Introduction to Human Sexuality Part II Chapter 13 Contraception

CHAPTER 13 Chapter 13 Contraception , AND EMERSON WOLFE , LEARNING OUTCOMES Analyze psychosocial and cultural factors impacting contraception use . Discuss best practices to promote equity within healthcare systems and regarding access to resources . Be able to demonstrate the following in regard to contraception ways in which sexual participants or partners can share responsibility for it how various methods work as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each method and finally , the effectiveness of various contraceptives , barrier methods , intrauterine devices , emergency contraception , methods based on the menstrual cycle , and sterilization . INTRODUCTION One could argue that as long as humankind has had an awareness of how conception occurs , there have been steps taken to thwart that process . The history of contraception ( the deliberate use of techniques to prevent pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections ) is long and varied . In the United States , contraception is fraught with complexities . On one hand , there have been remarkable innovations , but on the other hand , there a sordid history ofthe mistreatment and forced sterilization of marginalized folks . This week reading attempts to highlight historical features of contraception , describe different types of contraception and how they work , and illuminate intersectional imbalances in access and delivery of contraceptive services . EARLY HISTORY OF CONTRACEPTION AN OVERVIEW As the old adage goes , Necessity is the mother of invention and , indeed , contraception is no exception to this rule . The first known record of contraception dates back to 3000 and was the brainchild of , the wife of King of . Fearing that his semen had serpents and scorpions in it , she inserted a goat bladder into her vagina before having sex with her husband ( Khan , Mukhtar , 2013 ) There also evidence in support of Ancient Greeks and Egyptians using a diaphragm made out of crocodile dung , honey , and sodium carbonate ( 2019 Tye , 2020 ) to prevent pregnancy . The Ancient Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to use barrier methods in the form of sheaths , often made out of linen while Chinese civilizations 181

182 EMERSON WOLFE , utilized silk paper applied with oil . civilization used a shell to cover the glans of the penis and the tribe of New Guinea are on record for using an internal condom made out of a specific plant , which prevented conception ( Khan , et al , 2013 , 2019 ) By the Renaissance , contraception was regarded as being both a safeguard from disease , as well as unintended pregnancy with condoms emerging with greater use ( most were made from linen or animal intestines or bladders of goats , sheep , cattle , or fish ) From Ancient cultures to the Renaissance and forward , the wisdom of herbs , teas and were also passed down from woman to woman . The popular ballad , Fair was thought to hold the secret to avoiding pregnancy through the use of parsley , sage , rosemary and thyme and pennyroyal tea was commonly used as an abortifacient ( 1998 ) By the middle to late century condoms and investigations to hormonal contraceptives were underway , paving the way for and century innovation and use . TYPES OF CONTRACEPTIVES Behavioral Methods in early lore , behavioral techniques to prevent pregnancy were often based on superstition or storytelling . For example , women were often instructed to jump up and down to get rid of the semen in their vagina or to sneeze or cough heartily ( 2019 ) these methods were very effective . Perhaps the most successful form of contraception is abstinence and , indeed , its virtue has been touted for generations . Although , theoretically , abstinence emerges as the most cost effective and reliable form of contraception , it not always the most attainable or realistic . in cases where sexual intercourse is likely to occur but where accessibility to contraception is limited or religiosity forbids certain forms of protection , behavioral methods are often employed . These methods are typically designed to reduce the chance of conception versus STI prevention . In the United States , there are over 61 million women who fall within reproductive age ( and about 70 of them are at risk for unintended pregnancy ( institute 2020 ) importantly , 99 of women within this age group disclosed using at least one contraceptive method with over 10 using a behavioral method ( institute 2020 ) One of the most commonly known behavioral methods of contraception is the withdrawal method in which the penis is withdrawn from the vagina before ejaculating . Unfortunately , this method is the least effective form of birth control since sperm may be released in , it can enter via contact with labia or clitoris , because timing of the withdrawal is done before ejaculation . indeed , research notes that over a quarter of women ( 27 ) using this method will become pregnant within a year ( Tye , 2020 ) Timed abstinence , or the rhythm method , is another common behavioral strategy . This approach utilizes reliance of menstrual cycle tracking with avoidance of sex during ovulation . Again , its efficacy is compromised when there are variation of implementation . Additionally , even with more technological advances in tracking menstrual cycles ( period apps , ease of temperature recording , etc ) physiological variations ( like irregular periods ) can reduce this method efficacy . Finally , another behavioral contraceptive method that is very specific to certain situations involves breastfeeding . indeed , intensive ( times per day ) can aid in suppressing ovulation . This results in a physiologically based contraception , with only of women becoming pregnant within the year . There are contrary data regarding how long this method is effective with some research supporting six months while other supports nine months postpartum ( Tye , 2020 ) One behavioral method that is often discussed , in part because of continued taboos about the behavior , is sex during menstruation . it actually more common than one may realize ( some like the additional lubrication the spike in arousal ) while others may be averse to the idea . To be clear , sex during menstruation is completely

CHAPTER 13 CONTRACEPTION 183 safe ( do watch for STI prevention , however ) importantly , sex on your period in NOT a contraceptive strategy . Indeed , because some sperm can live up to a week and because some menstrual cycles are irregular , pregnancy can still occur so additional contraception may be needed ( Tye , 2020 ) Barrier Methods Earlier we discussed how evidence of barrier methods , be it a condom or a diaphragm , appeared in ancient civilizations . By the time we reach century , significant advances were made , and in 1860 , condoms were produced on a large scale . In part , this was because the vulcanized rubber introduced by Charles Goodyear ( the tire guy ) changed the ability to mass produce condoms ( versus relying on animal products ) Originally , rubber condoms were made to scale and were reusable ( Khan , et al , 2013 ) Unfortunately , Postal Inspector and secretary of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice , Anthony , lobbied for the prohibition of any type of advertising or print materials involving contraception . In 1873 , the Act was passed , making it a federal offense to disseminate contraceptive information and , ultimately , a series of Laws were implemented nationwide , resulting in the of contraceptive use ( Bailey , 2010 ) In 1920 , the invention of latex reshaped condom production . During World Wars I and II , rates of among American soldiers skyrocketed and distribution of condoms finally appeared on scene during II . attitudes toward contraception started to shift in the late ( Khan , et al , 2013 ) Still , it was until 1965 , in the Supreme Court decision on Connecticut that attitudes and accessibility of contraception takes a dramatic shift toward legality and acceptance ( Bailey , 2010 ) The most commonly used barrier method in the United States is the male condom ( Copen 2017 Daniels 2018 ) According to the Institute ( 2020 ) million women rely on male condoms for their contraception needs , making it the most common among 15 to 19 year olds , those born outside of the and uninsured college graduates ( and a few others ) While condom use is the most efficacious in the prevention of , its use in pregnancy prevention yields more variable results . With perfect use , condoms have a 98 efficacy rate in preventing pregnancy . However , that number declines to 82 when human error is factored in ( 2019 ) The most common mistakes with condom use is not using them correctly , not using them each time intercourse occurs , and breakage ( Tye , 2020 ) Other issues include failing to withdraw promptly after ejaculation , using lubricant ( remember not to mix lube with latex ) and reusing condoms ( 2019 ) One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here ?

Other barrier methods include the internal condom ( sometimes called the female condom ) and cervical barriers , such as the diaphragm and cervical cap . The internal condom is typically made out of polyurethane ( versus latex ) and is a hollow closed cylinder with an outer and an inner ring . The inner ring fits close to the cervix , while the out ring remains outside the labia ( some report enjoying the extra clitoral stimulation ) If the inner ring is removed , it can also be used for anal sex . Available widely throughout Europe , the internal condom can be obtained in the US by prescription , online , or through some reproductive health clinics ( 2019 Tye , 2020 ) When it used as a female condom and barring any errors , the internal condom is believed to be as effective as the male condom

184 EMERSON WOLFE , in preventing pregnancy and . Unfortunately , the internal condom is a bit more complicated , resulting in less efficacy ( Tye , 2020 ) The diaphragm and cervical cap are both designed to be inserted into the vagina before sexual intercourse ( and typically with the addition of spermicide ) Once quite popular in the United States , this is one of the least common forms of contraception today . Still , it is ( a diaphragm or cervical cap can last up to a year ) but it does require fitting it to your particular cervix and a comfort in insertion before sex . Additionally , they need to be left in the body six hours post intercourse to ensure protection . When used without error , the effectiveness of preventing pregnancy is up to 96 , though 88 effective with typical use ( 2019 ) For more information comparing and contrasting barrier methods of contraception , check out the Center for Disease Control or Planned Parenthood website . Hormonal Contraception Historical Notes Similar to barrier methods , the history of hormonal contraception has a complex and varied background . As previously discussed , there was a range of contraceptive practices used by people for hundreds of years . Despite some informational and technological advances , the Act of 1873 reduced access and knowledge regarding contraception throughout the United States . One of the most critical opponents of laws was Margaret Sanger ( 1879 1966 ) A suffragette and advocate for social reform , Sanger argued that a right to control her body was a fundamental human right and that every person should be able to decide when and whether they should have a child . As a nurse she began speaking and writing about women reproductive health , ultimately being held in contempt for violating the Act in 1912 . In attending patients from the Lower East Side of New York , she was overwhelmed with the lack of options for women desperate to limit their pregnancies . Following the tragic loss of one mother who died from a abortion , Sanger left nursing to advocate for women birth control later that year . A constant target of law enforcement officials keen on prosecuting Sanger for her work , she consistently moved forward with advocacy and education , ultimately creating the American Birth Control League in 1921 ( which later became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America ) Ultimately , Sanger work helped bring about the reversal of federal and state laws and pioneered the medical efforts of the birth control pill ( 2016 2018 Planned Parenthood , 2016 Tye , 2020 ) As pioneering and innovative as Margaret Sanger was , there were also racist and attitudes of the time that impacted her advocacy . A number of sources have noted her alignment with eugenicist thinking ( the notion of selective breeding to reinforce more favorable traits ) Indeed , the birth control pill was created in response to difficulties with family planning and population control . After the Great Depression , when poverty was a serious problem throughout the nation , smaller families were seen as an affordable way to tackle poverty . Since eugenics promoted the reproduction of only the healthiest ( and let face it the whitest ) offspring , the implications of prejudice are abhorrent . Unfortunately , during the time the eugenics movement was popularized , it influenced Sanger and the ideas of birth control ( 2009 2018 ) To her credit , she never reinforced the notion of sterilization , as did other ( 2016 ) but it critical to evaluate all aspects of this notable figure versus or ignoring elements of her advocacy that may have been problematic . Because , there is no question that aspects of and racism are to be repudiated . For a more thorough response to criticism of Sanger perspective , please read Planned Parenthood statement on this .

CHAPTER 13 CONTRACEPTION 185 CON ' all MARRIAGE Inn us in nu . uh an in of wing nu wall I In I luv ulna nu an II II Hill NY image from Magazine , circa 939 Because of Sanger advocacy and the efforts of many other individuals , groups , and corporations , the first commercial birth control pill , was introduced , publicly , in 1960 ( Bailey , 2010 , 2009 2018 ) Marketed specifically for married couples , some states still banned the sale of contraception due to the last hold of provisions throughout the country . in 1965 , the Supreme Court ruled in Connecticut that married couples had the right to privacy in terms of contraception ( opening up the sale and distribution of contraceptive items , including the pill Bailey , 2010 Tye , 2020 ) In 1972 , a second Supreme Court case , extended contraceptive protections to unmarried women ( Tye , 2020 ) The accessibility of birth control , combined with various cultural shifts , were instrumental in moving women rights forward in remarkable ways ( Bailey , 2010 Tye , 2020 ) Oral Contraceptives There are several forms of hormonal contraception to discuss . importantly , these interventions are primarily used for menstrual cycle care to prevent unintended pregnancies ( defined as mistimed unwanted pregnancies jackson , Wang , Morse , 2017 ) The birth control pill ( also known as oral contraceptives ) is the second most common form of contraception globally ( Institute 2020 ) and the most commonly prescribed contraceptive in the United States ( Cooper 2020 ) Approximately four out of five sexually active women have used the pill ( though numbers are shifting based on availability of other hormonal options institute 2020 ) There are three different oral contraceptive options combined ( most commonly prescribed ) progesterone only and the continuous or extended use pill ( Cooper 2020 , 2019 Tye , 2020 ) When used perfectly , that is taken at the same time , everyday , with no deviation , the efficacy of the pill is . However , typical use , which accounts for human error , failure rate for oral contraception is ( Cooper 2020 ) For more on the types of oral contraceptive options , please check out the land Planned Parenthood . As revolutionary as the birth control pill has been , it is not without its challenges , as many users can attest to . There are of of taking oral contraceptives that have been reported in the years of its existence . In addition to changes in menstrual cycle , potential for spotting between periods , cramping , nausea , vomiting , weight loss , weight gain , sleep change and shifts in bone density , evidence also supports changes in mood , changes in sexual attraction and libido , increase in anxiety symptoms , shifts in emotion regulation and detection , stress response changes , and mixed data about both increased and decreased levels of cognitive

186 EMERSON WOLFE , functioning Cooper 2020 de Wit , 2020 Hill , 2020 , 2019 Lewis , Jank , 2019 , 2019 ) These are all areas for continued exploration , elaboration , and intervention , especially as symptoms may affect marginalized communities differently and deleteriously . One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here on . Other Hormonal Contraceptive Options There are two other types of hormonal contraceptives to be aware of . First , there are hormonal interventions that have various compositions similar to the variety of oral contraceptives . The primary difference is the form of modality since these hormonal contraceptives are delivered through ( administered once every three months ) transdermal patches ( Ortho , administered once a month ) or a vaginal ring ( placed vaginally once a month , 2019 Planned Parenthood , 2020 , Tye , 2020 ) The other hormonal contraceptive category is reversible contraceptives ( One of these options is administered through an implant ( administered under the skin ofthe upper arm ) lasts for five years and has an efficacy rate of 99 . There also the placement ofan intrauterine device ( which once placed can last for to 12 years , making it one ofthe most convenient options for pregnancy prevention . One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here on . Perhaps the biggest change in the use of hormonal contraceptives is the increase in the use of . The new options available to women has seen widespread adoption among all ages and races . use was highest among women aged ( as compared to other age ranges from 15 to 49 Daniels 2018 Institute 2020 ) The proportion of women who have used the injectable method increased from in 1995 to 23 in ( Institute , 2020 ) Approximately of Latina women are using methods as compared to of white and of black users ( Jackson , Wang , Morse , 2017 ) Important Considerations Gaining access to hormonal contraception remains a significant issue , negatively impacting marginalized communities ( minorities , economically disadvantaged , immigrants , disabled , etc ) Indeed , the majority of oral contraceptive users are white , young , childless , and college educated ( Institute 2020 ) White women

CHAPTER 13 CONTRACEPTION 187 use the pill more often ( 19 ) compared to Latina and black women ( 11 and 10 respectively ) Although there has been a decline of unintended pregnancies across all racial groups , 45 in 2011 compared to 51 in 2008 , the racial differences have remained fixed with blacks and experiencing higher rates than white women ( even when stratified by income Jackson , Wang , Morse , 2017 Harper , 2012 Wright , 2020 ) Many of the disparities rooted in structural racism , which impacts minority women also impact women with disabilities . Among American women who fall within the reproductive age range , 12 to 18 percent have a disability related to mobility , vision , hearing , cognitive functioning independent living . Unfortunately , women with disabilities are often subjected to healthcare bias and deemed asexual , which is not rooted in the experience of many these women . Multiple studies have shown that disabled women are less likely to receive gynecological exams contraceptive counseling ( Mitra , 2021 ) An additional area of consideration for contraceptive counseling , access , and care is in the responsiveness to transgender and people . With approximately one in 200 adults identifying as transgender , this domain of care is essential to update . In one study of 26 transgender men , half were at risk for unintended pregnancy ( Nova , Shea , 2017 ) Importantly , based care , which includes a approach , is of paramount importance since each or gender diverse patient has their own unique set of goals and concerns in terms of their reproductive health ( Hastings , Hawkins , De , 2020 ) In the examination of intersectional identities and contraceptive use , a few important findings come to light . First there is consistent evidence that Black , Latina , Native American , disabled , gender diverse and poor women experience barriers to contraceptive access , have higher rates of contraceptive failure , and increased risks outcomes ( et al , 2021 jackson , Wang , Morse , 2017 Wright , 2020 ) Secondly , practitioners of all types should acknowledge the history of inequity and structural racism , generally and as it pertains to contraceptive access since it still has a residual impact on women to this day . Finally , there is an increased need to address women intersectional identities in response to their contraceptive needs , taking into account historical injustices and current , systemic inequities . As Kelsey Wright contends in her paper refuting the idea that contraception is a panacea for poverty reduction , contraceptive services should be offered to women in ways that ensure access to reproductive justice without obscuring the need for social changes in the institutions that create disadvantages and shape contraceptive use itself ( Wright , 2020 , Sterilization The final form of contraception to discuss is sterilization , an irreversible form of birth control that is the most commonly used in the United States and globally ( Daniels 2018 Institute , 2020 ) Typically applied to folks on the older end of the reproductive spectrum ( ages ) who have already had children , there are two kinds of sterilization to know . Female sterilization , or tubal ligation ( is the process of clamping or severing the fallopian tubes so that any eggs released can not meet sperm for fertilization . Male sterilization occurs in the form of a vasectomy , which involves the sealing or severing of the vas so that sperm can no longer be in the ejaculate . Note that sperm is only a tiny fraction of seminal fluid so the difference in ejaculate is typically undetectable . Both of these procedures are considered low risk , 99 effective and cause no impairment in sexual functioning ( 2019 Tye , 2020 ) Forced Sterilization as a Form of Racism Although sterilization is a sound and viable option for many people in terms of contraception , there are some inequities in terms of who receives sterilization , which is born from a sordid history of coerced and forced

188 EMERSON WOLFE , sterilization . Summarized in Institute ( 2020 ) report , sterilization is most common among blacks and Hispanics , women aged 35 or older , women , women with two or more children , women living below 150 of the federal poverty level , women with less than a college education , women living outside of a metropolitan area , and those with public or no health insurance ( When considering issues of contraceptive decision making with minority and underrepresented women , listening and understanding their potential distrust in medical systems is essential ( et al , 2021 Jackson , Wang , Morse , 2017 Wright , 2020 ) In the century , the eugenics movement , spearheaded by Sir Francis , advocated for the advancement of promising heritability . By the late this campaign endorsed the elimination of hereditary blights such as , physical or criminality . The United States was the first nation to enact laws of forced sterilization and in 1907 , the state of Indiana allowed required the sterilization , the intellectually disabled ( ID ) and institutionalized people with other mental and physical . Other states soon followed and in 1927 , the case Buck Bell was struck down by the US Supreme Court ( ensuring the constitutionality of forced sterilization . The lawsuit had been filed by Virginia woman , Carrie Buck , who was forcibly sterilized and deemed unfit due to her The ruling all but ensured the continuation of negative eugenics throughout the country for decades to come ( Amy , 2018 Asbury , 2015 Stern , 2005 ) Films on Demand Video Clip Ann Cooper Hewitt From The Eugenics Crusade When World War II came to an end , there was a collective , global outrage at the atrocities committed by the Nazis ( who were to have learned a great deal from American eugenics ) The presence of eugenics in the United States was no longer as heartily supported . Unfortunately , there was little to no change in the legality and practice of eugenics simply a shift in the framing ofthe practice . Indeed , by the century , tens of thousands of forced had occurred in at least 32 states ( with a third of those coming from California , alone predominantly on poor black and Latina women Stern , 2005 ) The states of Virginia and North Carolina had alarmingly high rates , dramatically impacting poor , black women ( Amy , 2018 Asbury , 2015 ) By the , forced sterilization started to take a different shape , shifting from the public health concerns of heritability issues to a form of public welfare . With the rise of contraceptive availability , were seemingly , however , frequently women did not have all of the information , were required to agree to sterilization in order to receive federal benefits , were coerced or simply lied to about the nature of the procedure . A devastating example of this emerged in the late when it was publicized that 35 of all Puerto Rican women ( ages ) were sterilized ( 2014 ) In 1973 , the sisters gained notoriety among activists because at the ages of 12 and 14 they were forcibly sterilized in the state of Alabama . Their mother thought she was consenting to a reversible procedure and was threatened with the loss of her public benefits if she did not sign . In the federal lawsuit , the judge ruled in their favor , noting that an indefinite number of poor people have been improperly coerced into accepting a sterilization operation under the threat that variously supported welfare benefits would be withdrawn unless they submitted ( as cited in Stern , 2015 , Similar experiences for other minority groups were going on throughout the country . During the and , Native American women were especially at risk . About 40 ( of all Native American women alive at that time , and 10 of Native American men underwent sterilization during the 19705 ( Amy , 2018 , 126 2016 ) In 1979 , Mexican American women in California filed a federal lawsuit , Madrigal , due to the forcible , coercive consent to sterilization . Almost all of the victims were in the midst of a painful , complex birthing process and were only given medication if they consented to the sterilization procedure . Unfortunately , they did not win their case , as the federal judge ruled in favor of the attending physicians ( since they meant no harm ) Still the case garnered attention and effected changes in the formulation of sterilization stipulations ( need to provide bilingual consent forms Stern , 2015 ) Under the guise of family planning , coercive sterilization was still an issue in the late century , still

CHAPTER 13 CONTRACEPTION 189 predominantly affecting minority women . By 1983 , percent of women sterilized in federally funded family planning programs were black ( when blacks only made up 12 of the general population Asbury , 2015 ) In the , linking more experimental contraceptive options , like , were also connected to benefits for disadvantaged women . As Asbury ( 2015 ) wrote , What is here worth noting is that the targeting of coercive contraception to poor , black women is antithetical to promoting their reproductive freedom and should be understood as a modern manifestation of historical eugenic efforts seeking to discourage reproduction by marginalized populations ( 13 ) Current Issues Unfortunately , coercive and forced sterilization in the United States is still happening . In September 2020 ( just a few months ago ) whistleblower and nurse Dawn , who worked at the Irwin County Detention Center ( in Georgia , shared that ICE detained women were being transferred to a physician who sterilized them without proper informed consent . In her complaint , also described multiple forms of medical abuse , from failures to protect patients against , to forced ( 2020 ) Is it any wonder that , based on rampant , systemic injustice against many marginalized bodies that underrepresented folks are still cautious about contraceptive counseling ?

Indeed , there so much to rectify in terms of reproductive healthcare . Recognizing and reconciling the United States abhorrent practices is part of the process . Providing restitution and remedy for those deeply impacted , presently and historically , can certainly serve as another part ofthe solution . Finally , enacting , implementing , and enforcing reproductive rights policy that protects our most vulnerable citizens is certainly an essential feature , as well . CONCLUSION The innovation and use of contraceptive devices have a long , complex history . On one hand , our creative ingenuity can empower options to care for reproductive processes in really responsive ways . On the other hand , certain contraceptive practices are marred with abuse and exploitation , which has continued implications in reproductive justice . Thankfully , modern processes can afford us continued opportunities to correct past mistakes , ensure present accessibility and accountability , and innovate for diverse , responsive future options . LICENSES All Rights Reserved Hill , 2019 , December ) The surprising link between women brains and the birth control pill . License All Rights Reserved . License Terms Standard YouTube license . Planned Parenthood ( 2019 , July 19 ) What is an ?

Learn about effectiveness Video . License All Rights Reserved . License Terms Standard YouTube license . Vlog Brothers ( 2017 , July 21 ) On condom failure . Video . License Published under Creative Commons Attribution license directly on YouTube . REFERENCES Amy , 2018 ) Legalised put into practice before 1945 , and the aftermath . Part USA , japan , Canada and Mexico . The of Contraception Reproductive

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