Introduction to Human Sexuality Part I Chapter 10 Intimate Relationships

CHAPTER 10 Chapter 10 Intimate Relationships , AND EMERSON WOLFE , CHAPTER 10 INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS LEARNING OUTCOMES Summarize and analyze evolutionary , biological , social , and psychological perspectives on love and the development of intimate relationships Demonstrate an understanding of how various writers and researchers have attempted to define , describe and measure love Explore the benefits and challenges of consensual relationships Discuss ways to be an ally within romantic relationships and analyze the ways that intersecting identities of partners can be acknowledged in order to address and prevent harm related to imbalances of social power INTRODUCTION As we discussed previously , humans are the descendants of a common relatives shared by both chimpanzees and bonobos and , while these two apes differ significantly from one another , humans share many relational and sexual behaviors common in both apes ( et , 2012 ) In terms of mating and relational behaviors , some human males are more protective and aggressive of perceived sexual conquests while others are not and respect the strong women in their lives . Some human societies are more rigid regarding sexuality and believe engaging in sexual behaviors should only be allowed for procreation purposes only while others are accepting and acknowledging of sexual fluidity for pleasure , connection and community . Thus , humans exhibit characteristics of both chimpanzees and bonobos based on evolution , the structure of the given society , and social norms present that shape the development of relationships . As we explore the driving factors that cause humans to seek out intimate relationships with others , evolutionary psychology , social psychology , current research on healthy relationships , and the critical theories with a focus on will be utilized to help us understand the many perspectives regarding this topic . 138

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 139 Evolutionary Theories The passing of genes to the next generation and having children might be a factor in what drives certain people to enter into intimate relationships . In a dynamic between individuals , certain behaviors have been developed overtime and through behavioral evolution to increase the chances of producing healthy offspring . One critique is that this theoretical perspective can often leave out sexual minorities and perspectives . As you read the following on sexual selection theory and sexual strategies theory , you will see the term sex rather than Keep in mind that the evolutionary theories are focusing on the binary differences in anatomy and functionality as this relates to sexual behavior . Sexual Selection Theory Darwin noticed that there were many traits and behaviors of organisms that could not be explained by survival selection . For example , the brilliant plumage of peacocks should actually lower their rates of survival . That is , the peacocks feathers act like a neon sign to predators , advertising Easy , delicious dinner here ! But if these bright feathers only lower peacocks chances at survival , why do they have them ?

The same can be asked of similar characteristics of other animals , such as the large antlers of male stags or the wattles of roosters , which also seem to be unfavorable to survival . Again , if these traits only make the animals less likely to survive , why did they develop in the first place ?

And how have these animals continued to survive with these traits over thousands and thousands of years ?

Darwin answer to this conundrum was the theory of sexual selection the evolution of characteristics , not because of survival advantage , but because of mating advantage .

140 EMERSON WOLFE , Modern sports like boxing can be seen as versions of the evolutionary behavior of competition . Dave , BY , Sexual selection occurs through two processes . The first , competition , occurs when members ofone sex compete against each other , and the winner gets to mate with a member of the opposite sex . Male stags , for example , battle with their antlers , and the winner ( often the stronger one with larger antlers ) gains mating access to the female . That is , even though large antlers make it harder for the stags to run through the forest and evade predators ( which lowers their survival success ) they provide the stags with a better chance of attracting a mate ( which increases their reproductive success ) Similarly , human males sometimes also compete against each other in physical contests boxing , wrestling , karate , or sports , such as football . Even though engaging in these activities poses a threat to their survival success , as with the stag , the victors are often more attractive to potential mates , increasing their reproductive success . Thus , whatever qualities lead to success in competition are then passed on with greater frequency due to their association with greater mating success . The second process of sexual selection is preferential mate choice , also called intersexual competition . In this process , if members of one sex are attracted to certain qualities in as brilliant plumage , signs of good health , or even desired qualities get passed on in greater numbers , simply because their mate more often . For example , the colorful plumage of peacocks exists due to a long evolutionary history of ' the term for female peacocks ) attraction to males with brilliantly colored feathers . In all species , adaptations in males and females exist due to survival selection and sexual selection . However , unlike other animals where one sex has dominant control over mate choice , humans have mutual mate That is , all partners typically have a say in choosing their mates . And mates value qualities

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 141 such as kindness , intelligence , and dependability that are beneficial to that make good partners and good parents . Sexual Strategies Theory Sexual strategies theory is based on sexual selection theory . It proposes that humans have evolved a list of different mating strategies , both and , that vary depending on culture , social context , parental influence , and personal mate value ( desirability in the mating market ) In its initial formulation , sexual strategies theory focused on the differences between men and women in mating preferences and strategies ( Buss , 1993 ) It started by looking at the minimum parental investment needed to produce a child . For women , even the minimum investment is significant after becoming pregnant , they have to carry that child for nine months inside ofthem . For men , on the other hand , the minimum investment to produce the same child is considerably the act of sex . These differences in parental investment have an enormous impact on sexual strategies . For a woman , the risks associated with making a poor mating choice are high . She might get pregnant by a man who will not help to support her and her children , or who might have genes . And because the stakes are higher for a woman , wise mating decisions for her are much more valuable . For men , on the other hand , the need to focus on making wise mating decisions is as important . That is , unlike women , men ) do biologically have the child growing inside of them for nine months , and ) do not have as high a cultural expectation to raise the child . This logic leads to a powerful set of predictions In mating , women will likely be than men ( because the costs of getting pregnant are so high ) while men , on average , will likely engage in more casual sexual activities ( because this cost is greatly lessened ) Due to this , men will sometimes deceive women about their intentions for the benefit of sex , and men are more likely than women to lower their mating standards for mating situations . An extensive body of empirical evidence supports these and related predictions ( Buss , 2011 ) Men express a desire for a larger number of sex partners than women do . They let less time elapse before seeking sex . They are more willing to consent to sex with strangers and are less likely to require emotional involvement with their sex partners . They have more frequent sexual fantasies and fantasize about a larger variety of sex partners . They are more likely to regret missed sexual opportunities . And they lower their standards in mating , showing a willingness to mate with a larger variety ofwomen as long as the costs and risks are low . However , in situations where both the man and woman are interested in mating , both sexes tend to invest substantially in the relationship and in their children . In these cases , the theory predicts that both sexes will be extremely choosy when pursuing a mating strategy . Much empirical research supports this prediction , as well . In fact , the qualities women and men generally look for when choosing mates are very similar both want mates who are intelligent , kind , understanding , healthy , dependable , honest , loyal , loving , and adaptable . Nonetheless , women and men do differ in their preferences for a few key qualities in mating , because of somewhat distinct adaptive problems . Modern women have inherited the evolutionary trait to desire mates who possess resources , have qualities linked with acquiring resources ( ambition , wealth , industriousness ) and are willing to share those resources with them . On the other hand , men more strongly desire youth and health in women , as both are cues to fertility . These male and female differences initially appeared to be universal in humans . They were first documented in 37 different cultures , from Australia to ( Buss , 1989 ) and have been replicated by dozens of researchers in dozens of additional cultures ( for summaries , see ( Buss , 2012 ) there is evidence emerging that these trends are shifting , especially in industrialized western cultures . As we know , though , just because we have these mating preferences ( men with resources fertile women ) people do always get what they want . There are countless other factors which influence who people ultimately

142 EMERSON WOLFE , select as their mate . For example , the sex ratio ( the percentage of men to women in the mating pool ) cultural practices ( such as arranged marriages , which inhibit individuals freedom to act on their preferred mating strategies ) the strategies of others ( if everyone else is pursuing sex , it more difficult to pursue a mating strategy ) and many others all influence who we select as our mates . Sexual strategies in sexual selection predicts specific similarities and differences in men and women mating preferences and strategies . Whether we seek or relationships , many personality , social , cultural , and ecological factors will all influence who our partners will be . Social Psychology Liking and Loving Over the Previously , we have focused upon the attraction that occurs between people who are initially getting to know one another . But the basic principles of social psychology can also be applied to help us understand relationships that last longer . When good friendships develop , when people get married and plan to spend the rest of their lives together , and when families grow closer over time , the relationships take on new dimensions and must be understood in somewhat different ways . Yet the principles of social psychology can still be applied to help us understand what makes these relationships last . The factors that keep people liking and loving each other in relationships are at least in part the same as the factors that lead to initial attraction . For instance , regardless of how long they have been together , people remain interested in the physical attractiveness of their partners , although it is relatively less important than for initial encounters . And similarity remains essential . Relationships are also more satisfactory and more likely to continue when the individuals develop and maintain similar interests and continue to share their important values and beliefs over time ( Davis , 2001 ) Both actual and assumed similarity between partners tend to grow in relationships and are related to satisfaction in marriages ( 2000 ) Some aspects of similarity , including that in terms of positive and negative affectivity , have also been linked to relationship satisfaction in marriages ( Solomon , 2005 ) However , some demographic factors like education and income similarity seem to relate less to satisfaction in partnerships than they do in opposite sex ones ( Solomon , 2005 ) Proximity also remains that undergo the strain ofthe partners being apart from each other for very long are more at risk for breakup . But what about passion ?

Does it still matter over time ?

Yes and no . People in relationships who are most satisfied with their partners report that they still feel passion for their still want to be around them as much as possible , and they enjoy making love with them ( Simpson , 1987 , 2006 ) And they report that the more they love their partners , the more attractive they find them ( Simpson , 1990 ) On the other hand , the high levels of passionate love that are experienced in initial encounters are not likely to be maintained throughout the course of a relationship ( Acker Davis , 1992 ) Recall , though , that physical intimacy continues to be important . One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here on . Over time , cognition becomes relatively more important than emotion , and close relationships are more likely

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 143 to be based on companionate love , defined as love that is based on friendship , mutual attraction , common interests , mutual respect , and concern for each other welfare . This does not mean that enduring love is less , it may sometimes have a different underlying structure than initial love based more on passion . Closeness and Intimacy Although it is safe to say that many of the variables that influence initial attraction remain important in term relationships , other variables also come into play over time . One important change is that as a relationship progresses , the partners come to know each other more fully and care about each other to a greater degree . In successful relationships , the partners feel increasingly close to each other over time , whereas in unsuccessful relationships , closeness does not increase and may even decrease . The closeness experienced in these relationships is marked in part by reciprocal tendency to communicate frequently , without fear of reprisal , and in an accepting and empathetic manner . When the partners in a relationship feel that they are close , and when they indicate that the relationship is based on caring , warmth , acceptance , and social support , we can say that the relationship is intimate ( 1986 ) Partners in intimate relationships are likely to think of the couple as we rather than as two separate individuals . People who have a sense of closeness with their partner are better able to maintain positive feelings about the relationship while at the same time are able to express negative feelings and to have accurate ( although sometimes less than positive ) judgments of the other ( 2002 ) People may also use their close partner positive characteristics to feel better about themselves ( Lockwood , 2004 ) Arthur Aron and his colleagues ( Aron , Aron , 1992 ) have assessed the role of closeness in relationships directly , using the simple measure shown in Figure Measuring Relationship Closeness . You might try completing the measure yourself for some different people that you instance , your family members , your friends , your spouse , or your girlfriend or boyfriend . The measure is simple to use and to interpret . If a person chooses a circle that represents the self and the other as more overlapping , this means that the relationship is close . But if they choose a circle that is less overlapping , then the relationship is less so .

144 EMERSON WOLFE , Figure Measuring Relationship Closeness This measure is used to determine how close two partners feel to each other . The respondent simply circles which of the figures he or she feels characterizes the relationship . From Aron , Aron , and ( 1992 ) Although the closeness measure is simple , it has been found to be highly predictive of people satisfaction with their close relationships and of the tendency for couples to stay together . In fact , the perceived closeness between romantic partners can be a better predictor of how long a relationship will last than is the number of positive feelings that the partners indicate having for each other . In successful close relationships , cognitive representations of the self and the other tend to merge together into one , and it is this on acceptance , caring , and social is so important ( Aron , Aron , Tudor , Nelson , 1991 ) Aron and his colleagues ( Aron , Aron , 1997 ) used an experimental design to test whether disclosure of intimate thoughts to others would increase closeness . In a laboratory , they paired college students with another student , one whom they did not know . Some of the students were asked to share some intimate thoughts with each other by asking and answering questions such as When did you last cry in front of another person ?

In comparison with control participants who only engaged in small talk with their partners ( answering questions such as What is your favorite holiday ?

the students who disclosed more intimate experiences reported feeling significantly closer to each other at the end of the conversation .

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 145 One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here on . Arthur Aron 36 questions Communal and Exchange Relationships In intimate close relationships , the partners can become highly attuned to each others needs , such that the desires and goals of the other become as important as , or more important than , one own needs . When people are attentive to the needs of instance , parents attentiveness to the needs of their children or the attentiveness of partners in a romantic when they help the other person meet his or her needs without explicitly keeping track of what they are giving or expecting to get in return , we say that the partners have a communal relationship . Communal relationships are close relationships in which partners suspend their need for equity and exchange , giving support to the partner in order to meet his or her needs , and without consideration of the costs to themselves . Communal relationships are contrasted with exchange relationships , relationships in which each of the partners keeps track of his or her contributions to the partnership . Research suggests that communal relationships can be beneficial , with findings showing that happier couples are less likely to keep score of their respective contributions ( Van , Taylor , Collins , 1991 ) And when people are reminded of the external benefits that their partners provide them , they may experience decreased feelings of love for them ( 1980 ) Although partners in relationships are frequently willing and ready to help each other meet their needs , and although they will in some cases forgo the need for exchange and reciprocity , this does not mean that they always or continually give to the relationship without expecting anything in return . Partners often do keep track of their contributions and received benefits . If one or both of the partners feel that they are unfairly contributing more than their fair share , and if this inequity continues over a period of time , the relationship will suffer . Partners who feel that they are contributing more will naturally become upset because they will feel that they are being taken advantage of . But the partners who feel that they are receiving more than they deserve might feel guilty about their lack of contribution to the partnership . Members of relationships focus to a large extent on maintaining equity , and marriages are happiest when both members perceive that they contribute relatively equally ( Van , 1990 ) Interestingly , it is not just our perception of the equity of the ratio of rewards and costs we have in our relationships that is important . It also matters how we see this ratio in comparison to those that we perceive people ofthe same sex as us receiving in the relationships around us . and Van ( 1991 ) for example , found that people who saw themselves as getting a better deal than those around them were particularly satisfied with their relationships . From the perspective of social comparison theory , which we discussed in chapter in relation to the self , this makes perfect sense . When we contrast our own situation with that of similar others and we perceive ourselves as better off , then this means we are making a downward social comparison , which will tend to make us feel better about ourselves and our lot in life . There are also some individual differences in the extent to which perceptions of equity are important . and Van , for example , found that the relationship between perceptions of

146 EMERSON WOLFE , equity and relationship satisfaction only held for people who were high in exchange orientation . In contrast , those low in exchange orientation did not show an association between equity and satisfaction , and , perhaps even more tellingly , were more satisfied with their relationships than those high in exchange orientation . People generally stay in relationships longer when they feel that they are being rewarded by them ( 1981 ) In short , in relationships that last , the partners are aware of the needs of the other person and attempt to meet them equitably . But partners in the best relationships are also able to look beyond the rewards themselves and to think ofthe relationship in a communal way . Interdependence and Commitment Another factor that makes relationships different from ones is that they are more complex . When a couple begins to take care of a household together , has children , and perhaps has to care for elderly parents , the requirements of the relationship become correspondingly bigger . As a result of this complexity , the partners in close relationships increasingly turn to each other not only for social support but also for help in coordinating activities , remembering dates and appointments , and accomplishing tasks ( Raymond , 1991 ) The members ofa close relationship are highly interdependent , relying to a great degree on each other to meet their goals . It takes a long time for partners in a relationship to develop the ability to understand the other person needs and to form positive patterns of interdependence in which each person needs are adequately met . The social representation of a significant other is a rich , complex , and detailed one because we know and care so much about him or her and because we have spent so much time in his or her company ( Cole , 1990 ) Because a lot of energy has been invested in creating the relationship , particularly when the relationship includes children , breaking off the partnership becomes more and more costly with time . After spending a long time with one person , it may also become more and more difficult to imagine ourselves with anyone else . In relationships in which a positive rapport between the partners is developed and maintained over a period of time , the partners are naturally happy with the relationship and they become committed to it . Commitment refers to the feelings and actions that keep partners working together to maintain the relationship . In comparison with those who are less committed , partners who are more committed to the relationship see their mates as more attractive than others , are less able to imagine themselves with another partner , express less interest in other potential mates , are less aggressive toward each other , and are less likely to break up ( Simpson , 1987 Slotter et , 2011 ) Commitment may in some cases lead individuals to stay in relationships that they could leave , even though the costs of remaining in the relationship are very high . On the surface , this seems puzzling because people are expected to attempt to maximize their rewards in relationships and would be expected to leave them if they are not rewarding . But in addition to evaluating the outcomes that one gains from a given relationship , the individual also evaluates the potential costs of moving to another relationship or not having any relationship at all . We might stay in a romantic relationship , even if the benefits of that relationship are not high , because the costs of being in no relationship at all are perceived as even higher . We may also remain in relationships that have become dysfunctional in part because we recognize just how much time and effort we have invested in them over the years . When we choose to stay in situations largely because we feel we have put too much effort in to be able to leave them behind , this is known as the sunk costs bias ( Harvey , Moore , Gazelle , 2012 ) In short , when considering whether to stay or leave , we must consider both the costs and benefits of the current relationship and the costs and benefits ofthe alternatives to it ( Olsen , Davis , 2001 ) Although the good news about interdependence and commitment is help relationships last also have a potential downside . Breaking up , should it happen , is more difficult in relationships that are interdependent and committed . The closer and more committed a relationship has been , the more devastating a breakup will be .

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 147 What Is Love ?

Although we have talked about it indirectly , we have not yet tried to define love yet it is obviously the case that love is an important part of many close relationships . Social psychologists have studied the function and characteristics of romantic love , finding that it has cognitive , affective , and behavioral components and that it occurs , although how it is experienced may vary . Robert and others ( 2001 , 1986 ) have proposed a triangular model of love , an approach that suggests that there are different types of love and that each is made up of different combinations of cognitive and affective variables , specified in terms of passion , intimacy , and commitment . The model , suggests that only consummate love has all three of the components ( and is probably experienced only in the very best romantic relationships ) whereas the other types of love are made up of only one or two of the three components . For instance , people who are good friends may have liking ( intimacy ) only or may have known each other so long that they also share commitment to each other ( companionate love ) Similarly , partners who are initially dating might simply be infatuated with each other ( passion only ) or may be experiencing romantic love ( both passion and liking but not commitment ) The triangular model of love , proposed by Robert ( 1986 ) Note that there are seven types of love , which are defined by the combinations of the underlying factors of intimacy , passion , and commitment . Liking Intimacy Romantic Love Passion Intimacy Companionate Intimacy Commitment consummate Love Intimacy Passion Commitment infatuation Fatuous Love Empty Love Passion Passion commitment Commitment Image credit ( 2006 ) Research into theory has revealed that the relative strength of the different components of love does tend to shift over time . and Hale ( 2002 ) gathered data on the three components of the theory from couples who were either casually dating , engaged , or married . They found that while passion and intimacy were negatively related to relationship length , that commitment was positively correlated with duration . Reported intimacy and passion scores were highest for the engaged couples . As well as these differences in what love tends to look like in close relationships over time , there are some

148 EMERSON WOLFE , interesting gender and cultural differences here . Contrary to some stereotypes , men , on average , tend to endorse beliefs indicating that true love lasts forever , and to report falling in love more quickly than women ( 1989 ) In regards to cultural differences , on average , people from collectivistic backgrounds tend to put less emphasis on romantic love than people from more individualistic countries . Consequently , they may place more emphasis on the companionate aspects of love , and relatively less on those based on passion ( Dion Dion , 1993 ) Individual Differences in Loving Attachment Styles One ofthe important of the quality of close relationships is the way that the partners relate to each other . These approaches can be described in terms of attachment differences in how people relate to others in close relationships . We display our attachment styles when we interact with our parents , our friends , and our romantic partners ( Finkel , 2008 ) Attachment styles are learned in childhood , as children develop either a healthy or an unhealthy attachment style with their parents ( Waters , Wall , 1978 Cassidy Shaver , 1999 ) Most children develop a healthy or secure attachment style , where they perceive their parents as safe , available , and responsive caregivers and are able to relate easily to them . For these children , the parents successfully create appropriate feelings of affiliation and provide a secure base from which the child feels free to explore and then to return to . However , for children with unhealthy attachment styles , the family does not provide these needs . Some children develop an insecure attachment pattern known as the attachment style , where they become overly dependent on the parents and continually seek more affection from them than they can give . These children are anxious about whether the parents will reciprocate closeness . Still other children become unable to relate to the parents at all , becoming distant , fearful , and cold ( the attachment style ) These three attachment styles that we develop in childhood remain to a large extent stable into adulthood ( 2000 Collins , Cooper , Albino , 2002 , Simpson , Tran , Martin , 2007 ) 2002 ) conducted a of 27 studies that had looked at the relationship between attachment behavior in infants and in adults over 17 years of age and found a significant correlation between the two measures . A fourth infant attachment style has been identified more recently , the disorganized attachment style , which is a blend of the other two insecure styles . This style also shows some links to adulthood patterns , in this case an attachment style . The consistency of attachment styles over the life span means that children who develop secure attachments with their parents as infants are better able to create stable , healthy interpersonal relationships with other individuals , including romantic partners , as adults ( Diamond , 2000 ) They stay in relationships longer and are less likely to feel jealousy about their partners . But the relationships of anxious and partners can be more problematic . attached men and women tend to be less warm with their partners , are more likely to get angry at them , and have more difficulty expressing their feelings ( Collins , 2000 ) They also tend to worry about their partner love and commitment for them , and they interpret their partner behaviors more negatively ( Collins , 2004 Pierce , 2001 ) Anxious partners also see more conflict in their relationships and experience the conflicts more negatively ( Campbell , Simpson , 2005 ) In addition , people with and fearful attachment styles can often have trouble even creating close relationships in the first place ( Gabriel , Dean , 2005 ) They have difficulty expressing emotions , and experience more negative affect in their interactions ( Reis , Shaver , 1996 ) They also have trouble understanding the emotions of others ( Garner , Shaver , 2000 ) and show a relative lack of interest in learning about their romantic partner thoughts and feelings ( Simpson , Tran , Martin , 2007 ) One way to think about attachment styles , shown in Table Attachment as and Concern is in terms of the extent to which the individual is able to successfully meet the important goals of and in his or her close relationships . People with a secure attachment style have

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 149 positive feelings about themselves and also about others . People with attachment styles feel good about themselves ( the goal of is being met ) but they do not have particularly good relations with others . People with attachment styles are primarily . They want to be liked , but they do not have a very positive opinion of themselves this lack of hurts their ability to form good relationships . The fourth cell in the table , lower right , represents the style , which describes people who are not meeting goals of either or . This way of thinking about attachment shows , again , the importance of both and in successful social interaction . People who can not connect have difficulties being effective partners . But people who do not feel good about themselves also have challenges in goals must be met before we can successfully meet the goals of . Because attachment styles have such an important influence on relationships , you should think carefully about your potential partners interactions with the other people in his or her life . The quality of the relationships that people have with their parents and close friends will predict the quality of their romantic relationships . But although they are very important , attachment styles do not predict everything . People have many experiences as adults , and these interactions can influence , both positively and negatively , their ability to develop close relationships ( Baldwin , 1995 , 1994 ) There is also some diversity in the distribution of attachment styles across different groups . For example , in a multicultural sample including people from over 50 different countries of origin , and ( 2013 ) found that attachment style varied as a function of ethnicity , religion , and acculturation . For instance , anxious attachment was found to be significantly higher in those whose countries of origin were in East Asia , the Middle East , and Eastern Europe , compared with those from nations in South America , the Caribbean , North America , Western Europe , and South Asia . These types of findings clearly remind us of the need to consider cultural diversity when we are reviewing the research on attachment . They also raise the interesting possibility that some types of attachment may be more normative and adaptive in some cultures than others . As well as showing some diversity , attachment styles within individuals may be more diverse over time and across situations than previously thought . Some evidence suggests that overall attachment style in adults may not always predict their attachment style in specific relationships . For instance , people attachment styles in particular relationships , for example those with their mothers , brothers , and partners , although often correlated , can also be somewhat distinct ( Pierce , 2001 Ross Spinner , 2001 ) As well as showing this variability across relationships , attachment styles can also shift over time and with changing relationship experiences . For example , there are some trends in attachment , with younger adults higher in anxious attachment than and older adults , and adults higher in attachment than the other two groups ( 2013 ) In regards to changing experiences , people with an anxious style who find a very trusting and nurturing romantic relationship may , over time , come to feel better about themselves and their own needs , and shift toward a more secure style ( Cobb , 2003 ) These findings have many potential psychotherapeutic settings . For example , couples who are attending therapy to address relationship issues can benefit from this process in part by developing more secure attachments to each other ( Solomon , 2009 ) Therapists can also try to help their clients to develop a more secure attachment style , by creating a trusting and supportive relationship with them ( 2008 ) Social Psychology in the Public Interest Internet Relationships As we saw in the chapter on Self , many of us are spending more time than ever connecting with others electronically . Online close relationships are also becoming more popular . Butyou whether meeting

150 EMERSON WOLFE , and interacting with others online can create the same sense of closeness and caring that we experience through encounters . And you might wonder whether people who spend more time on Facebook , Twitter , and the Internet might end up finding less time to engage in activities with the friends and loved ones who are physically close by ( Kraut et , 1998 ) Despite these potential concerns , research shows that using the Internet can relate to positive outcomes in our close relationships ( Bargh , 2002 Bargh , 2004 ) In one study , Kraut et al . 2002 ) found that people who reported using the Internet more frequently also reported spending more time with their family and friends and indicated having better psychological health . The Internet also seems to be useful for helping people develop new relationships , and the quality of those relationships can be as good as or better than those formed ( Parks Floyd , 1996 ) Green , and ( 2002 ) found that many people who participated in news and user groups online reported having formed a close relationship with someone they had originally met on the Internet . Over half of the participants said that they had developed a relationship with people they had first met online , and almost a quarter reported that they had married , had become engaged to , or were living with someone they initially met on the Internet . Green , and ( 2002 ) studied how relationships developed online using laboratory studies . In their research , a previously unacquainted male and female college student met each other for the first time either in what they thought was an Internet chat room or . Those who met first on the Internet reported liking each other more than those who met first when it was the same partner that they had met both times . People also report being better able to express their own emotions and experiences to their partners online than in meetings ( Bargh , 2002 ) There are probably a number of reasons why Internet relationships can be so successful . For one , relationships grow to the extent that the partners by sharing personal information with each other , and the relative anonymity of Internet interactions may allow people to more readily . Another characteristic of Internet relationships is the relative lack of physical cues to a person attractiveness . When physical attractiveness is taken out of the picture , people may be more likely to form relationships on the basis of other more important characteristics , such as similarity in values and beliefs . Another advantage of the Internet is that it allows people to stay in touch with friends and family who are not nearby and to maintain better relationships ( Wellman , Quan , Hampton , 2001 ) The Internet also may be helpful in finding others with shared interests and values . Finally , the major purpose of many Internet activities is to make new friends . In contrast , most interactions are less conducive to starting new conversations and friendships . Online interactions can also help to strengthen offline relationships . A recent study by Fox , 2013 ) explored the effects of posting one relationship status to Facebook , or going Facebook official ( on romantic relationships between college students . They found that offline discussions between partners often preceded going , and , that once couples had gone , they reported more perceived relationship commitment and stability . Overall , then , the evidence suggests that rather than being an isolating activity , interacting with others over the Internet helps us maintain close ties with our family and friends and in many cases helps us form intimate and rewarding relationships . Making Relationships Last Now that you have a better idea of the variables that lead to interpersonal attraction and that are important in close relationships , you should be getting a pretty good idea of the things that partners need to do to help them stay together . It is true that many marriages end in divorce , and this number is higher in individualistic cultures , where the focus is on the individual , than it is in collectivistic cultures , where the focus is on maintaining group togetherness . But even in many Western countries , for instance , the United States , the number of divorces

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 151 is falling , at least for the most educated segments of society ( Fields , 2001 ) Successful relationships take work , but the work is worth it . People who are happily married are also happier overall and have better psychological and physical health . And at least for men , marriage leads to a longer life ( Newton , 2001 ) Let look at some of the things that enduring couples seem to have done and compare them with what we might expect on the basis of social psychological research . Be prepared for squabbles . Every relationship has conflict . This is not unexpected or always bad . Working through minor conflicts can help you and your partner improve your social skills and make the relationship stronger ( Gardner , 2005 ) Do be negative . Negative and emotions have an extremely harmful influence on relationships ( 1994 ) Do let a spiral of negative thinking and negative behaviors get started . Do whatever you can to think positively . Be fair in how you evaluate behaviors . Many people in close relationships , as do most people in their everyday lives , tend to inflate their own . They rate their own positive behaviors as better than their partner , and rate their partner negative behaviors as worse than their own . Try to give your partner the benefit of the that you are not perfect either . Do things that please your partner . The principles of social exchange make it clear that being nice to others leads them to be nice in return . Have fun . Relationships in which the partners have positive moods and in which the partners are not bored tend to last longer ( Aron , 2009 ) Partners who are able to remain similar in their values and other beliefs are going to be more successful . Partners must also display positive affect toward each other . Happy couples are in positive moods when they are around each laugh together , and they express approval rather than criticism of each other behaviors . Partners are happier when they view the other person in a positive or even idealized sense rather than in a more realistic and perhaps more negative one ( Murray , Holmes , Griffin , 1996 ) Next , the partners must share , in the sense that they are willing to express their thoughts about each other . Successful relationships involve individuals their own needs and desires , which allows their partners to become aware of their needs and attempt to meet them if possible . If the partners are not able to express their concerns , then the relationship can not become more intimate . Successful relationships have successful communication patterns . Finally , but not least important , are sexual behaviors . Compatibility of sexual preferences and attitudes are an important predictor of relationship success . For instance , it is very important that partners are on the same page about how they feel about pursuing sex outside of the relationship , as infidelity in relationships is linked to increased risk of divorce ( 1997 ) Even if a partner does not actually have sex with someone else , his or her partner may still be jealous , and jealously can harm relationships . jealousy is a powerful emotion that has been selected to help maintain close relationships . Both men and women experience jealousy , although they experience it to different and in different ways . Men are more jealous than women overall . And men are more concerned than women about sexual infidelities of their partners , whereas women are relatively more concerned about emotional infidelities of their partners ( Buss , Larsen , Westen , 1992 ) Men concern with sexual cheating is probably due in part to evolutionary factors related to kin selection men need to be particularly sure that their partners are sexually faithful to them to ensure that the time they spend raising children is spent on raising their own children , not those of others . And women concern with emotional fidelity fits with a focus on maintaining the relationship intact . Flirting suggests that the man is not really committed to the relationship and may leave it .

152 EMERSON WOLFE , Resources Healthy Communication and Conflict Resolution Fair Fighting Rules ( Therapist Aid , 2020 ) rules for how disagreements will be discussed can help to make sure healthy communication techniques are being utilized Sta ( Therapist Aid , 2017 ) Active Listening Communication Skill ( Therapist Aid , 2020 ) Assertive Communication ( Therapist Aid , 2017 ) Relationship Conflict Resolution ( Therapist Aid , 2013 ) How to Apologize ( Therapist Aid , 2021 ) Relationship Growth Relationship Gratitude Tips ( Therapist Aid , 2017 ) Relationship Growth Questions ( Therapist Aid , 2015 ) The Four Horsemen and Their Antidotes ( Therapist Aid , 2021 ) Abuse Abuse can occur in multiple forms and across all family relationships . Smith , Black , 2015 ) define the forms of abuse as Physical abuse , the use of intentional physical force to cause harm . Scratching , pushing , shoving , throwing , grabbing , biting , choking , shaking , slapping , punching , and hitting are common forms of physical abuse Sexual abuse , the act of forcing someone to participate in a sex act against his or her will . Such abuse is often referred to as sexual assault or rape . A marital relationship does not grant anyone the right to demand sex or sexual activity from anyone , even a spouse Psychological abuse or aggression is the use and communication with the intent to harm another person mentally or emotionally to exert control over another person . Stalking is a pattern of repeated , unwanted attention and contact by a partner that causes fear or concern for one own safety or the safety of someone close to the victim . Abuse between partners is referred to as intimate partner violence ( however , such abuse can also occur between a parent and child ( child abuse ) adult children and their aging parents ( elder abuse ) and even between siblings ( family violence ) is common . It affects millions of people in the United States each year . Data from National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey ( indicate in and in 10 men have experienced contact sexual violence , physical violence , stalking by an intimate partner during their lifetime and reported some form of impact . Over 43 million women and 38 million men have experienced psychological aggression by an intimate

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 153 partner in their lifetime . starts early and continues throughout the lifespan . When occurs in adolescence , it is called teen dating violence ( affects millions of teens each year . About 11 million women and million men who reported experiencing contact sexual violence , physical violence , or stalking by an intimate partner in their lifetime said that they first experienced these forms of violence before the age of 18 . AbOUt of women and . of men A report having been report having experienced stalked by an . intimate . have experienced Contact from an intimate partner sexual Violence by an in their lifetime . intimate partner . Image credit ( 2021 ) What are the consequences ?

is a significant public health issue that has many individual and societal costs . About 35 of female survivors and more than 11 of male survivors experience some form of physical injury related to . can also result in death . Data from crime reports suggest that about in homicide victims are killed by an intimate partner . The reports also found that over half of female homicide victims in the are killed by a current or former male intimate partner . There are also many other negative health outcomes associated with . These include a range of conditions affecting the heart , digestive , reproduction , muscle and bones , and nervous systems , many of which are chronic . Survivors can experience mental health problems such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder ( symptoms . They are at higher risk for engaging in behaviors such as smoking , binge drinking , and sexual risk behaviors . Although the personal consequences of are devastating , there are also many costs to society . The lifetime economic cost associated with medical services for injuries , lost productivity from paid work , criminal justice and other costs , was trillion . The cost of over a victim lifetime was for women and for men . How can we stop it before it starts ?

Promoting healthy , respectful , and nonviolent relationships and communities can help reduce the occurrence of . It also can prevent the harmful and effects of on individuals , families , and communities . developed a technical package , Preventing Intimate Partner Violence Across the Lifespan A Technical Package of Programs Policies and Practices , that includes multiple strategies and approaches to prevent . It also includes approaches that provide support to survivors and lessen harms . The strategies and approaches are meant to be used in combination with each other at many levels of society to prevent .

154 EMERSON WOLFE , One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text . You can view them online here on . When Relationships End , some relationships do break up , and these separations may cause substantial pain . When the partners have been together for a long time , particularly in a relationship characterized by interdependence and commitment , the pain is even greater ( Simpson , 1987 ) The pain ofa breakup is in part due to the loneliness that results from it . People who lose someone they care about also lose a substantial amount of social support , and it takes time to recover and develop new social connections . Lonely people sleep more poorly , take recover from stress , and show poorer health overall ( et , 2002 ) The pain ofa loss may be magnified when people feel that they have been rejected by the other . The experience of rejection makes people sad , angry , more likely to break social norms , and more focused on . The ability to effectively is lowered , and people are more likely to act on their impulses ( 2005 ) But people who have been rejected are also more motivated by they are particularly likely to try to make new friends to help make up for the rejection ( Gardner , Brewer , 2000 ) Although people who have been rejected are particularly hurt , people who have rejected others may feel guilty about it . Breaking up is painful , but people do recover from it , and they usually move on to find new relationships . Margaret and her colleagues ( 2008 ) found that people adjusted to the loss of a partner , even one with whom they had been with for a long time , although many did have increased psychological difficulties , at least in the short term . Monogamy Alternatives While 90 of people in Western cultures will marry by age 50 , the divorce rate in the United States ranges between 40 and 50 of all first marriages ( APA , 2021 ) Serial monogamy , engaging in a series of monogamous sexual relationships , is often very common . Cheating , also known as , is when someone within an closed sexual and romantic relationship engages in sexual and romantic behavior with a person outside the relationship without the permission of the partner . et al . 2013 ) discuss how certain behaviors are viewed as more clearly cheating , such as engaging in sexual intercourse , whereas romantic and emotional connections were rated as more ambiguous and unclear by most participants . Women , on average , rated infidelity on the basis of dating and spending time with another while keeping secrets about it while men , overall , gauged that it was infidelity based on if the partner was engaging in sexual behaviors with someone else ( et , 2013 ) Mark et al . 201 ) found that almost 25 of men and 20 of women had perceived their own behaviors as cheating within their current relationship . The idea of true love or finding our soul mate places a lot of pressure on one person to meet all of our needs emotionally , sexually , romantically , spiritually , intellectually , etc . With friends , we can recognize that we go to certain people when we want to have deep intellectual conversations and someone else perhaps when we want to get advice or support when we are upset . Consensual ( is an umbrella term

CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS 155 that encompasses relational flexibility in which sexual and romantic behaviors involving others are permitted and agreed upon by people within primary relationships . Boundaries are established and each relationship will have particular rules around what is permitted and what is not permitted . if behaviors break what is , then this would be considered . Thus , effective and healthy communication around boundaries , needs , wants , and limits are of the greatest importance . As with any relationship , feelings and esteem can evoke strong emotions , but navigating this space with compassion and openness allows for resolution and transformation . As with monogamy , open relationships require work and dedication to maintaining the relationships . If you are considering being in a relationship , review is Consensual for You ?

by the American Counseling Association ( 2019 ) Consensual is becoming more accepted within American culture , but stigma and shame can still lead to minority stress and stigma ( 2017 ) 20 of Americans surveyed indicated that have participated in relationships at some time in their life while indicated they are currently in relationships . A growing body of research is also exploring how animals and humans are more by nature and are seeing evolutionary benefits to increased relational and mating opportunities ( Orion , 2018 ) intersecting Identities and Power Dynamics I am not racist because I am married to a Black man . This quote reflects the View that merely being in a relationship with someone means that love can transgress all socialization , internalization of stereotypes , and power inequalities within a society . The reality is that loving someone with differing intersecting identities involves intentionality and mindfulness around hierarchies of power that exist within the greater society and how that can influence power dynamics within relationships . Some examples of dominant identities would be white , male , straight , Christian , etc . Systemically refers to membership outside of the dominant group within systems of oppression . Systems of oppression are created to provide benefits and assets for members of specific groups . The recipient groups are referred to as dominant groups because such advantages grant impacting levels of power , privilege , and status within social , economic , and political infrastructures of a society ( Jenkins , 2015 ) When a romantic partner , or even a friend , is of the dominant group in terms of one identity and the other partner or friend is of a systemically group , then can intentionally or unintentionally be inflicted upon the person from the group . Thus , the greatest amount of work must be done by the person of the dominant group to not inflict harm upon the other . Gender , race , and class are just a few identities that intersect to create power imbalances within relationships ( 2015 ) Through colonization in many parts of the world , modernity has been associated with whiteness and patriarchy which invades relationships by the voices of the members of families and the community that more closely resemble whiteness and maleness ( 2015 ) This is then internalized and comes out within interpersonal dynamics between romantic partners . The biggest amount of strain is then inflicted upon sexual minorities , gender people and women , especially when they are and have access to fewer available financial resources because of additional social constructs acting as barriers ( 2015 ) Relationships as Protective Factor Relationships can shield partners from the destructiveness of through social support and countering the dominant narrative . intersecting identities exist in a way in which one partner may have a privileged and dominant identity in one context but a different marginalized and oppressed identity in another context or partners may both have marginalized identities but in different ways . If a partner , who is a member of the dominant culture , uses this power differential against a partner with a marginalized culture , then the relationship will not serve as a protective factor against the harms incurred by the larger society .

156 EMERSON WOLFE , Straight Relationships ( 2020 ) argues that all relationships can benefit from utilizing the tools found within queer ( relationships from a queer critical theory lens . For instance , within many queer relationships , gender roles are questioned and more egalitarian practices between partners are utilized , leading to healthier relationships ( 2020 ) Within dynamics , some men can value their status and seek sexual conquests because ofthe way other males will perceive them , which devalues the pleasure of women and them to objects ( 2020 ) This causes women within these straight relationships to be unhappy and unsatisfied , which is normalized within a patriarchal and heteronormative society ( 2020 ) Thus , straight people , especially straight men , can learn a lot from queer relationships from this perspective . This does not necessarily mean embracing common queer practices such as , kink , or chosen families . It means straight people can learn to desire , objectify , satisfy , and respect their partners all at the same time , as well as have hot sex and equitable relationships in the way that most queer couples strive to do ( 2020 ) Being an Ally within Romantic Relationships While intersecting identities are incredibly complex and cause shifting power dynamics within relationships , returning once again to the concept of can help to alleviate the minority stress and strain experienced by partners . By practicing in general and within relationships , community change and developing dynamics that are protective rather than harmful are possible . Here are some tips on ways to be an ally and think about how you can incorporate these techniques within intimate , romantic relationships as well as with friends and acquaintances Be An Ally ( Cornell University , 2021 ) Becoming an Ally ( University of Nevada Las Vegas , 2021 ) Ways To Be a ( Better ) Ally ( University , 2020 ) FINAL REMARKS OUT OF COMPLEXITY COMES SIMPLICITY As Part of the textbook comes to an end , we want to highlight once again that human sexuality is incredibly complex and each person has a unique perspective based on the way their multiple identities come together and shape their development . Human experience exists on of possibilities and even labels can mean different things to different people . However , out ofall this complexity comes is about connection . Ifyou are ever stuck in understanding something , simply ask questions and explore with curiosity and humility . We do not know all of the answers , and that is okay and beautiful . By educating ourselves and constantly researching the world around us while also creating space for people to share their perspectives and identities , we let the complexity of human experience unfold without putting pressure on ourselves to find predetermined labels or operate off of our assumptions . At the end of the day , creating safe environments through our actions and statements , listening to and honoring the experiences of others , and sharing our life stories with others are all that matters . Licenses Sexual Selection Theory and Sexual Strategies Theory were taken from Evolutionary Theories in Psychology by

CHAPTER 10 INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS 157 David Buss is licensed under a Creative Commons International License . Permissions beyond the scope ofthis license may be available in our Licensing Agreement . The Social Psychology Liking and Loving Over the section was taken from the Principles of Social Psychology Edition by Hammond Tarry is licensed under a Creative Commons International License . Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available in our Licensing Agreement . Hood , 2019 , April ) The difference between healthy and unhealthy love Video . TED Conferences . hood the difference between and love Creative Commons International . 2013 , February ) The secret to desire in a relationship Video . the secret to desire in a long term relationship . Creative Commons International . 2015 , December 18 ) Wildfire Official video Video . License All Rights Reserved . License Terms Standard YouTube license . The Family is licensed under a Creative Commons International License . Permissions beyond the scope ofthis license may be available in our Licensing Agreement . Adaptations Reformatted . Added learning objectives . Modified content for language , application to subject and cohesion . Updated sources . Added links to resources for further . References American Psychological Association . 2021 ) Marriage divorce . Buss , 2021 ) Evolutionary theories in psychology . In ( textbook series Psychology . Champaign , IL DEF publishers . Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control Prevention . 2020 ) Preventing intimate partner violence . National Center for Injury Prevention and Control , Division of Violence Prevention . Hood , 2019 , April ) The difference between healthy and unhealthy love Video . TED Conferences . hood the difference between healthy and unhealthy love Jenkins , 2015 ) Women of color experiences and intercultural developmental strategies constructing community college leadership A case study . Dissertation in progress . Phoenix , AZ University of Phoenix , Tarry , 2014 ) Principles of social psychology international edition licensed under a Creative Commons International License . Retrieved from , Fisher , Fitzgerald , 2013 ) Was that Cheating ?

Perceptions vary by sex , attachment anxiety , and behavior . Evolutionary Psychology . Mark , 2011 ) heterosexual couples demographic , interpersonal , and of sex . Arch Sex , 40 ( doi . A . 2021 ) The family . In ( textbook series Psychology . Champaign , IL DEF publishers . Retrieved from , 2020 ) Queer lessons for straight couples . UC Riverside . Orion , 2017 ) A therapist guide to consensual Polyamory , swinging , and open marriage . New York , NY . Munch , Miller , Sutton , Winer ,

153 EMERSON WOLFE , Knight , Meader , 2012 ) The bonobo genome compared with the chimpanzee and human genomes . Nature , 486 ( 7404 ) Retrieved from , 2017 ) Toward inclusive science and practice Here what you need to know about consensually relationships . American Psychological Association . 201 ) The sexual erotic market as an analytical framework for understanding exchanges in interracial sexually intimate and affective relationships . Culture , Health Sexuality , 17 , License Introduction to Human Sexuality by Emerson Wolfe is licensed under a Creative Commons International License .