether by social system or cultural belief . gender dysphoria . The distress some individuals feel if their gender identity does not match their sex assigned at birth . gender variance . Behavior or gender expression by an individual that does not match masculine or feminine gender norms . Also called gender nonconformity . heterosexuality . Romantic attraction , sexual attraction , or sexual between persons of the opposite sex or gender . A eunuch , intersex , or transgender person . are officially recognized as a third gender in countries on the Indian subcontinent and considered neither completely male nor female . identity . In psychology , the qualities , beliefs , personality , looks , or that make up a person ( or group ( particular social category or social group ) intersex . Individuals born with any of several combinations in sex , including chromosomes , gonads , sex hormones , or genitals . Used by , primarily in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , to refer to homosexuals . Sexual inversion was believed to be an inborn reversal of gender traits male were inclined to traditionally female pursuits and dress and vice versa for female . In Thailand , describes a transgender person or person of a third gender or an effeminate homosexual male .

86 Introduction to Studies or . The preferred term of members of the community in India , referring to the mythological beings that excel at song and dance . ladyboy . Another term for . The word for in the middle in ( Hawaiian ) and ( Tahitian ) cultures describing persons with spiritual and social roles within the culture . molly house . A meeting place in and England , generally taverns , public houses , or Coffeehouses , where homosexual men could socialize or meet sexual partners . or . In cultures of ( southern Mexico ) a person who is assigned male at birth but who dresses and behaves in ways otherwise associated with women the person may be seen as a third gender . Literally meaning male colors in and widely used to refer to sex in premodern . queer theory . A of critical theory that emerged in the early out of the of lesbian and gay studies and women studies . Queer theory seeks to challenge and overturn sex and gender and the normative expectations that support those . A term referring to males who adopt the behavior and roles of women . sexuality . The way people experience and express themselves sexually and involving biological , erotic , physical , emotional , social , or feelings and behaviors . and . The words for the ways of teenage and adolescent boys , respectively . sociocultural anthropology . Refers to social anthropology and cultural anthropology together , focusing on the study of human culture and society . The word meaning a devoted partner of the same sex . third gender . A concept in which individuals are categorized , either by themselves or by society , as neither man nor woman . A West term for women who dress like men and have relationships with women . In South America , a gender identity describing people assigned male at birth who take on a feminine gender role and gender sion , especially through the use of body such as hormone replacement therapy , breast implants , and silicone injections . two spirit . A modern umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who

Global 87 a traditional ( or other ) ceremonial role in their cultures . The Japanese term for young person ( although never used for girls ) it is a historical term indicating an adolescent boy , and in , considered as suitable objects of erotic desire for young women , older women , and older men . yan . A Nigerian term meaning men who act like NOTES . Mark in , When Did Indians Become Straight ?

Kinship , the History of , and Native Sovereignty ( Oxford Oxford University Press , 2011 ) Chris Finley , the Queer Native Body ( and Recovering the Native ) Bringing Sexy Back and Out of Native Studies Closet , in Queer Indigenous Studies Critical Interventions in Theory , Politics , and , ed . Finley , and ( Tucson University of Arizona Press , 2011 ) Edward Carpenter . Intermediate Types among Primitive Folk ( New York Mitchell , 1914 ) Esther Newton , Mother Camp Female Impersonators in America ( Upper Saddle River , Prentice Hall , 1972 ) Evelyn Blackwood , The Many Faces Anthropological Approaches to Homosexual Behavior ( London , 1986 ) Scott , Theorising Gender , Sexuality , and Settler An Introduction , Settler Colonial Studies , no . 2012 ) For peoples , see Will Roscoe , The ( Albuquerque University of New Mexico Press , 1991 ) for development of spirit activism in North America , see Jacobs , Wesley Thomas , and Sabine Lang , People Native American Gender Identity , Sexuality , and Spirituality ( University of Illinois Press , 1997 ) Chris Finley , Brian , and Scott , Queer Indigenous Studies Critical Interventions in Theory , Politics , and Literature ( Tucson University of Arizona Press , 2011 ) Henry , Some Speculations on the History of Sexual Intercourse during the Long Eighteenth Century in England , Genders , no . 1989 ) 130 , ohn , Capitalism and Gay Identity , in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader , ed . and ( New York , 1993 ) 10 . Clive , Exploring Identity Within the Implications for Health and , in et , Queer Indigenous Studies . 11 . See , Richard , Making the American Berdache Choice or Constraint ?

journal of Social History 35 , no . 2011 ) 12 . Roscoe , Woman . 13 . Briggs , Eskimo Women Makers of Men , in Many Sisters Women in Perspective , ed . New York Free Press , 1974 ) 88 Introduction to Studies 271 . Briggs , Expecting the Unexpected Canadian Training for an Lifestyle , Ethos 19 ( 1991 ) 266 . East End or of an Isolate ?

Anthropological and Demographic Study on Change , om , Man and Society ( Museum Press , 1986 ) 42 . Saladin found the same percentages in his area , see Saladin , Du foetus au la construction un ' 10 ( 1986 ) 68 . 14 . Don , Sex , Gender , and Culture among Brazilian Prostitutes ( Chicago University of Chicago Press , 1998 ) 15 . Fernandez , de Disobedient bodies and gender identity ( Barcelona , Spain , 2004 ) 16 . Rajesh Talwar , The Third Sex and Human Rights ( New Delhi , India , 1999 ) Singh , Myself Mona Ahmed ( Zurich , Switzerland , 2001 ) 17 . Martin , Global Divas Filipino Gay Men in the ( Duke University Press , 2003 ) 18 . Evelyn Blackwood , in West Sumatra Constructing Masculinity and Erotic Desire , Cultural Anthropology 13 , no . 1998 ) 19 . Richard , The Third Sex Lad ) don Souvenir Press , 2004 ) 20 . Nancy and Paul , A Retrospective Study of Childhood Behavior in Samoan Fa , Archives Sexual Behavior 35 , no . 2006 ) 21 . Fa Notes On , Jesus , and , journal 37 , no . 2011 ) 22 . Fa Notes . 23 . For an example of , see Marie , Theorizing Self in Emotions , Genders , and ( Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press , 1998 ) 24 . Rudolf Pell , Allah Made Us Sexual Outlaws in an Islamic can City ( West , UK , 2009 ) 25 . Smith , Is the Female Husband a Man ?

Marriage among the Nandi of Kenya , Ethnology 19 , no . 1980 ) 26 . Ruth Morgan and , Tommy Boys , Lesbian Men , and Ancestral Wives Female Practices in Africa ( South Africa Jacana Press , 2005 ) Gay and Lesbian Coalition of Kenya , Research on the Lived Experiences of Lesbian , Bisexual and Queer Women in Kenya , 2016 , 27 . Male Daughters , Female Husbands Gender and Sex in an African Society ( London Zed Press , 1987 ) Kenneth , Female Husbands in Land Southeast , of Pan Studies , no . 2012 ) 6982 . 28 . Serena , The One Who First Says I Love You Love , Seniority , and Relational Gender in Postcolonial , in Sexual Diversity in Africa , Theory , and Citizenship , ed . and ( Montreal , ada University Press , 2013 ) Thinking through Lesbian Rape , Agenda Empowering Women for Gender Equity 18 , no . 61 ( 2004 )

Global 89 29 . Serena , Knowing Women Same Sex Intimacy , der , and Identity in Postcolonial ( Cambridge Cambridge University Press , 30 . della , I in Italian , accessed March 17 , 2022 , 99 . 31 . Norton , Mother Clap Molly House The Gay Subculture in England , Surrey , UK Heretic Books , 1992 ) 32 . Michel , The History Sexuality , vol . I , An Introduction ( New York Vintage Books , 1978 ) 33 . The , slightly edited , is from the website Africa Is a Country , 34 . Adrian , The Protection and Promotion of Rights in the African Regional Human Rights System Opportunities and Challenges , in Protecting the Human Rights of Sexual Minorities in Contemporary Africa , ed . Sylvie and Adrian ( University Law Press , 2017 ) 35 . African , Black Looks , posted by , May 17 , 2011 , The manifesto is also printed in and Abbas , Queer Reader ( Books , an imprint of Press , 2013 ) 36 . and Abbas , Queer Reader . 37 . Conversations with Baba , talk , 38 . Art Attack , Same Love ( remix ) 39 . Hakim Adi , A History ( London , 2018 ) 40 . Marcus Garvey , The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey , 02 Africa for the , comp . Amy Garvey ( 1923 , 1925 , Dover , MA Majority Press , 1986 ) 41 . That name Baldwin , is black , African , ours , Twitter , March , 2014 , The Baldwin who was a gay icon of freedom , Twitter , March 25 , 2014 , James Baldwin wrote new scriptures , Twitter , February , 2014 , George Bush pastor has had more on the , Twitter , January 24 , 2014 , The esus of James Baldwin and Martin Luther King is a dead man in Africa , Twitter , May , 2015 ,