Introduction to Human Geography - 2nd Edition Chapter 10 Agriculture and Food

Agriculture and Food Connor STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , the student will be able to . Understand the origin and evolution of agriculture across the globe . Explain the relationship , market forces , institutions , agricultural industrialization , and Versus sustainable agriculture . Describe agricultural regions , comparing and contrasting subsistence and commercial agriculture . Connect the factors of global changes in food production and consumption CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Agricultural Practices Global Changes in Food Production and Consumption Conclusion Key Terms Works Consulted and Further Reading Page 190

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD INTRODUCTION Before the invention of agriculture , people obtained food from hunting wild animals , and gathering fruits , nuts and roots . Having to travel in small groups to obtain food , people led a nomadic existence . This remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period , some years ago . Then , agriculture gradually replaced the hunting and gathering system , constituting the spread of the Neolithic revolution . Even today , some isolated groups survive as they did before agriculture developed . They can be found in some remote areas such as in , Congo , New Guinea , and the Arctic latitude , where hunting dominates life ( Figures , and ) The term agriculture refers to the cultivation . Author User of crops and the of livestock for both I Commons sustenance and economic gain . The origin of License BY SA agriculture goes back to prehistoric time , starting when humans domesticated plants and animals . The domestication of plants and animals as the origin of agriculture was a pivotal transition in human history , which occurred several times independently . Agriculture originated and spread in different regions ( hearths ) of the world , including the Middle East , Southwest Asia , and the Andes , Northeastern India , North China , and East Africa , beginning as early as years ago . People became sedentary , living in their villages , where new types of social , cultural , political , and economic relationships were created . This period of momentous innovations is known as the Revolution . Figure Hunters Figure Hunter and Gatherers Figure Hunters Author User Author User Source Commons Source Commons License BY SA License BY SA Page 191

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES Agriculture is a science , a business , and an art ( Figures and ) Spatially , agriculture is the world most widely distributed industry . It occupies more area than all other industries combined , changing the surface of the Earth more than any other . Farming , with its multiple methods , has transformed the landscape ( small or large , terraces , livestock grazing ) being an important of the relationship between people and their environments . The world agricultural societies today are very diverse and complex , with agricultural practices ranging from the most rudimentary , such as using the plow , to the most complex , such as using machines , tractors , satellite navigation , and genetic engineering methods . Customarily , scholars divide agricultural societies into categories such as subsistence , intermediate , and developed , words that express the same ideas as primitive , traditional , and modern , respectively . For the purpose of , farming practices described in this chapter are into two categories , subsistence and commercial , with fundamental differences between their practice in developed and developing countries . Figure Trading Floor at the Chicago Figure Tulip Fields in The Netherlands Board of Trade Author Alf van Beem Author Jeremy Kemp Source Commons Source Commons License License Public Domain . Subsistence Agriculture Subsistence agriculture replaced hunting and gathering in many parts of the globe . The term subsistence , when it relates to farming , refers to growing food only to sustain the farmers themselves and their families , consuming most of what they produce , without entering into the cash economy of the country . The farm size is small , acres ( hectares ) but the agriculture is less mechanized therefore , the percentage of workers engaged directly in farming is very high , reaching 50 percent or more in some developing countries ( Figure ) Climate regions play an important role in determining agricultural regions . Farming activities range Page 192

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD from shifting cultivation to pastoralism , both extensive forms that still prevail over large regions , to intensive subsistence . Employment in agriculture ( of total employment ) 240 , I 61 10 ?

I , Source The World Bank 2014 Copyright All rights reserved Figure Employment in Agriculture , 2014 Author License BY SA Shifting Cultivation Shifting cultivation , also known as agriculture , is a form of subsistence agriculture that involves a kind of natural rotation system . Shifting cultivation is a way of life for million people , globally distributed in the , of South America , Central and West Africa , and Southeast Asia . The practices involve removing dense vegetation , burning the debris , clearing the area , known as , and preparing it for cultivation ( Figures ) Shifting cultivation can successfully support only low population densities and , as a result of rapid depletion of soil fertility , the are actively cultivated usually for three years . As a result , the infertile Figure Farming in land has to be abandoned and another a a site has to be , starting again Author Source Commons the process of and planting . The License BY SA Page 193

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD technique thus requires extensive acreage for new lots , as well as a great deal of human labor , involving at the same time a frequent gender division of labor . The kinds of crops grown can be different from region to region , dominated by tubers , sweet potatoes especially , and grains such as rice and corn . The practice of mixing different seeds in the same in the warm and humid tropics is favorable for harvesting two or even three times per year . Yet , the practice has some negative impacts on the environment , being seen as ecologically destructive especially for areas with vulnerable and endangered species . Pastoralism Involving the breeding and herding of animals , pastoralism is another extensive form of subsistence agriculture . It is adapted to cold or dry climates of savannas ( grasslands ) deserts , steppes , high plateaus , and Arctic zones where planting crops is impracticable . the practice is characteristic in Africa north , central ( and south , the Middle East , central and southwest Asia , the Mediterranean basin , and . The species of animals vary with the region of the world including especially sheep , goats , cattle , reindeer , and camels . Pastoralism is a successful strategy to support a population on less productive land , and adapts well to the environment . Three categories of pastoralism can be individualized sedentary , nomadic , and transhumance . Sedentary pastoralism refers to those farmers who live in their villages and their herd animals in nearby pastures . A number of men usually are hired by the villagers in order to take care of their animals . Equally important is the practice in which the hired men gather the animals ( cattle especially ) in the morning , feed them during the day in the nearby pasture , and then return them to the village early in the evening . This is the typical pattern for many traditional European . Nomadic pastoralism is a traditional form of subsistence agriculture in which the travel with their herds over long distances and with no pattern . This is a continuous movement of groups of herds and people such as the Bedouins of Saudi Arabia , the of Iran , the of North Africa , the of East Africa , the of South Africa , the Mongols of Central Asia , and other groups . The settlement landscape of pastoral nomads their need for mobility and . Usually , they live in a type of tent ( known as yurt in Central Asia ) and move their herds to any available pasture ( Figure ) Although there are approximately million nomadic in the world , they occupy about 20 percent of Earth land area . Today , their life is in decline , the victim of more constricting political borders , competing land uses , selective , and government resettlement programs . Transhumance is a seasonal vertical movement by herding the livestock ( cows , sheep , goats , and horses ) to cooler , greener pastures in the summer and then returning them to lowland settings for fall and winter grazing . Page 194

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Figure Mongolian Nomads Moving to Autumn Encampment Author User Source Commons License BY SA AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Figure Transhumance in the Pyrenees Mountains Author User Source Commons License BY SA Herders have a permanent home , typically in the valleys . Generally , the herds travel with a certain number of people necessary to tend them , while the main population stays at the base . This is a traditional practice in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea basins such as southern European countries , the Carpathian Mountains , and the countries ( Figures and ) In addition , near highland zones such as the Atlas Mountains ( northwest Africa ) and the Anatolian Plateau ( Turkey ) as well as in Africa , the Middle East countries , and Central Asia , the have to practice another type of transhumance , such as the movement of animals between and pasture . DE ALE TRANSHUMANCE of THE ( SHEPHERDS IN THE PAST ( ROMANIANS or , Page 195 Figure Romanian and Transhumance in Balkans Author User Source Commons License BY SA

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Intensive Subsistence Agriculture Intensive subsistence agriculture , characteristic of densely populated regions especially in southern , southeastern , and eastern Asia , involves the effective and use of small parcels of land in order to maximize crop yield per acre . The practice requires intensive human labor , with most of the work being done by hand or with animals . The landscape of intensive subsistence agriculture is transformed , including hillside terraces and raised , adding the irrigation systems and fertilizers ( Figures and ) As a result , intensive subsistence agriculture is able to support large rural populations . Rice is the dominant crop in the humid areas of southern , southeastern , and eastern Asia . In the drier areas , other crops are cultivated such as grains ( wheat , corn , barley , millet , sorghum , and oats ) as well as peanuts , soybeans , tubers , and vegetables . In both situations , the land is intensively used , and the milder climate of those regions allows double cropping ( the are planted and harvested two times per year ) Figure Rice Terraces , the Philippines Figure Raised , Vietnam Author Susan Dennis Jarvis Commons Commons License BY License BY SA In recent decades , as the result of the introduction of grain varieties such as wheat , corn , and rice , known as Green Revolution , tens of millions of subsistence farmers have been lifted above the survival level . The spread of these new varieties throughout the farmlands of South , Southeast , and East Asia , and Mexico greatly improved the supply of food in these areas . Equally important was the use of fertilizers , pesticides , irrigation , and new machines . Today , China and India are in basic foods , while Thailand and Vietnam are two of the top rice exporters in the world . Although hunger and famine still persist in some regions of the world , especially in Africa , many people accept that they would be much worse without using these innovations . Commercial Agriculture Commercial agriculture , generally practiced in core countries outside the tropics , is developed primarily to generate products for sale to food processing Page 196

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD companies . An exception is plantation farming , a form of commercial agriculture which persists in developing countries side by side with subsistence . Unlike the small subsistence farms ( acres ) the average of the commercial farm size is over 150 370 acres ( 178 193 acres ) and , being mechanized , many of them are family owned and operated . Mechanization also determines the percentage of the labor force in agriculture , with many developed countries being even below two percent of the total employment , such as Israel , the United Kingdom , Germany , the United States , Canada , Norway , Denmark , and Sweden ( Figure ) Moreover , as the result of industrialization and urbanization , many developed countries continue to lose areas of agricultural land . North America , for example , had percent agricultural land out of the total land area in 1961 and 26 percent in 2014 . The European Union decreased its agricultural land from percent to percent for the same period , during which some countries recorded outstanding decreases , such as Ireland from to percent , the United Kingdom from to percent , and Denmark from to percent to mention only a few . In addition to the high level of mechanization , in order to increase their productivity , commercial farmers use advances in research and technology such as the Global Positioning System ( autonomous precision robot , intelligent systems for animal monitoring , savings in through the use of a automatic steering system ) and satellite imagery ( routes for selective harvesting based on remote sensing management ) Climate regions also play an important role in determining agricultural regions . In developed countries , these regions can be individualized as six types of commercial agriculture mixed crop and livestock , grain farming , dairy farming , livestock ranching , commercial gardening and fruit farming , and Mediterranean agriculture Mixed Crop and Livestock Mixed crop and livestock farming extends over much of the eastern United States , central and western Europe , western Russia , Japan , and smaller areas in South America ( Brazil and ) and South Africa . The rich soils , typically involving crop rotation , produce high yields primarily of corn and wheat , adding also soybeans , sugar beets , potatoes , fruit orchards , and forage crops for livestock . In practice , there is a wide variation in mixed systems . At a higher level , a region can consist of individual specialized farms ( corn , for example ) and service systems that together act as a mixed system . Other forms of mixed farming include cultivation of different crops on the same or several varieties of the same crop with different life cycles , using space more and spreading risks more uniformly . The same farm may grow cereal crops or orchards , for example , and keep cattle , sheep , pigs , or poultry ( Figure ) Page 197

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Figure Integration Sheep grazing under fruit trees ( the Netherlands ) Author Source License I . Used with permission . Grain Farming Commercial grain farming is an extensive and mechanized form of agriculture . This is a development in the continental lands of the ( mostly between and North and South latitudes ) in regions that are too dry for mixed crop and livestock farming . The major world regions of commercial grain farming are located in ( from Kiev , in Ukraine , along southern Russia , to in western Siberia and ) and North America ( the Great Plains ) In the southern hemisphere , Argentina , in South America , has a large region of commercial grain farming , and Australia has two such areas , one in the southwest and another in the southeast . Commercial grain farming is highly specialized and , generally , one single crop is grown . The most important crop grown is wheat ( winter and spring ) used to make ( Figure ) The wheat farms are very large , ranging from 240 to hectares ( acres ) The average size of a farm in the is about 1000 acres ( 405 hectares ) In these areas land is cheap , making it possible for a farmer to own very large holdings . Page 198

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD AMERICA ' TH . PACIFIC OCEAN EAN EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL GRAIN FARMING I A 50 140 Figure World Commercial Grain Farming Author Source License BY SA Dairy Farming Dairy farming is a branch of agriculture designed for production of milk , processed either on a farm or at a dairy plant , for sale . It is practiced near large urban areas in both developed and developing countries . The location of this type of farm is dictated by the highly perishable milk . The ring surrounding a city where fresh milk is economically viable , supplied without spoiling , is about a radius . In the and , robotic milking systems were developed and introduced in some developing countries , principally in the EU ( Figure ) There is an important variation in the pattern of dairy production worldwide . Many countries that are large producers consume most of this internally , while others , in particular New Zealand , export a large percentage of their production , some from the organic farms ( Figure ) Page I 199

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Figure Rotary Milking Parlor Figure Calves at Organic Dairy Farm Author Gunnar Richter Author Julia Source Commons Source Commons License BY SA License BY Livestock Ranching Ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock on large tracts of land . It is an way to raise livestock to provide meat , dairy products , and raw materials for fabrics . Contemporary ranching has become part of the industry . Primarily , ranching is practiced on semiarid or arid land where the Vegetation is too sparse and the soil too poor to support crops , being a vital part of economies and rural development around the world . In Australia , like in the Americas , ranching is a way of life ( Figure ) In the United States , near , Colorado , there is the world largest cattle feedlot , with over head , a subsidiary of the food giant ( Figure ) The largest company in the world is the Brazilian multinational corporation . Argentina and are the world top per capita consumers of beef . China is the leading producer of pig meat while the United States leads in the production of chicken and beef . Figure Ranching Figure Feedlot in the Texas Panhandle Author William Henry Jackson Author User Source Commons Source Commons License Public Domain License BY SA Page 200

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Commercial Gardening and Fruit Farming A market garden is a relatively scale business , growing vegetables , fruits , and ( Figure ) The farms are small , from under one acre to a few acres ( hectares ) The diversity of crops is sometimes cultivated in greenhouses , it from other types of farming . Commercial gardening and fruit farming is quite diverse , requiring more manual labor and gardening techniques . In the United States , commercial gardening and fruit farming is the predominant type of agriculture in the Southeast , the region with a warm and humid climate and a long growing season . In addition to the traditional vegetables and fruits ( tomatoes , lettuce , onions , peaches , apples , cherries ) a new kind of commercial gardening has ' Market Fa ' i . A garden with edible plants for use in a culinary developed in the Northeast . This is a School in , Georgia market garden , growing . Department crops that , although limited , are I ' ed ' a License Public Domain demanded by consumers , such as asparagus , mushrooms , peppers , and strawberries . Market gardening has become an alternative business , and sustainable especially with the recent popularity of organic and local food . Mediterranean Agriculture The term Mediterranean agriculture applies to the agriculture done in those regions which have a Mediterranean type of climate , hot and dry summers and moist and mild winters . Five major regions in the world have a Mediterranean type of agriculture , such as the lands that border the Mediterranean Sea ( South Europe , North Africa , and the Middle East ) California , central Chile , South Africa Cape , and in parts of southwestern and southern Australia ( Figure ) Farming is intensive , highly specialized and varied in the kinds of crops raised . The hilly Mediterranean lands , also known as orchard lands of the world , are dominated by citrus fruits ( oranges , lemons , and grapefruits ) olives ( primary for cooking oil ) dates , and grapes ( primarily for wine ) which are mainly for export . These and other commodities to distant markets , Mediterranean products tending to be popular and commanding high prices . Yet , the warm and sunny Mediterranean climate also allows a wide range of other food crops , such as cereals ( wheat , especially ) and vegetables , cultivated especially for domestic consumption . Page 201

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Figure Mediterranean Regions Author User me ne Source Commons License BY SA Plantation Farming Plantations are large in developing regions designed to produce crops for export . Usually , they specialize in the production of one particular crop for market laid out to produce coffee , cocoa , bananas , or sugar in South and Central America cocoa , tea , rice , or rubber in West and East Africa tea in South Asia rubber in Southeast Asia , or other specialized and luxury crops such as palm oil , peanuts , cotton , and tobacco ( Figures and ) Plantations are located in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia , Africa , and Latin America and , although they are located in the developing countries , many are owned and operated by European or North American individuals or corporations . Even those taken by governments of the newly independent countries continued to be operated by foreigners in order to receive income from foreign sources . These plantations survived during , continuing to serve the rich markets of the world . Unlike coffee , sugar , rice , cotton and other traditional crops , exported from large plantations , other crops can be required by the international market such as and fruits and vegetables . These represent the nontraditional agricultural exports , which have become increasingly important in some countries or regions such as Argentina , Colombia , Chile , Mexico , and Central America , to mention a few . One important reason for sustaining nontraditional Page 202

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD exports is that they complement the traditional exports , generating foreign exchange and employment . Thus , plantation agriculture , designed to produce crops for export , is critical to the economies of many developing countries . Figure Coffee Plantation Figure Tea Plantation Author User Prince Tigereye Author User Source Commons Source Commons License BY License BY SA GLOBAL CHANGES IN FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION Commercial Agriculture and Market Forces Farming is part of agribusiness as a complex political and economic system that organizes food production from the development of seeds to the retailing and consumption of the agricultural product . Although farming is just one stage of the complex economic process , it is incorporated into the world economic system of capitalism ( globalized ) Most farms are owned by individual families , but , in this context , many other aspects of agribusiness are controlled by large corporations . Consequently , this type of farming responds to market forces Figure 1013 I van Thane Model rather than IO feeding the farmer . Using The dot . The white area around Von isolate State model , it ( represents dairy and market gardening which generated four concentric rings of ) ye OW ) crops and grains ) red ) Ranching and agricultural activity , explain livestock and the outer ( dark green ) region that the choice of crops on Commercial represents the wilderness where agriculture is . not practised . arms ony wort ie wit in certain Silversmith distances from the city . The effect of distance Source Commons License Public Domain Page 203

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD determines that highly perishable products ( milk , fresh fruits , and vegetables ) need to be produced near the market , whereas grain farming and livestock ranching can be located on the peripheral rings ( Figure ) New Zealand , for example , is a particular case of a country whose agriculture was thrown into a global free market . More , its agriculture has changed in response to the restructuring of the global food system and , at the same time , is responding to a new global food regime . For New Zealand to remain competitive , farmers have to intensify production of high added value or more customized products , also focusing on nontraditional exports such as kiwi , Asian pears , vegetables , and venison ( meat produced on deer farms ) Figure ) The New Zealand agricultural sector is unique in being the only developed country to be totally exposed to the international markets since the government subsidies were removed . Figure Deer Farm , New Zealand Author User Source Commons License BY SA Biotechnology and Agriculture Since the century , manipulation and management of biological organisms have been a key to the development of agriculture . In addition to Green Revolution , agriculture has also undergone a , involving agricultural biotechnology ( an area of agricultural science involving the use of tools and genetic engineering techniques to modify living organisms ( or part of organisms ) of plants and animals with the potential of outstripping the productivity increases of the Green Revolution and , at the same time , reducing agricultural production costs . Within the agricultural biotechnology process , Page 204

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD desired traits are exported from a particular species of crop or animal to the different species obtaining transgenic crops , which possess desirable characteristics in terms of , color of , growth rate , size of harvested products , and resistance to diseases and pests ( corn , for example , can produce its own pesticides ) By removing the genetic material from one organism and inserting it into the permanent genetic code of another , the biotech industry has created an astounding number of organisms that are not produced by nature . It has been estimated that upwards of 75 percent of processed foods on supermarket shelves from soda to soup , crackers to condiments contain genetically engineered ingredients . So far , little is known about the impacts of genetically ( foods on human health and the environment . Consequently , it is to sort the from the costs of their increasing incorporation into global food production . The United States is the leader not only for the number of the genetically engineered ( GE ) food crops but also for the largest areas planted with commercialized biotech crops . Many countries , in Europe , for example , consider that the genetic has not been proved safe , the reason for which they require all food to be labeled and refuse to import food . Yet , in the United States , genetic is permitted , taking into consideration that there is no evidence yet supporting that it is dangerous . Many people instead consider that they have the right to decide what they eat and , consequently , in their opinion , labeling of products must be mandatory . Protests against regulatory structures have been very effective in many counties including the United States ( Figure ) Figure Protest against Author Source Commons License BY SA Page 205

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Currently , over 60 countries around the world require labeling of genetically foods , including the 28 nations in the European Union , Japan , Australia , Brazil , Russia , India , South Africa , China , and other countries ( Figure ) The debates regarding labeling certainly will continue . Since no one knows whether foods are entirely bad or entirely good , regulatory structures are crucial , protecting human health and the environment . Figure Labeling Around the Globe Author User Source Commons License Food and Health Since the end of World War II , the worlds technically and economically feasible food production potential has expanded . As a result , today , there is more than enough food to feed all the people on the Earth ( Figure ) Yet , the major issue is the access to food , which is uneven , the reason for which millions of individuals in both the core and the periphery are affected by poverty , preventing them from securing adequate nutrition . Figure Population Food supply Food Author I Source License I . Used with permission . Page 206

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Hunger , chronic ( or acute ( therefore , is one of the most pressing issues facing the world today . Chronic hunger , also known as undernutrition , is an inadequate consumption of the necessary nutrients or calories . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( considers necessary at least day for an individual to consume in order to maintain a healthy life . The world average consumption is day , but there is a difference between developed countries , with an average of day ( day in the ) and developing countries , recording an average of day ( even less in countries ) estimates that currently about 800 million people are undernourished globally , less than in the early , but the majority continue to be counted in southern Asia and Africa ( Figure ) One form of hunger is famine , an acute starvation caused even by a population command over food resources , natural disasters ( drought , Ethiopia in ) or wars . In contrast , in North America , the United States especially , where the food is abundant and inspected for quality , overeating is a national problem , the reason for which the general condition of the population is more by obesity ( Figure ) 25 235 ! our Figure . Adult obesity rates , 2016 Author Source License Public Domain Nutritional vulnerability is in terms of the notion of food security . According to , food security exists when all people , at all times , have access to food for an active and healthy life . Related to food security is the concept of food sovereignty , which is the right of people , communities , and countries to their own agricultural policies . One factor connected with Page 207

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD food in general and food sovereignty especially is the fact that more cropland is redirected to raising , fuels derived from biological materials . They not only have a and increasing impact on global food systems but also result in evictions of small farmers and poor communities . Sustainable Agriculture Alongside the emergence of a food regime especially of fresh fruits and vegetables , a new orientation in agriculture is sustainability . According to the Sustainable Agriculture Initiative ( SAI ) sustainable agriculture is the production of safe , high quality agricultural products , in a way that protects and improves the natural environment , the social and economic conditions of farmers , their employees and local communities , and safeguards the health and welfare of all farmed species ( Platform 2018 ) More , sustainability in agriculture is the increased commitment to organic farming , the principles and practices for sustainable agriculture developed by SAI being articulated around three main pillars society , economy , and environment . Although organic food production is not the primary mode of the agricultural practice , it has already become a growing force alongside the dominant conventional farming . Yet , unlike conventional farming , which promotes monoculture on large commercial farms and uses chemicals and intensive , organic farming , which puts farmers at the center of food production , does not use genetically seeds , synthetic pesticides , herbicides , or fertilizers . Thus , sustainable agricultural practices not only promote diversity and healthy food but also preserve and enhance environmental quality . CONCLUSION Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization , domesticating species of plants and animals and creating food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization . It began independently in different parts of the globe , both the Old and New World . Throughout history , agriculture played a dynamic role in expanding food supplies , creating employment , and providing a rapidly growing market for industrial products . Although subsistence , agriculture has largely disappeared in Europe and North America , it continues today in large parts of rural Africa , and parts of Asia and Latin America . While traditional forms of agricultural practices continue to exist , they are overshadowed by the global industrialization of agriculture , which has accelerated in the last few decades . Yet , commercial agriculture differs from subsistence agriculture , as the main objective of commercial agriculture is achieving higher . Farmers in both the core and the periphery have had to adjust to many changes that occurred at all levels , from the local to the global . Although states have become important players in the regulation and support of agriculture , at the global level , Page 208

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD the World Trade Organization ( has implications in agriculture . Social reactions to genetically engineered foods have repercussions throughout the world food system . Currently , the focus is especially on the option that a balanced , safe , and sustainable approach can be the solution not only to achieve sustainable of crop productivity but also to protect the environment . Therefore , agriculture has become a highly complex , globally integrated system , and achieving the transformation to sustainable agriculture is a major challenge . KEY TERMS DEFINED agribusiness commercial agriculture engaged in the production , processing , and distribution of food agriculture a science , art , and business directed to modify some portions of the Earth surface through the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance and fuel derived from biological materials the genetic engineering of plant and animals with the potential to exceed the production of the Green Revolution biotechnology the manipulation through genetic engineering of living organisms or their components to make or modify products or processes for use commercial agriculture a system in which farmers produce crops and animals primarily for sale conventional farming agriculture that uses chemicals ( fertilizers , pesticides , and herbicides ) or practices crop rotation method in which the under cultivation remain the same , but the crop is changed in order to avoid exhausting the soil double cropping method used in the milder climates in which intensive subsistence are planted and harvested twice per year famine extreme scarcity of food food regime set of links , indicating the ways a particular type of food is dominant during a time food security the situation when all people , at all times , have access to food for an active and healthy life food sovereignty the right of people , communities , and countries to their own agricultural policies globalized agriculture agriculture increasingly more at the global or regional levels than at national level genetically organisms ( organisms that have their DNA in a laboratory Page 209

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Green Revolution a new agricultural technology characterized by seeds and fertilizers exported from the core to the periphery in order to increase their agricultural productivity hunting and gathering activities through which people obtain food from hunting wild animals , and gathering fruits , nuts and roots intensive subsistence agriculture a form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers involve the effective and efficient use of small parcels of land in order to maximize crop yield per hectare nontraditional agricultural exports new export crops that contrast with traditional exports organic farming a method of crop and livestock production without commercial fertilizers , pesticides , growth hormones , and genetically organisms pastoralism subsistence activity that involves the breeding and herding of animals to satisfy the human needs of food , shelter , and clothing pastoral nomadism a traditional form of subsistence agriculture in which the travel with their herds over long distances and with no pattern plantation large in developing regions specialized in the production of one or two crops usually for export to more developed countries ranching a form of commercial agriculture in which the livestock graze over an extensive area shifting cultivation a form of subsistence agriculture , which involves a kind of natural rotation system agriculture a method for obtaining more agricultural land in which are cleared ( by slashing the vegetation and burning the debris subsistence agriculture farming designed to grow food only to sustain farmers and their families , consuming most of that they produce without entering into cash economy of the country sustainable agriculture the production of safe , high quality agricultural products , in a way that protects and improves the natural environment , the social and economic conditions of farmers , and safeguards the health and welfare of all farmed species land that is cleared for planting using the process transhumance a seasonal vertical movement by herding the livestock to cooler , greener high country pastures in the summer and returning them to lowland settings for fall and winter grazing inadequate dietary consumption that is below the minimum requirement for maintaining a healthy life Page 210

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD WORKS CONSULTED AND FURTHER READING , and , 2012 . World agriculture towards . The 2012 revision . 2015 . Food regimes and food regime analysis A selective survey . Agriculture and Biotechnology Strategies ) Database . hearths . 2008 . Biofuel and food security . International Food Policy Research Institute ( Brandt , 1967 . Can food supply keep pace with population growth ?

Foundation for Economic Education ( FEE ) and Nixon , 1986 . Economics of change in less developed countries . Ed . Barnes and Noble Books . agriculture . production . De , 1995 . The Earth An introduction to its physical and human geography . New York John Wiley Sons , De , and Muller , 2010 . Geography Realms , regions , and concepts . 14 New York John Wiley Sons , Gould , Clarke , Smith , and , 1996 . A geography of the Third World . Second edition . New York . and Price , Contemporary Human Geography Culture , Globalization , Landscape . New York Freeman and Company . 2008 . Environmental planning for a sustainable food supply . In Toward a vision of land in 2015 , ed . and , Cambridge , MA Lincoln Institute of Land Policy . farming . The state of food and agriculture Climate change , agriculture , and food security . The state of food insecurity in the world 2015 . Page 211

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD . Protecting our food , farm , and environment . Center of Food Safety . Food security statistics . Food regimes and their transformation . Food Systems Academy . Tulip , Netherlands . About genetically engineered food . Center for Food Safety . Genetically foods . Genetic Science Learning Center . line . Genetically food . food Viewpoints . 2016 . Global status of commercialized crops Brief 52 . How to avoid in your food . Labeling around the world . Just label it We have a right to know . and , A . 2011 . Food crises , food regimes and food movements Rumblings of reform or tides of transformations ?

Taylor Francis Online . Commercial grain farming Location and characteristics . Carl . Men Not the Providers We Thought . March 31 , Harvest of Fear . NOVA Frontline . Herding Pastoralism , mustering , droving . and , Overview of the global food system Changes over time space and lessons for future food safety . Page 212

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD Hunger . Hunger Map . 2015 . Survival International . Accessed May , rice terraces . June , Knox , and , 2013 . Human Geography Places and regions in global context . Sixth Edition . Upper Saddle River , Pearson . International Service for the Acquisition of Applications ) line . and Willer , 2017 . Organic agriculture worldwide Key results from the survey on organic agriculture worldwide . Research Institute of Organic Agriculture ( Frick , Switzerland . A . 2012 . Food regime . In The Oxford handbook of food history , ed . Pilcher . Oxford Handbooks Online . Characterization of mixed farms . Nap , and Conner , A . 2003 . The release of genetically crops into the environment . Interactive map tracks obesity in the United States 2013 adult obesity rate . line . states . Organic area . Organic farming by country . Organic farming statistics . Page 213

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD . Organic universe . Down to Earth . Fortnightly of politics of development , environment and health . Organic world Global organic farming statistics and news . 2015 . 2000 . World Regional Geography . New York Freeman and Company . and Ritchie , Land use in agriculture . Lewis , Price , and , 2006 . Diversity amid globalization World regions , environment , development . Ed . Upper Saddle River , Pearson . 2013 . Contemporary Human Geography . Upper Saddle River , Pearson . 2016 . Contemporary Human Geography . Upper Saddle River , Pearson . farming in Congo . Intensive subsistence agriculture . Types of subsistence farming Primitive and intensive subsistence farming . Sustainable agriculture initiative platform The global food value chain initiative for sustainable agriculture . Than , Climate change linked to waterborne diseases in communities . April , Chicago Board of Trade . Transhumance . Page I 214

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE AND FOOD . True , 2005 . Country before money ?

Economic globalization and national identity in New Zealand . In Economic nationalism in a world , ed . and , Chapter . Cornell University Press . Tyson , Should we grow crops ?

World Bank . World Development Indicators Agricultural inputs . World Bank . 2015 . Data Bank World Development Indicators . Agricultural land . World Bank . 2016 . Data Bank World Development Indicators . Employment in agriculture . country . Page 215