Introduction to Community Psychology Part IV Chapter 13 Stress and Coping

13 . STRESS AND Luciano , and Christopher Whipple By the end of this chapter , you will be able to Understand what stress is and the different forms people can experience Understand what coping is , what coping strategies are , and coping styles Understand how individuals and communities become resilient 243

244 Leonard , lack , and ( Editors ) by is licensed under the License It and your head is swarming with thoughts , none of them pleasant or relaxing Did I reply to that important email ?

Am I ready for the upcoming presentation ?

Should I have studied more for tomorrow test ?

How long will it take me to fall asleep ?

Why is this always happening to me ?

All of these thoughts manifest as stress , an variable in our lives . You are not alone and as you will out in this chapter , there are ways of coping and managing these stressors . Furthermore , there are ways that we can help communities better deal with these types of challenges .

Introduction to Community Psychology 245 WHAT IS STRESS ?

Photo by Christian is licensed under the License So what is stress ?

This should be a trick question , but why is it so hard to answer ?

Stress can be three things a stimulus event ( a stressor ) a process for understanding the stimulus and its context , and a reaction we have to this event . Essentially , to be stressful the event has to become an overload of incoming information into our system . Stress can cause biological responses such as sweaty palms or a racing heart , as well as psychological responses such as nervousness . It is known to have effects on our behavior causing us to avoid others , and it also affects cognitive performance causing us to have concentrating . A number of genetic studies have begun to identify candidate genes that may play a role on diverse forms of stress reactions . It is highly probable that genetics account for some of our responses to stress , but other factors are also of importance . Environmental stressors can also affect our behaviors and emotions . Environmental stressors can be grouped into different types Major Life Events ( experiencing a breakup , getting married , or having a baby ) Life Transitions ( puberty or transition into high school ) Daily Hassles ( family arguments or waiting in a long line at a security checkpoint of an airport ) and Disasters ( experiencing a car accident or a computer crashing causing loss of important information ) These types of environmental stressors can cause you to be fearful and have a racing heartbeat . And our perceptions of these responses can actually make the symptoms worse . It is also important to note that these stressors can be perceived differently by different people . For instance , two people can get stuck in the same elevator and while one would the experience to be a nuisance , another will tell you it was the worse situation they have ever been in . Here is about the role of stresses and stress responses in the natural world . This supplementary article explores is the right amount of stress .

246 Leonard , lack , and ( Editors ) PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS A YouTube element has been this version ofthe text . You can view it online here ?

While most of the time we think about stress in a negative way , some stress is adaptive and can even give us an edge . Part of the stress reaction involves the secretion of hormones , which in turn will stimulate the cardiovascular system , which includes your heart . In this way , the right amount of stress may release hormones and increase our ability to focus better on an exam or to quickly maneuver our car when we are trying to avoid an accident . Most stressors in our daily life are psychological in , exams , presentations , and deadlines , so the adrenaline and cortisol ( stress hormones ) released into the bloodstream do not get burned off . These types of psychological stressors can initiate an with a tendency to make the stress response worse . So , a response to an environmental stressor may start as fear and turn into a panic attack .

Introduction to Community Psychology 247 Acute Chronic Stress One of the goals of our body is to maintain stability ( homeostasis ) We can , therefore , stress as I an actual or perceived threat capable of throwing our homeostasis off balance . Stress exposure starts the responses . When a person is exposed to prolonged stress , overload may occur . When the stress response is triggered too often remains active too long , it can cause wear and tear on the body from lowering your immune system and bone density , to it hypertension , to heart attack . There are two different types of stressors that we typically encounter . Acute stressors are observable stressful events that are such as an upcoming test or a family gathering . An acute stressor brings activation to our system and makes us ready to act ( or ) Remember that pumped up feeling you got the last time you were getting ready to give a speech in front of the class ?

Chronic stressors , in contrast , are persistent demands on you they are typically , using up your resources in coping but not having any resolution . Here is a short article and podcast on stress effects on health and suggestions for stress preventive activities . A chronic illness , poverty , and racial discrimination are all examples of chronic stressors . Prolonged stress can lead to an eventual breakdown , such as contributing to aging . A number of recent studies have shown that lower socioeconomic status is associated with higher stress load . In addition , perceptions of racism can serve as a chronic social stressor for ethnic minorities and can , in part , explain some of the health issues of African Americans and other ethnic minority groups in the US and other countries . Everyday Hassles Robert Service , a Canadian Poet , cautioned , Be master of your petty annoyances and conserve your energies for the big , worthwhile things . It isn the mountain ahead that wears you the grain of sand in your In addition to many stressors in our lives being psychological and chronic in nature , we should pay attention to everyday hassles , which can be as harmful , if not more harmful than events . Everyday hassles may include things like worrying about one weight , having too much work with too little time , or a stressful commute to school or work . Major life changes usually bring about more hassles , which may lead to more physical stress symptoms . Photo by is licensed under the License

248 Leonard , lack , and ( Editors ) In summary , stress can be a fearful or situation , we can run away to save our lives , or we can concentrate better on a test . Biologists might even say it is necessary . But , stress can also be . This is especially true if it is prolonged ( chronic stress ) because it increases our risk of illness and health problems . Thus , reducing stress , especially prolonged stress , is essential to healthcare . This xi explains the effects of daily hassles on our health . COPING AND STRESS by Anna is licensed under the License To deal with stress in your life , it is important to out where that stress originates and notice how you tend to react to it . Later in this chapter , we will show you how community psychologists consider the environment and ecological perspectives as intertwined in stress and coping . Lazarus and ( 1984 ) have been among the most psychologists in the stress and coping , and they coping as efforts to manage demands that could exceed our resources . It is important to highlight from this that when a person perceives a life circumstance as taxing and exceeding the resources they have , this person will experience stress . Therefore , coping involves your efforts to manage stress , which is illustrated in Figure .

Introduction to Community Psychology 249 Response to Stress Stressful Event individual Appraisal . A major exam , an A person perceptions important meeting , a about the threat , which Psychological setback , will be by , a familiarity and car accident , knowledge about the new we challenges stressful event . Autonomic Arousal ( heart rate , sweating , eve blinking Physiological Hormonal fluctuation ( adrenergic response ) Neurochemical changes Stage of physical exhaustion Figure . Overview of Stress Process and Coping Responses Coping Lazarus and ( 1984 ) felt that when humans perceive a life circumstance as taxing and exceeding their resources , stress will be experienced , which we have already in the prior section as an overload of incoming information into a system . Therefore , coping involves persons efforts to manage stress , whether the process of dealing with stress is adaptive or not ( Lazarus , 1993 ) When we talk about coping , we will need to consider the intensity of the stressor , the context of coping , and an individual appraisal of coping expectations . Coping Types Research on coping has usually found types of coping styles ( Clarke , 2006 Skinner , et , 2003 , 2005 ) These include the following ( coping style involves addressing the problem situation by taking direct acting , planning or thinking of ways to solve the problem , coping style involves expressing feelings or engaging in emotional release activities such as exercising or practicing meditation , coping style refers to understanding of the problem and looking for a meaning of the experience , and ( seeking help involves using others as a resource to solve the problem . Finally , people might respond to stressors by ( avoiding the problem and trying to stay away from the problem or potential solution to the problem . Coping Strategies Coping strategies are the choices that a person makes in order to respond to a stressor , A strategy can be adaptive ( effective ) or ( ineffective or harmful ) The ideal adaptive coping strategy varies depending on the context , as well as the personality traits of the person responding . The coping strategies can be or active strategies , emotional expression and regulation strategies , seeking understanding strategies , help or strategies , and problem avoidance or distraction strategies . Here is one example of an intervention strategy that shows how to effectively cope with daily and transitional stressors . The strategy is called ( Chen Miller , 2012 ) and it requires individuals to shift views of the problem . To shift , you need to ( recognize and accept the

250 Leonard , lack , and ( Editors ) presence of stress , engage in emotional regulation and control negative emotions , and ( practice from the stressor to gain an outsider perspective of the stressful context . To persist , you would need to ( plan for the future through goal setting , recognize a broader perspective when obstacles arise , determine what brings meaning to your life , and ( become to determine new pathways to goals . The Center for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Heart Association offer other coping strategies . Two more discussions on coping strategies are found in these two Ted Talk Videos and . Table below presents a list of coping strategies and is a summary of strategies reported in Clarke , 2006 Skinner , et , 2003 81 , 2005 . Although completed lists are more extensive , this table presents styles reported across the three studies that presented similar types of responses .

Introduction to Community Psychology 251 Table . Coping Strategies and Types of Responses Coping Strategies Type of Responses Work on solving the problem in the situation Problem Solving Strategies Make a plan for action and follow up Let emotion out get in touch with feelings and let them out a Let someone know about my feelings Emotional Expression and Emotional . Regular , Strategies Keep emotions under control by performing appeasing activities a Cognitive restructuring reorganizing the wayl look at the situation a Try to understand or find meaning of the Seeking Un ding Strategies situation for learning Strategies and Seeking instrumental aid or advice from others St Seeking comfort or understanding from others Acting like nothing had happened Avoid thinking or doing anything about the problem Problem Avoidance Strategies and Distraction Leaving the scenario and staying away from the Strategies stressful situation Efforts to avoid thinking about the problem situation by using distractions or entertainment activities To understand coping as a process , we need to understand people reaction to stress in context . This includes assessing whether the coping thoughts or actions are good or bad for that given challenge and given context . In addition , the process of coping includes the particular person , the particular encounters with the stressor , the time of the person reactions , and the outcome being examined . Practical Application can help you examine your reaction to stress and understand your coping process .

252 Leonard , lack , and ( Editors ) Think about an important stressful experience in your life What was stressful about it for you ?

Was it a or a situation ?

What thing did you do to cope with this experience ?

What resources helped you cope with this stressful experience ?

How did your experience affect you as a person ?

What did you learn or how did you grow through this experience ?

COPING AND CONTEXT Photo by is licensed under the License Community psychologists try to understand coping beyond individual perceptions and reactions to stress . In general , new coping models are looking into what the characteristics of people that will elicit a given coping style are . In addition , it is important to learn more about the effectiveness of different coping styles when used across different ( which includes the environment and nature of the stressors ) A community psychologist is interested in understanding the contextual element that produces or reduces a given stressor , so they create interventions to help people cope with their stressors . Finding the best coping strategy may improve people experiences and outcomes when confronted with life transitions .

Introduction to Community Psychology 253 All people are exposed to transitions , with youth being even more likely ( starting middle school , high school , job , etc . and the experience of mastery of these situations might help youth successfully cope with future transitions . The following Case Study highlights how community psychologists might use preventive strategies to help youth deal with these types of natural stressors that they will encounter in life . Leonard and Betty Burrows ( 1983 ) provided youth about to graduate from high school with practice crisis experiences to work through , so that they could generate successful outcomes for stressful situations . The youth were informed that during times of transition , heightened levels of emotions are often experienced . These elevated levels of arousal can become if experienced over a prolonged period of time . They then had a chance to practice techniques to effectively reduce excessive arousal or anxiety such as progressive muscle relaxation , meditation , or listening to quiet music . The youth were then given transitions to imagine . They were asked to try one of these strategies to alleviate the anxiety of this crisis situation . The seniors also had a chance to discuss how personal beliefs and can affect one mood . When transitions are encountered , irrational beliefs or negative might arise . An example of an irrational belief is that it is a necessity for us to be loved and approved by everyone we know . The seniors were provided with situations involving transitions to . Within each of these scenes , one actor adopted an irrational belief the other attempted to show a more rational way of thinking . Following each , the participants had a chance to discuss how the adoption of a rational or irrational belief might affect their ability to successfully handle transitions . Following the , all the students discussed how effective the various coping strategies might have been in resolving transitional events . This study found that seniors about to graduate from high school can from being provided a preventive intervention that prepares them for dealing with transitions . Here are some of the students comments You really helped me to really think out all my problems and how to answer them . Thanks ! It helped me to help other people who are in I think that problem solving is the most helpful to people at my age because we face problems every I feel that I have from the sessions as I have gone through a lot as my mother has been divorced twice and is married for the third time and I just moved from a small town to a large But sometimes , crises occur , and then we need to ways to deal with those situations . Case Study will provide an example of helping individuals and communities with dealing with a natural disaster , Hurricane Maria .

254 Leonard , lack , and ( Editors ) On September , 2017 , Hurricane Maria devastated Puerto Rico . Watching the compounding over the course of that fall , Melissa and a team of 20 members , four faculty , one alumna , 13 students , and two other staff members with backgrounds in undergraduate and graduate psychology , community and international development , and social work decided to spend their Spring break helping with the recovery . The ultimate goal of the mission was to Accept , Talk , Heal , providing mental health training in churches and communities to give those affected by the disaster the tools they needed to help them through the trauma of the aftereffect of the hurricane and to help them recover beyond the physical reconstruction of their community . This intervention was about more than cleaning up debris or restoring a school , it was about empowering a community to overcome trauma . Prior to the intervention , the team contacted local church agencies and asked about their experiences and what was truly needed . This process of inquiry resulted in another group of people with expertise in the community to be invited into the collaborative process . The local collaborators included social workers , police , nursing assistants , staff from the four schools , church groups , and others who were directly affected by the natural disaster . It is not surprising that the team was quickly accepted and trusted by the community . believes one contributor to this is her Puerto Rican heritage that helped bridge the intervention team to the community and facilitate connections between community members and those from the mainland . Understanding the complexity of the coping process was one of the reasons drew on her Community Psychology experience to partner with existing agencies on the island . Because so many community members had experienced symptoms of Stress Disorder the intervention aimed at normalizing the emotional reactions affecting the individuals . The team reminded the community members participating in the intervention that the whole community was going through this and no one should feel isolated in their experience , and that it is normal to seek help from others when faced with adversity . The team emphasized this with the Healing is a Process slogan , highlighting the dynamic nature of this concept . The team also agreed that a approach this intervention well . To help combat the loss and desperation , the community participants were encouraged to turn to the strengths the community still has . The message across the island was Puerto Rico Se ( Puerto Rico Will Rise ) Many heroic stories of and emphasized resilience in the wake of such massive destruction and highlighted the power and strength in the community . The community members also often commented on their faith , which meant that the team included faith in their intervention . The team believed that the best way the community could get help was by

Introduction to Community Psychology 255 understanding the community background , by recognizing the dynamic process of coping , by alleviating the stigma of , by drawing on their own strengths , and by helping themselves . Coping and Support Coping can be aided by asking others for support to help overcome problems . strategies include seeking advice or information or direct assistance . Individuals who engage in these types of strategies are more likely to obtain social support . Seeking help from relatives may prove to be successful , which might contribute to it becoming a frequently employed coping mechanism . Barker ( 2007 ) suggests that youth behaviors set up the conditions to create a rich supportive network for them , and the feeling that there is available support . Case Study illustrates how one can go about studying supports using multiple points of view . Having at least one friend in a recovery home was found to be about the best predictor among residents of recovery homes of having a good outcome , which involves not using drugs or engaging in illegal activities . To better understand what seeking support might be about , several community psychologists used focus groups to better understand natural friendship and mentoring relationships . For example , participants were asked about how they determined who they would go to in the house for support , the type of support they received from housemates , and the characteristics that those individuals have . The from the focus groups had a theme of promoting social support within their recovery homes , as one female participant explained When I come in this door and I ve got something to talk about , I don care which of these girls is here , I just going to talk about it . And that because they play a positive mentor or role model in my life . I don have to pick out two or three or one to say who I want to talk Instrumental supports were often related to the ability of other house members to provide tangible support for residents . As one female participant described

256 Leonard , lack , and ( Editors ) I have not been employed . I ve always been concerned about if my rent going to get paid on time . These sisters came together and told me if you can get your rent paid , we know what you re doing and we know that you want to be here and they were willing to go into their own pockets to help me pay my themes indicated that men were also able to form supportive relationships within the recovery home settings , but not as quickly as the females ( et , CE by Nicolas is licensed under the License Individuals who experience and chronic stressors are often referred to as being of something , whether it be poor school performance , problems with alcohol or drugs , or engaging in illegal activities . However , not all individuals at risk of negative outcomes end up struggling with the outcomes . Some people are able to avoid negative outcomes and even thrive despite the adversity they face . Why is it that some people are successful in spite of seemingly insurmountable obstacles ?

These questions were at the heart of early studies of resilience . Resilience is a dynamic process characterized by positive outcomes despite adversity or stress ( Small , 2015 ) In other words , resilience refers to how people maintain , or in some cases develop , healthy and positive outcomes in spite of stressful situations . The study of resilience stemmed from researchers who began to notice that a subset of their participants , often children facing adversity , did well despite their circumstances . For example , 1974 ) studied children of parents with schizophrenia . Among this group of children , all were expected to struggle in various aspects of life and likely develop schizophrenia . But a subset of children exhibited surprisingly positive and adaptive behavioral patterns despite their level of risk . Another study recruited all of the children born on the island of , Hawaii ( Werner , 1996 ) The original goal of the study was to assess the consequences of stressful living environments ( family discord , divorce ,

Introduction to Community Psychology 257 parental alcoholism , mental illness ) Most of the children living in these stressful environments struggled academically and . However , of these children did not develop learning or behavioral problems in fact , many of them thrived . Studies like these helped to shift our focus from a approach to one more able to consider both and strengths . Resilient children were thought to have been invulnerable and able to weather any storm . Traits found to characterize resilience include high creativity , effectiveness , competence , and ability to relate well to others . Now , resilience is viewed as the interaction between the person and their environment , and given the right combination of individual and environmental supports , it might be possible for anyone to be resilient . From a Community Psychology perspective , research had found that these children are positively affected by their immediate and extended family networks and religious organizations ( Wright et , 2013 ) So far , we have considered resilience as an Resilience does not come from individual construct . Individuals can be resilient to the rare and special qualities , but adversity . However , it is also possible to apply this from the everyday magic or idea of resilience to groups of people . Community ordinary , normative human resilience is the collective ability of a resources in children , in their group of people to deal with change or adversity families and relationships , and in effectively ( Meyer , 2015 ) When their communities as ( adversity , like a disaster , struggle , or war 2001 ) strikes a community , will the community as a , whole be able to overcome and bounce back ?

Resilient communities often have many characteristics in common . Communities that are resilient frequently have access to both resources and relationships that support resilient outcomes . An important element of community resilience includes members knowledge of their own community , both its weaknesses and strengths . In addition , resilient communities have strong community social networks in which people work together to achieve goals , with competent governance and leadership . Often there is also an economic investment , both before and after adversity strikes . Another important factor is individual , family , and government preparedness . And , resilient communities have positive attitudes and an acceptance of change ( Patel , Rogers , Rubin , 2017 ) Both research and community work is now being done to help communities build these resources and relationships to protect against adversity .

258 Leonard , lack , and ( Editors ) From 2000 to 2010 , poverty rates in the Belmont neighborhood in Chicago doubled . Consisting of 80 Latino residents , Belmont residents have experienced soaring poverty rates associated with the of nearby neighborhoods . In addition , many residents in the neighborhood experienced trauma when they were younger . These adverse childhood experiences include living in extreme poverty suffering physical , sexual , or emotional abuse being exposed to community violence having a parent struggling with substance abuse , or many other potentially traumatic licensed under experiences . Having adverse childhood experiences can be detrimental to emotional and physical health , and individuals who have experienced them are more likely to experience additional negative emotional or behavioral outcomes . In recognition of the increasing poverty in the neighborhood and the trauma experienced by many residents , community leaders formed the Resilient Belmont Community Collaborative . Community Psychologists Reed and Kent worked with Belmont leaders to help residents cope with adverse childhood experiences by facilitating programming at schools using mentoring , tutoring , and counseling to help youth stay on track . They also helped train police to de escalate the . The Resilient Belmont Community Collaborative utilized existing community resources and established partnerships with resources outside of the community to ensure collective healing and growth . It brought together members of the community , from schools , health care settings , businesses , police departments , families , faith leaders , and others , to help residents address these traumatic experiences and thrive . Programs like these exemplify community resilience and help individuals , and the community as a whole , grow and heal together . There is a need to apply this type of work to help those from disadvantaged neighborhoods and communities who frequently experience chronic stressors . This might be done by promoting the use of multilevel and work that meshes with Community Psychology values of promoting social justice , as indicated in Chapter ( 81 , 2019 )

Introduction to Community Psychology 259 SUMMING UP Photo by sharon wright is licensed under the License We all experience stress . However , we respond to this stress in different ways . Sometimes low levels of stress can actually be helpful as it could motivate you to study for an exam . Although the experience of stress is very subjective , stress elicits physiological , emotional , and cognitive reactions in us all . To deal with these stressors , we mobilize resources for coping with the problems confronting us . The success of our coping efforts will depend on ourselves as well as the environmental challenge . For example , most of us have the resources to deal with the stress of a , but we might really be challenged if we are confronted with a tornado that comes through our neighborhood . So there are different levels of stressors that we face . In this chapter , we examined the relationship between stressors and coping , we reviewed the different coping styles and the relationship between individual and context and coping outcomes , including resilience . We hope that this review of stress has provided you with some new insights about how you might use a variety of coping strategies to deal with stress and to work toward the reduction of stress among others . Critical Thought Questions

260 Leonard , and ( Editors ) What are the most stressors for you ?

With these most stressors , what are the best ways you have found to cope with them ?

Are there people you go to when you are having problems at college ?

What are the ways they are helpful and what are the ways they might change to be even more helpful to you ?

Take the Chapter 13 View the Chapter 13 Lecture Slides REFERENCES , 81 Meyer , A . 2015 ) Social capital and community resilience . American Behavioral Scientist , 59 ( 0002764214550299 Barker , 2007 ) Adolescents , social support and behavior . An international literature review and programme consultation with recommendations for action . Geneva , Switzerland , Brazil . Chen , 81 Miller , 2012 ) strategies Why low socioeconomic status isn always bad for health . Perspectives on Psychological Science , Clarke , 2006 ) Coping with interpersonal stress and psychosocial health among children and adolescents A . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 35 ( 81 , 2005 ) Coping Pitfalls and promise . Annual Review of Psychology , 55 , 1974 ) Children at risk The search for the antecedents of schizophrenia . Part I . Conceptual model and research methods . Schizophrenia Bulletin , 90 . 81 , 2019 ) Introduction to the of Community Psychology . In , 81 ( Introduction to Community Psychology Becoming an agent of change . Retrieved from chapter , 81 Burrows , 1983 ) Transition training for high school seniors . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 81 Small , I . 2015 ) Resilience and adversity . In , 81 Lamb ( Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science ( Vol . New York , NY Wiley . I . Hunter , 81 , 2014 ) Natural mentoring in Oxford House recovery homes A preliminary analysis . Journal of Groups in Addiction Recovery , 52 , 142 . Lazarus , 1993 ) Coping theory and research Past , present , and future . Psychometric Medicine , 55 , Lazarus , 81 , 1984 ) Stress , Appraisal , and Coping . New York Springer . 2001 ) Ordinary magic Resilience processes in development . American Psychologist , 56 ,

Introduction to Community Psychology 261 Patel , Rogers , Rubin , I . 2017 ) What do we mean by community resilience ?

A systematic literature review of how it is in the literature . currents , Wright , Narayan I . 2013 ) Resilience processes in development Four waves of research on positive adaptation in the context of adversity . In , Brooks ( Handbook of Resilience in Children . Springer , Boston , MA Skinner , Edge , Sherwood , 2003 ) Searching for the structure of coping A Review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping . Psychological Bulletin , 129 ( Werner , 1996 ) How children become resilient Observations and . Resiliency in Action , Photo by is licensed under the License