Introduction to Human Geography - 2nd Edition Chapter 1 Introduction to Geography

Introduction to Geography Joseph Henderson STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , the student will be able to . Understand the importance of maps and some tools used to create them . Explain the concept of places and how they are characterized from a spatial perspective . Describe the various types of diffusion . Connect the discipline of geography with other academic disciplines . CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction What is geography ?

Mapping the world Where in the world am I ?

How do I describe where I am ?

Geographic Data Gathering and Analysis Changes in places diffusion The relationship Key terms Works Consulted and Further Reading Page INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION Geography is a diverse discipline that has some sort of connection to most every other academic discipline . This connection is the spatial perspective , which essentially means if a phenomenon can be mapped , it has some kind of relationship to geography . Studying the entire world is a fascinating subject , and geographical knowledge is fundamental to a competent understanding of our world . In this chapter , you will learn what geography is as well as some of the fundamental concepts that underpin the discipline . These fundamental terms and concepts will be interwoven throughout the text , so a sound understanding of these topics is critical as you delve deeper into the chapters that follow . By the end of the chapter , you will begin to think like a geographer . WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY ?

The Greek word from which geography is derived , is literally translated as writing ( about the Earth ( geo ) Geography differs from the discipline of geology because geology focuses mainly on the physical Earth and the processes that formed and continue to shape it . On the other hand , geography involves a much broader approach to examining the Earth , as it involves the study of humans as well . As such , geography has two major subdivisions , human ( social science ) and physical ( natural science ) This text focuses primarily on human geography , but because the physical aspects affect humans and vice versa , physical geography will not be completely excluded , but will receive less emphasis . Geography is the study of the physical and environmental aspects of the world , from a spatial perspective . As study the Earth , the one element that binds the discipline of geography and makes it unique is studying the Earth from a spatial perspective . The spatial perspective means that the phenomenon you are studying can be displayed on a map , so geography focuses on places around the world . Geography , then , is a physical ( or natural ) and social science that asks the fundamental questions , What is where , and why ?

Human geography is a social science that focuses on people , where they live , their ways of life , and their interactions in different places around the world . A simple example of a geographic study in human geography would be where is the Hispanic population concentrated in the , and why ?

A physical geography research endeavor might ask where do most hurricanes strike the coastline , and why ?

In addition , because the Earth is dynamic , also look at how places change through time , and why , so there is a natural connection with history . Geography and its relationship to other disciplines Not only is there a connection between geography and history , but geography is also related to a broad range of other academic disciplines ( Figure ) If you examine Figure , you may your own major on the outside margin of the Page

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY circle , with the corresponding in geography on the interior of the circle . Again , if a phenomenon can be depicted on a map and studied from a spatial perspective , it is geographical . A basic example would relate to the health sciences or medical geography , the of geography that focuses on the spatial patterns of various aspects of health . For example , when the spread of a disease from its source area is mapped , medical professionals can get a better idea of the causes of a disease and the mechanisms of its transmission . Often , the understanding of cultural practices or the environmental conditions ( such as the habitat for a disease ) can shed light on the process of how the disease operates . Another example of how geography relates to other disciplines is in economic geography , the that examines the different economic activities in various places , and how places interact economically . A fundamental concept in economic studies is that the location of a business is often important to the success of that business . If the business is located in close proximity to its clientele , for example , the customers might be more likely to visit that restaurant , store , etc . on a regular basis . A business owner would be wise to consult maps of both transportation networks as well as the population of the customers to which they intend to cater . Planning and Urban Studies Figure Geography Relationships Geography and its relationship to other Author Corey Parson Source Original Work License Page

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY MAPPING THE WORLD Maps are fundamental to the discipline of geography and have been used by humans since before . Today maps are much more sophisticated , complex , and precise , and are used by many people who employ mapping systems in their vehicles . This technology allows motorists to navigate from with relative ease , but the process by which these digital and other maps are created is exceptionally complex . Essentially , a map , which is a presentation of a place on Earth , is actually depicting a curved surface . The Earth , which looks like a sphere , is technically an oblate , which means that the middle of the Earth , around the equator , is slightly wider , and the south pole axis is slightly shorter , than a perfect sphere . When any curved surface is depicted on a surface , that process is known as projection , and many types of map projections exist . A fundamental characteristic of all maps is they involves projections , and all projections have some sort of distortion inherent in them . The size , shape , distance , and direction of objects are distorted to various degrees on maps . The reason this distortion occurs can be visualized by simply imagining peeling an orange , and trying to the Figure World Map World Map with Projection . Author User Source Commons License Page

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY peel on a table . If you drew the continents on that orange before peeling it , the continents would most certainly be distorted when you try to the peel on the table . This analogy does not precisely describe how projections are created the process is much more involved . However , the underlying principle still applies . An example of distortion is shown on the map of the globe below ( Figure ) Note , for example , in this projection that appears to be larger than South America , although it is , in fact , much smaller . Besides projections , another important characteristic of maps is the scale . The scale of a map is a ratio of the length or distance on the map versus the length or distance on the Earth or ground ( actual ) The amount of detail shown on a map will vary based on the scale . For example , a map with a scale of ( which means on the map equals on the ground ) would show much less detail than a map at a scale of ( Figure ) Besides showing scale as a ratio , it can also be presented as a bar graph or as a verbal statement . Scale can also mean the spatial extent of some kind of phenomena . For example , one could examine migration at the global , national , state , or local scale . By either , however , each refers to the level of detail about the place that the geographer is researching . Examining the world from different scales enables different patterns and connections to emerge . Mule ! zoom ) Large Ca Map ( zoom ) Figure Comparison of Map Scales The map on the left is a small scale map , showing a larger area . The map on the right is a large scale map , showing a smaller area . Author Corey Parson , Google Maps Source Google Maps License I Google Maps . Used with Permission . WHERE IN THE WORLD AM I ?

One of the most important pieces of information that maps provide is location . Knowing precisely where a place is in the world is fundamental to geography . Page INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY While one can a location simply by using a street address , not all places on Earth have such an address . Therefore , one of the basic ways to pinpoint a location on the Earth is using the geographic grid . The geographic grid is comprised of meridians and parallels , which are imaginary lines and arcs crisscrossing the Earth surface . Meridians are half circles that connect the north and south poles , and longitude refers to the numbering system for meridians . Parallels are circles that encompass the Earth and are parallel to the equator , and the numbering system for these circles is known as latitude ( Figure ) meridians and parallels intersect at precise locations ( points ) on the Earth on the geographic grid , a location can be known by its latitude and longitude . Figure Longitude and Latitude The geographic grid comprised of meridians and parallels with longitude and latitude . Author User and Corey Parson Source Commons License A few meridians on Earth are of particular importance , one being the Prime Meridian located at longitude , which passes through Greenwich , England . The other important meridian , called the International Date Line , follows roughly along 180 , and this meridian is on the opposite side of the world from the Prime Meridian ( Figure ) When a traveler crosses the International Date Line , the day of the week instantaneously changes . When moving westward , the day moves forward , and when traveling eastward , the date jumps backward one day . Fortunately , the International Date Line is in the middle of the Ocean , so disruptions to the daily calendar are minimal for most people in the world . Moreover , the International Date Line does not precisely follow the 180 longitude line , and this accommodation allows countries and territories consisting of islands that straddle 180 to share the same calendar date . Page

IN TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY Figure Time Zones This world map shows the international date line and global time zones . Author Central Intelligence Agency Source Commons License Public Domain HOW DO I DESCRIBE WHERE I AM ?

a location by using the geographic grid is only part of the process of describing a place . are primarily concerned with two ways of describing a place site and situation . Site refers to the physical characteristics , such as the topography , vegetative cover , climatic conditions , and the like . Situation , on the other hand , refers to the area surrounding the place , and is sometimes referred to as relative location . In other words , where is this place relative to other places , and how is it connected to its surroundings via transportation networks ?

New Orleans provides an excellent example of site versus situation . The site of New Orleans is not ideal for a city , as it lies below sea level and is prone to . However , the situation of New Orleans is much better in that New Orleans is connected to large portion of the Mississippi River network of navigable waterways while also being close to the Gulf of Mexico and convenient to coastal . Hence , the situation of New Orleans is why the city has not long since been abandoned , despite catastrophic such as during Hurricane Katrina in 2005 . As we examine various places around the world , both site and situation are key considerations in determining the why of where a place is located . Regions While site and situation can help describe a place , a broader view of the world and the connections between places can be derived from the concept of regions . A region is an area that shares some sort of common characteristic that binds the area into a whole . use regions to help one understand the Page

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY between places and simplify a complex world . Two major types of regions are formal and functional . Formal regions are characterized by homogeneity or uniformity in one or a number of different characteristics . These characteristics can be both human and , so regions could be by climate or vegetation types , in the sense of physical geography , or they could be by language or ethnicity , in the sense of human geography . One example of a map that includes formal regions would be a map of the states in the US . In this map , each state could be considered a formal region because each state is governed in a common or unique way , and hence portrays homogeneity ( Figure ) Figure United States This map shows the formal regions of the states . Author David Source Original Work License BY SA A functional region , which is sometimes called a nodal region , is an area that contains a central node or focal point to which other places in the region are connected by some activity . Functional regions can be seen in cities where the central area of the city might serve as the focal point for the rest of the metropolitan area ( Figure ) At a smaller scale , a hotspot could be considered the focal point of a functional region that extends to the range of the signal . Even the delivery area for the local pizza restaurant would be a functional region with the restaurant as a central node . Regions are devised and not absolute , so whether or not a particular place within a region is sometimes a matter of dispute . For example , scholars disagree Page

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY Figure Atlanta The Atlanta Metropolitan Statistical Area as by the United States Census Bureau . Author David Source Original work License BY SA Figure The Fuzzy Boundaries of the American South It not exactly the old Confederacy , or the slave states . And it varies from one part to the next . Author David Source Original work License BY SA Page

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY on the exact extent of the American South as a formal region . What this region ?

It depends on what characteristics one uses to the region , be they food , dialect , political , historical in the Civil War , or any other element the mind conjures up when one thinks of the South as a relatively homogeneous formal region . Most see Texas as a part of the South , but West Texas is much different from East Texas , and Florida is likewise diverse . Extreme southern Florida is vastly different from the panhandle of Florida in ethnic and political . The opinion on what constitutes the Southern region varies based on personal viewpoints ( Figure ) The Southern region , then , may be thought of as a vernacular ( or perceptual ) region because the boundaries of these types of regions depend on the perspectives or mental maps of different groups of people who live both outside or inside that region . Hence , the concept of regions and their is not a straightforward process and involves and varying opinions . GEOGRAPHIC DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS In order to analyze and develop regions , describe places , and conduct detailed geographic analysis , two important tools have been developed that are of particular value to . The is remote sensing , or the acquisition of data about the Earth surface from aerial platforms such as satellites , airplanes or drones . Images taken from these airborne machines can provide a wealth of valuable information about both the human and physical characteristics of a place . For example , satellite imagery can depict the extent of human impact on rainforests in rainforest of Brazil ( Figure ) Imagery can also depict information that humans can not see with the naked eye , such as the temperature of the Earth surface . One example is a thermal infrared image , which can show warm temperatures in red tones and cooler temperatures in blue tones ( Figure ) Tam ( Figure Deforestation Figure Thermal Imaging Deforestation in the state of , western Brazil . Thermal imagery of Atlanta , GA . Author NASA Author NASA Source Earth Observatory Source Commons License Public Domain License Public Domain Page 10

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY Digital imagery like the one in Figure is in a format that can be entered into Geographic Information Systems ( GIS ) the second important tool employed by . GIS combines computer hardware and software in a system that stores , analyzes and displays geographic data with a computer mapping capability . Geographic data is stored in layers , and these layers of data can be queried in a number of sophisticated ways to analyze some aspect of an area ( Figure ) Each data point in a GIS is to a precise location on the Earth surface ( latitude and longitude , for example ) and these data points have different attributes corresponding to the data layer they are associated with . Data layers can represent a myriad of ' about that data point , such as elevation , soils , the presence of water , income , ethnicity , etc . Overlaying the data layers can ' i dam provide incredible insights into the I Data source Data layers connections between ' factors in places , such as the tion between income and ' I Data ' Data layers in a Geographic Information System ( GIS ) or the between types Author US Government Accountability and vegetative cover . GIS also has a Source National Geographic vast suite of other capabilities such as a path for transportation , perspectives from a particular Homicide location , or models of urban areas . Because of their capacity ' hE ' to present geographic information , businesses and government agencies around the world use GIS to answer questions , plan development , chart delivery routes , and even monitor crime and responder activity ( Figure ) It is not surprising that one of the fastest growing job markets is in GIS technology , as GIS jobs exist at the local , state , and national level as well as in many businesses in the private sector . Even the Census Bureau maintains an extensive GIS I i A . A crime analysis of Washington . database known as Author , Integrated Geographic Encoding and Source Commons Referencing ( TIGER ) License BY SA Page 11

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY CHANGES IN PLACES DIFFUSION Thus far , we have examined the Earth in a rather static fashion by learning about places and regions , how maps are created , and how geographic information is ered and analyzed . However , the Earth is dynamic and constantly changing , and one of the reasons places change is because of diffusion . Diffusion is the spread of ideas , objects , inventions , and other practices from place to place . As people migrate or move to a new area , they bring their ideas , objects , and the like with them in a process call relocation diffusion . Another diffusion process involves the spread outward from a core area that contains the idea , cultural ' i ' Diff tice , etc . This type of diffusion ( as with a contagious disease ) or through a hierarchy , or condition , where the Expansion Diffusion idea might originate in a major ' city , spread to ' cities , and so on to smaller cities . Figure ) In Chapter , we will examine how religion has spread across the world through , both relocation and expansion diffusion , and in Chapter 10 , we Figure Diffusion See that domesticated plants Relocation and expansion diffusion Author Corey Parson and animals have diffused Source i Work extensively across the Earth . License BY SA is expansion diffusion , and this type of diffusion can occur ' from contact THE RELATIONSHIP The process of spatial diffusion can be profoundly affected by the physical terrain , such as is the case with a mountain range . Because migration and transportation over mountain ranges can be limited , diffusion can be slowed or even stopped by these physical barriers . This example is but one instance of the relationship between humans and their environment . The environment can affect human activities , and vice versa , humans can shape and change the Earth surface and its atmosphere . Two major perspectives on the environment relationship in the of geography are environmental determinism , which has been largely rejected , and possibilism . Environmental determinism is the idea that the natural or physical environment shapes and creates cultures in other words , the environment essentially dictates culture . For example , environmental in the thought that people who lived in the Page 12

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY tropics were slothful and backward because food in the tropics was thought to be rather easy . In contrast , Europeans , who lived in stimulating climates with a sharp change in seasons were more industrious and inventive . The racist undertones of this sort of perspective is clear , but modern still recognize the impact of the environment on societies , as can be seen , for example , in the theorized demise of the people in the American Southwest because of extended drought ( Figure ) The , who are to have inhabited in the Southwestern from 100 . to 1300 , were equipped to deal with drought , compared to those who inhabit the states of New Mexico and Arizona . In the view of possibilism , people can adapt to their environmental conditions , despite the they might pose , and if a society has better technology , the people are better able to adapt and develop their culture in a number of possible ways . Figure Indigenous People of the Four Corners The are greater Extent of and other indigenous people , Southwest hence , the term possibilism . One Author Corey Parson , User excellent example of possibilism ' a ' BY A . is found in Dubai , in the United men I Arab Emirates . Although snow skiing in the Middle East may seem preposterous , plans are in place to build the longest indoor ski slope in the world in this city , where one ski slo alread exists ( Fi re ) Even ical advanced 811 Figure Ski Dubai Indoor ski slope at Ski Dubai located in the Mall of the Emirates . Author Source Commons License BY SA Page 13

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY societies , however , can still be tremendously affected by the environment and have little or no control over the power of nature . The devastating impact of hurricanes in the United States , tsunamis in Japan , and in the United States are but a few examples ( Figures and ) Figure Colby Fire , California , 2014 Figure Tennessee , 2016 Colby Fire in the San Gabriel Mountains foothills . An aerial shot of the in county . Author User Author Tennessee National Guard Source Commons Source License BY License BY KEY TERMS DEFINED Diffusion spread of ideas , objects , inventions , and other practices from place to place . Environmental determinism the idea that the natural or physical environment shapes and creates cultures in other words , the environment essentially dictates culture . Expansion diffusion the type of diffusion involves the spread outward from a core area that contains the idea , cultural practice , etc . and can occur from person contact ( as with a contagious disease ) or through a hierarchy . Formal region a region by homogeneity in one or a number of different characteristics . Functional region a region that is by a central node or focal point to which other places in the region are connected . Geographic information systems combines computer hardware and software in a system that stores , analyzes and displays geographic data with a computer mapping capability in a system of data layers . Geography literally , writing about the Earth the study of the physical and environmental aspects of the world , from a spatial perspective . International Date Line roughly follows 180 . Latitude the numbering system for parallels . Longitude the numbering system for meridians . Meridian half circles that connect the North and South poles . Parallel circles that encompass the Earth and are parallel to the equator . Page 14

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY Possibilism the theory people can adapt to their environmental conditions and choose from many alternatives ( possibilities ) despite the limitations that the environment pose . Prime Meridian longitude , passes through Greenwich , England . Projection the process of transferring locations from the Earth curved surface to a map . Region an area that shares some sort of common characteristic that binds the area into a whole . Relocation diffusion the diffusion process in which people migrate or move to a new area , and bring their ideas , objects , and the like with them . Remote sensing acquisition of data about the Earth surface from aerial platforms such as satellites , airplanes , or drones . Scale ratio of the length or distance on the map versus the length or distance on the Earth or ground ( actual ) can also refer to the spatial extent of some phenomenon . Site a way to describe a location refers to the physical characteristics , such as the topography , vegetative cover , climatic conditions , etc . Situation a way to describe a location by referring to the area surrounding the place , and is sometimes referred to as relative location . WORKS CONSULTED AND FURTHER READING , Mark , Daniel , Jerome , Arthur , and Judith . 2013 . Human Geography Landscapes of Human Activities . 12 edition . New York Education . Boyle , Mark . 2014 . Human Geography A Concise Introduction . edition . West , MA . Harm , and Peter Muller . 2010 . Geography Regions , Realms , and Concepts . Fourteenth edition . John Wiley Sons . Erin , Alexander Murphy , and Harm de . 2015 . Human Geography People , Place , and Culture . 11 edition . Wiley . Knox , Paul , and . 2015 . Human Geography Places and Regions in Global Context . edition . Boston Pearson . Jon , and David Kaplan Professor . 2012 . Human Geography . edition . New York Education . National Aeronautics and Space Administration . Earth Accessed August . National Geographic Society . Encyclopedia Accessed August . James 2016 . The Cultural Landscape An Introduction to Human Geography . 12 edition . Boston Pearson . Page 15

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY . Western Illinois Liberal Arts Lecture 2011 University News Western Illinois University . Accessed April 26 , Jerome , Arthur , Judith , and Jon . Human Geography Landscapes ofHuman Activities . Boston Hill Higher Education , 2005 . The . Accessed April 27 , Page 16