Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 9 Social Inequality

CHAPTER Inequalities Figure These images illustrate some examples of national and international movements against social inequalities . There have been movements in response to inequalities of race , class , and gender , among other characteristics . This chapter will discuss important concepts for the critical examination of inequalities . credit top left , Million Women Rise 2019 04 by Garry , Public Domain top right , 2018 08 by Garry , Public Domain bottom left , Los Angeles March for Immigrant Rights by Molly , BY bottom right , Black Lives Matter Protest in South by Fibonacci , BY ) CHAPTER OUTLINE Theories of Inequity and Inequality Systems of Inequality Intersections of Inequality Studying In Addressing Inequities within Anthropology INTRODUCTION As a student , have you ever experienced social inequalities , whether based around your race , gender , sexuality , class , or abilities ?

In this chapter you see definitions and examples of the ways social inequalities affect individuals and societies . Over the history of anthropology , the ways we identify and define social inequalities has constantly evolved . The ways social inequalities are experienced has also evolved . This chapter will provide an overview of the important concepts and levels of social inequalities , and then an examination of the experiences of individuals within groups and societies . From this , you can develop a framework for understanding the inequality in your own communities .

282 Social Inequalities Theories of Inequity and Inequality LEARNING By the end of this section , you will be able to Differentiate between systematic and systemic inequities . Discuss theories of social inequality and anthropology past of upholding social inequalities . Describe the connections between power , agency , and resistance . Social Division , in and of itself , is not hierarchical , but when different values are assigned to different types of labor and some positions or people have power over others , this creates a hierarchy . A hierarchy is a type of social organization in which certain people or roles are given more power and prestige than others . As discussed in Economic Anthropology , there are various possible divisions of labor depending on a mode of production . Many groups experience a social structure described as egalitarian , in which the diverse roles in a system of production are all given the same power and accorded the same respect among the group . In such societies , power is usually afforded by age grades , with the elders holding the most power . Conversely , when there are differences in status or power between various roles , social results . Social stratification is the hierarchical organization of different groups of people , whether based on racial category , socioeconomic status , kinship , religion , birth order , or gender . In horticultural societies , this can be linked to charismatic leaders or leaders whose power is culturally imbued at birth . State societies , and market economies , are considered the most , meaning they have the highest resource inequities . Whether in the Inca Empire of the 13005 or the contemporary United States , a complex system of social hierarchy and social inequality accompanies societies . Levels of Inequality Systemic Inequalities , or The Connections between All Levels of Inequality Structural Global , societal , historical levels of oppression Interpersonal Power imbalances between people that reify social inequalities FIGURE This graphic depicts various levels of social inequalities . Social inequalities are often seen as separate phenomena , but they are frequently interconnected , existing in many different interactions between people and Access for free at

Theories of inequity and inequality institutions . attribution Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) Although it is important to understand the ways in which societies control resource accumulation , it is also important to study the phenomena and experiences of inequality in ones own culture . This section will examine how individuals experience different levels of social inequalities . In contemporary societies , experiences of social inequalities often have roots in systems of capitalism , colonialism , racism , and sexism , which all include a perceived superiority of one group over another . Interpersonal inequalities , which are power imbalances that are rooted in personal biases , occur every day , and inequalities that exist at institutional and systemic levels . Institutional inequalities stem from the policies and practices of organizations ( educational institutions , government , companies ) that perpetuate oppression . Institutional inequalities exist outside of the interactions that people experience , are often unseen , and feel like the status quo . Structural inequalities exist at a level above personal interactions and institutions because they are based on the accumulated effects of institutional decisions across society and history . This type of inequality is pervasive , global , and especially to disrupt . Structural inequalities can individual biases , creating a cycle . Finally , systemic inequalities are the of interpersonal , institutional , and structural inequalities these are often portrayed by such as racism , classism , and sexism . Inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources . Most people learn about inequality at a young age when they are exposed to people from different socioeconomic classes in places such as schools , places of worship , or social organizations . They recognize that some people have more resources at their disposal , whether through inborn talents or social connections . Such people may wear more expensive clothing , drive more expensive cars , and even have more opportunities than others . Social inequalities are based on individual people backgrounds and how their opportunities in life have been affected by racism , sexism , classism , and other forms of oppression . In this context , oppression is as unjust exercises of power that may be overt or covert and are often used to control or harm on entire groups of people . on the other hand , refers to the unequal distribution of resources due to an unjust power imbalance . It is a type of inequality caused by this unequal distribution , often as a result of injustices against historically excluded groups of people . In the United States , inequity is seen today in areas such as the banking industry , access to voting , and the housing market , where minority groups continue to face challenges related to fairness and equitable distribution of resources . Social inequalities lead to inequity when the groups in charge of distribution allocate resources in ways that further oppress marginalized groups . 193292 , 1031 ! mu It is assumed that everyone from the same equal conditions . Some people are given accommodations to allow them to have equal access . All are treated equitably . All inequities have been eliminated and all individuals are equal with no additional accommodations . FIGURE This visual representation shows the difference between equality , or providing the same resources to 283

everyone even when needs differ , and equity , or providing resources according to people needs . In a society ( the third panel ) all individuals can be treated equally with no additional accommodations . attribution Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) You may have seen images on social media trying to explain the difference between inequality and , on the side , equality and equity . One problem with such images , as Sarah , Colleen Walsh , and Abigail Fisher ( 2021 ) oint out , is that because they depict individuals , audiences may interpret these images as calling for localized or individual solutions rather than systemic changes . Oppression and inequity most often are not interpersonal but exist on a structural level of economics , politics , and socialization that their presence . In order to understand the differences between inequality and inequity , systematic oppression and systemic oppression , it is important to know that the word system has two different . A system can refer to a formula for methodically attaining a goal , such as a system someone creates to study vocabulary before a foreign language exam . The term systematic oppression derives from this meaning it is the intentional mistreatment of certain groups . On the other hand , the term system can also mean a combination to form a complex whole , such as the organs in an organism . This is the root of the term systemic oppression , which describes how political , economic , and social inequalities are normalized and perpetuated . Many scholars have determined that systemic oppression is permanently ingrained in US laws , government , and society , with the result that it is both unseen and subconsciously upheld daily . When discussing inequality and inequity , it is also important to understand power , which , in its simplest sense , is the ability to exert control , authority , or over others . Individuals with more power have more agency , or capability to act and make decisions . Agency should not be confused with free will because an individuals agency is often heavily shaped by social characteristics such as race , gender , and class . Along with social inequalities , this chapter will discuss power , agency , and how the two are by anthropologists through various perspectives and theoretical . Classic Theories of Social Inequality The remainder of this chapter will examine social inequalities in detail . It will cover racism , classism , and sexism along with some common paradigms and theoretical that explain systems of inequality and power . According to philosopher Thomas , paradigms are that often a discipline during a time period . In The Structure Revolutions ( 1962 ) argues that paradigms can shift when a dominant paradigm can not explain newly discovered phenomena under which normal science operates . Each of the theories that follow was based on a paradigm shift in the social sciences of its time period . The that anthropologists use to understand power imbalances have been built on the critiques of many of the initial anthropological explanations for power imbalances and social inequalities . Social and Unilinear Cultural Evolution Social played an important role in the colonialist attitudes of the and centuries . Charles Darwin theory of evolution , discussed in detail in Biological Evolution and Early Human , speaks of how traits to the procreation of a species are passed down , creating changes over time that lead to the evolution of species on Earth . In his Principles ( so scientist Herbert Spencer applies the principles of evolution to human societies , combining his concept of the survival of the with French naturalist views that acquired characteristics can be passed down . Spencer argues that characteristics such as a tendency to work hard and achieve success are passed down from generation to generation , as are traits such as weaknesses and laziness , thus attributing ongoing social inequalities to biological differences . Social of the and centuries utilized Spencer survival theory ( under Darwin name ) to argue that competition for resources meant that weak human individuals should die out so that stronger traits could be passed down to the next generation . Social claimed that any group that conquered another was better to survive and that those who were conquered would from the civilizing of more powerful nations .

Although popular among certain social scientists , social was not a term often used in anthropology . Anthropologists instead turned to the theory of unilinear cultural evolution ( made famous by anthropologists and Lewis Morgan in the century . which was based on comparing and contrasting different cultures , theorized that societies progressed in a linear fashion , from the lowest level of savagery through barbarism to civilization . Social and upheld social inequalities because these theories argued that the features of civilization were social hierarchy and inequality . They were the basis for White Europeans claims that their culture held more power , had more value , and allowed them to exert military power over lands that were not their own . Functionalism Functionalism is a theory attributed to French sociologist Emile in the early century . In anthropology , the of the are and Radcliffe Brown , who examined the purpose that certain cultural characteristics serve in the order of society . For , egalitarian societies have certain rituals or beliefs that maintain equality , while in societies , the hierarchy of roles maintains order when arises . The function of social stratification , then , is to give power to those who are most equipped to lead , or to motivate those with talents to achieve positions of power and create wealth for the larger society . A functionalist view understands social inequalities as a of people varying levels to the group . Later theorists criticized functionalism for its use of research that was , meaning that it did not acknowledge the historical experiences of a group and thus attempted to understand societies without taking into consideration their connections to other cultures . For instance , largely ignored the impacts of colonialism on small , seemingly isolated populations , arguing instead that social , consequently , global political an unyielding and inevitable part of the process of becoming a complex society . Conflict Theory theory , created by the late political philosopher Karl Marx , offers a more pessimistic view . Marx argued that hierarchy is not a means of keeping society balanced but rather the main source of among humans . He and Friedrich originally two classes of capitalism in terms of ownership . The bourgeoisie , descended from powerful families , were the owners of the means of production , while the proletariat were those who sold their labor and lived off a wage . The powerless majority , the proletariat , were far removed from the decision makers and power holders , who had separated the proletariat from their own skills through industrialization and mechanization . In this view , the between those with wealth and the means of production and those without is the basis of all social . As more social scientists grappled with differences in class and wage , they began to critique theory more . Du Bois ( 1940 1984 ) an American sociologist working in the early century , added wage and race theories to the classic examination of class . He questioned whether there was a relationship between one knowledge in a trade and one wages and subsequently concluded that the worth of labor was determined solely by capitalists ( the bourgeoisie ) Du Bois further observed that class distinctions were forming among Black groups in Philadelphia , mostly unnoticed by White people , who continued to generalize them as one monolithic group . His critique was that theory did not take race into account as both an area wherein class differences occur and another area that can cause ( and detract from issues of class and wage ) Du Bois pioneering ethnographic studies at the turn of the century were among the earliest research on Black Americans lived experience of race and racism in the United States . His on and relationship with anthropologist Franz Boas were factors in Boas own disavowal of race as a determinant of the value and worth of diverse cultures . Du Bois work remains relevant in the present day as anthropology continues to address its own historical roots in colonialism .

FIGURE . Du Bois pioneering ethnographic research was among the earliest studies of race and racism in the United States . credit . William Edward ) Du Bois , by Cornelius Marion of Congress , Prints Photographs Division , Public Domain ) Race Theory Critical race theory ( developed by legal scholars in the , asserts that much of the inequity experienced by oppressed people in the United States can be understood through the critical lens of race . states that racism is endemic , or regularly found in the laws , policies , and institutions of the United States . Thus , people who are socialized in American institutions often do not see the ways in which racism plays out in their daily lives . Notions of color blindness and uphold the idea that racism either does not exist or is actually related to class , or other factors . Color blindness is the idea that people see color , meaning that they are unaware of the ways in which someone may experience the world because of the color of their skin . A is a system in which people succeed entirely through their own hard work thus , someone who believes in the notion of overlooks any structural or racial inequities that may keep individuals from accessing the resources necessary for success ( and 2013 ) In the United States , these two concepts are often used together to blame poor ( especially poor Black ) individuals and families for their own misfortunes instead of looking to structural causes and income inequality . The term welfare queen is often used by politicians and the media to refer to a ( Black or minority ) demographic , even though statistically , White women are the most common recipients of government . One way to challenge everyday endemic racism is to utilize . These stories counteract the socialized assumptions that keep people of color marginalized . For instance , stories are important in challenging the power of stereotypes such as the welfare Critical race theory has become a hotly debated topic among politicians in the United States . is often misunderstood by critics , who see it as a examination of ( particularly American ) history and society because examines society through the lens of power and oppression . It often focuses on which groups from cultural changes , including such things as civil rights legislation , essential to a democracy guarantee opportunity and protection under the law . In anthropology , is an important tool for examining both modern institutions and the experiences of individuals in the United States , especially in regard to social inequalities . As just one example , can shed light on the decisions made by those in power when redrawing the boundaries districts . These decisions are often made with the goal of cementing

a majority for a particular political party while diluting the voting power of citizens who do typically belong that party , a practice known as . It is important for social scientists to consider the potential role of race and racism in making these decisions . If race racism were found to be a factor , then these political decisions would be considered an example of systemic oppression . Power More contemporary of social inequalities include an understanding . This section dives into the concepts and used in studying power . To recap , power is the ability to exert control , authority , or over others agency , which comes from power , is the capability to act and make decisions . Power can be as both subtle and coercive in some , it obvious who has power and how it utilized , but in other , there are power imbalances that are allowed in everyday life . The point of this section is to contemplate why people allow certain power imbalances to exist while challenging others . Often , people allow power imbalances that they from and resist imbalances that they do not from . To better understand this , it is useful to discuss various concepts related to power , including hegemony , the state apparatus , and . Hegemony Antonio , famous for his writings on philosophy , political theory , sociology , linguistics , and history , came up with the concept of hegemony while imprisoned by the Fascist Italian government . A founding member of the Communist Party of Italy , he was arrested by Mussolini Fascist regime for provoking class hatred and civil war and was sentenced to 20 years of imprisonment . In The Prison Notebooks , composed of 33 notebooks written during his imprisonment , writes about power using the notion of hegemony . Hegemony describes how people with power keep their power through the subtle dissemination of certain values and beliefs . Hegemony relies on the maintenance of a groups authority and various mechanisms through which those in marginalized groups accept the leadership of another group authority . These mechanisms include cultural institutions such as education , religion , family , and common practices of everyday life . When a paradigm is so dominant that no one questions it , it becomes hegemonic . For instance , the idea that the United States is a democracy , even though many Americans are disenfranchised from voting and several presidential candidates have won the popular vote but lost the election , could be considered a hegemonic paradigm . The State Apparatus French Marxist philosopher Louis Pierre is known for his writings about ideologies of exploitation . Asking how those who are exploited continue to remain exploited , developed the concept of the state apparatus . The state apparatus consists of two intertwined but distinct sets of institutions , the repressive state apparatus and the ideological state apparatus , which function together to maintain state order and control . Repressive state include institutions through which the ruling class enforces its control , such as the government , administrators , the army , the police , the courts , and prisons . These institutions are repressive because they function by violence or force . argues that the state also consists of ideological state , which include distinct and specialized institutions such as religious institutions , public and private education systems , legal systems , political parties , communication systems ( radio , newspapers , television ) family , and culture ( literature , arts , and sports ) Ideological state , although they include different institutions that are dominated by ruling class ideologies , are also sites where the ideologies of exploited classes can grow . Therefore , ideological state can be places of class struggle and social change . French philosopher Michel power through , which refers to the ways populations are divided and categorized as a means of control , often by the state . This categorization and terms of race , religion , or citizenship status , for to further marginalize certain groups and increase the power of the state . can be understood as the use of power to control a population through surveillance , which refers to as in his book The History ( 1978 1990 ) An example of in action is government control of immigrants , especially undocumented migrants . In his ethnography Pathogenic Policing Immigration Health in the

US South ( 2019 ) me and legal anthropologist Nolan describes immigrant policing as a form of that attempts to control and govern immigrants through tactics based on fear , making undocumented immigrants fearful as they go about the normal activities of their daily lives , with many afraid to even seek health services when necessary . philosopher and political theorist , known as , writes about power through the idea of ( the power of death ) an extension of , explores the government power to decide how certain categories of people live and whose deaths are more acceptable . describes this as a power to decide who matters and who does not , who is disposable and who is not ( 2003 , 27 ) The ower to determine a life worth resides within both political systems and the decisions that policy makers are tasked with . It has , quite literally , consequences , from who has access to medical technology to who is most policed and most likely to end up injail . The Black Lives Matter movement is a response to an understanding that modern in the United States treats Black people as disposable . The Black Lives Matter movement has grown beyond the United States in response to other nations state policies that are seen as treating people of color as not worthy or care . Agency Agency , or the ability to act and make decisions , has become an important concept in anthropology because it helps make sense of how powerful institutions interact with individuals . With the theory of agency and structuration , British sociologist Anthony paved the way for the growth of theories on how humans interact with systems . Systems are the powerful , overarching beliefs through which the world is organized , which the ways in which individuals interact with their world . Although they most often go unnoticed and unquestioned , systems the decisions humans make . In terms of social inequality , in systems with unequal access to resources , the ability to decide or the options that one can choose between differ depending on diverse variables . The more power people have , the more choices they may be presented with , and the more they can mold and shape the systems in which they live through their decisions . French sociologist Pierre attempted to explain how societal structures are upheld and changed by processes generated by individuals . The idea of habitus , or the ingrained habits and dispositions that are socialized into people from birth depending on their status in society , is used to explain how individuals uphold cultural systems such as capitalism , class , racism , or patriarchal values . Habitus is understood both to imbue people with certain skill sets and perspectives according to their life experiences and to make possible social change because it understands systems as generative instead of static . For instance , the modern capitalist system has not always existed as know it is today . Many smaller decisions , practices , and consequences have formed and reformed capitalism , diverse interests over time . Resistance In their attempts to better understand power and agency , Marxist and feminist anthropologists in the and wrote a number of about the relationship between resistance and the systems that create social inequalities and oppression . Resistance , at the basic level , refers to the act of challenging power and domination . Power is nearly always resisted in both overt and subtle ways , but the difference is often in how much agency individuals have in resisting systems of domination and oppression . This section uses the example of Palestine to explore ways in which Palestinians are resisting power . The creation of the state in 1948 dispossessed the Palestinians who were indigenous to the land . Between 400 and 600 Palestinian villages were destroyed , and between and Palestinians were exiled from the portion of Palestine that became Israel .

The History of the Zionist Colonization of Palestine 1882 1947 1966 Today I locality I locality FIGURE Zionist colonization and the erasure of Palestinian land and people ( attribution Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) While Israelis celebrate achieving independence in 1948 , Palestinians refer to this period of displacement of hundreds of thousands from their homes as the , which translates from Arabic as disaster or The is ongoing in the Occupied Palestinian Territory ( OPT ) which includes the West Bank , East Jerusalem , and Gaza , where the occupation by Israel is illegal according to international laws . is also ongoing for members of the Palestinian ( the dispersion of a people from their home ) around the world who do not have the right to return . Palestinians living in the West Bank and East Jerusalem live under a system of checkpoints , military occupation , and segregation from Jewish settlers . Palestinians in Gaza are living in an prison wit extremely limited access to clean water , inconsistent electricity , and no freedom of movement ( an 2016 ) Despite this level of oppression , Palestinians in different parts of the OPT and the Palestinian still have agency , and they use this agency in different ways to resist Israeli oppression and the devaluation of the Palestinian experience . While political and social movements are critically important for combating injustice and oppression , there are also Palestinians and Israelis working together to create cu bridges between the communities . One example of this is the Divan Orchestra . Founded in 1999 by pianist and conductor Daniel , who was born in Argentina and moved to Is as a child , and Palestinian scholar and activist Edward Said , the Divan Orchestra ( is a group of Israeli , Arab , and Palestinian musicians who wor he nal I

promote equality and understanding across sociopolitical divides . The orchestra travels and performs internationally as an orchestra against ignorance , founded on the idea that when musicians come together to create music , they must work in harmony and respect each other . Not only intended to forge strong bonds among the musicians , the orchestra also serves to highlight the importance of respecting cultural differences and of recognizing a common humanity within the Middle East as a whole . states emphatically ( that the orchestra purpose is not to make peace but to create the conditions for peace . Ethnocentrism underlies oppression , and model initiatives such as the Eastern Divan Orchestra serve as reminders of the importance of tolerance and respect as against oppression . FIGURE The Divan Orchestra brings together musicians from throughout the Middle East with the goal of promoting understanding across cultural divides . credit 2013 by Commons , Public Domain ) Systems of Inequality LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain the meanings of the terms racism , Whiteness , and White supremacy . Differentiate between economic , social , and cultural capital in relation to class or social mobility . Explain the relationship between capitalism and social inequalities . Describe gender relations , patriarchy , and oppression . Many introductory anthropological texts will examine how types of social align with modes of production . This text has something of a different focus , critically considering what it means for some lives to matter more or less than others . This section looks at how modern modes of production create systems of social inequalities such as racism , classism , and sexism . Race and Racism Racism is best understood as power intertwined with racial prejudice . Racism can be perpetuated through interpersonal , institutional , and systemic practices . Anthropologists Alan Goodman , Yolanda Moses , and Joseph Jones racism in Race Are We So Different ?

2020 ) as the use of race to establish and justify a social hierarchy and system that privileges and advances certain individuals or groups of people , usually at the expense . Many individuals understand interpersonal examples of racism , but what are institutional or systemic forms of racism ?

To explore this question , this section will discuss the history of race and its social construction . What Is Anthropology ?

discussed the fact that race is a social construct . Where did the social construct of race originate ?

Johann , a German physician and anthropologist , was in establishing existing racial categories . Working in the of craniometry , a now debunked that studied human head shape and brain size , proposed racial categories to divide humans in the late Caucasian for White people , Mongolian for Asians , for Brown people , Ethiopian for Black people , and American for Indigenous people of the Americas ( Goodman , Moses , and Jones 2020 , 30 ) intentionally made these categories hierarchical and put White people at the top of this hierarchy . In many ways , the remnants of this hierarchy still exist today . For instance , have you ever seen the term Caucasian on a form asking about race ?

Why does this term still exist ?

Many other labels from the created have been challenged , but Caucasian is still used in both and popular usage . Anthropologist Carol ( 2008 ) argues that this term continued usage conveys a false authority of Whiteness . Black anthropologists , including Williams Willis ( 1972 ) and others , have pointed out many racist undertones throughout anthropology history of studying the Anthropology began as the practice of White anthropologists studying the other , which was rooted in an inherently unequal perspective . The White anthropologists beliefs were considered the norm , and people they studied were considered outside of the norm . In contrast , many of the Black anthropologists trained in the United States were involved in activism , advocacy , public service , and social justice . These Black pioneers in anthropology were committed to racism and instigating social change , focuses that were reflected in their scholarship and how they approached anthropology ( Harrison and Harrison 1999 ) In on Anthropology and the Black Experience , Clair Drake , discussing why some Black scholars became anthropologists , said , A few of us chose careers in anthropology forty to years ago because we believed the discipline had relevance to the liberation of black people from the devastating consequences of over four centuries ofwhite racism ( 1978 , 86 ) In 1941 , anthropologists Allison Davis , Gardner , and Mary Gardner argued that the United States had a racial caste system . Caste is a system of social inequality based on an individual circumstances of birth , wherein people are not allowed to move out of the social group into which they are born . Davis , Gardner , and Gardner observe that racism is a powerful force in American society that produces inequitable social relations that seem permanent but vary regionally and are subject to change over time . They argue that political , social , and economic structures all maintain that caste system , often in violent and coercive ways ( Davis , Gardner , and Gardner 1941 ) A number of scholars have also examined White racial identity these Whiteness studies show that the racial category of White has been in different ways throughout US history . For instance , certain ethnicities in American history were not originally considered White but became included in the White identity over time . Whiteness is usually based on the maintenance or pursuit of power and proximity to power Historian Nell Painter book The History of White People ( 2010 ) provides a detailed history of European civilization , race , and the frequent worshipping of Whiteness and explains that the concept of one White race is a recent invention . White privilege is as the ways in which White people have been given advantages at the expense of other populations . In Peggy classic article White Privilege Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack ( 1989 ) she compares White privilege to an invisible weightless knapsack that comes with special provisions or advantages . According to ( who as White ) these even just lack of not having to think about one race all the time , knowing that one will probably be represented wherever they go , and not worrying about having to speak for all the people of one racial group , among many other examples . Thus , White privilege is the experience of ones Whiteness as the standard . White privilege is often linked to the cultural concept of White supremacy , which is the idea that White people are a superior race and should dominate society at the expense of other , historically oppressed groups . People often think of White supremacy as extremist behavior , but White supremacy can actually be seen in many examples of systemic social inequalities . Ideologies of the Ku Klux Klan and are examples of overt White supremacy that many people acknowledge as being racist . However , there are many covert examples of White supremacy that are problematic and racist but are overlooked .

292 Social Inequalities Lynchings Hate crimes Swastikas Racial slurs FIGURE The White supremacy iceberg lists examples of overt , and covert racism . attribution Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) The concept of White supremacy is a contentious one in modern media and politics . You may have come across an image like the one in Figure explaining different types of White supremacy . Although the examples in the diagram labeled Overt can be agreed on as socially unacceptable by most people in American society , the examples in the Covert section are often explained on an individual level instead of as a symptom of racism . For instance , the pipeline can often be explained as the consequence of individuals who do not obey the rules instead of a consequence of underfunded schools and racist policies . The avoidance of talking about race , or racial refusal , can be understood as a silent form of racism , Anthropologist Davis , in her ethnography Reproductive Injustice Racism , Pregnancy , and Premature Access for free at

Birth ( 2019 ) writes that not acknowledging race in certain can perpetuate inequalities . For her study of Black women who give birth to premature infants , Davis interviewed Black mothers and their partners NICU ( neonatal intensive care unit ) staff , including nurses and doctors birth workers and March of Dimes administrators . In her research , Davis found that many doctors refused to discuss race and consequently ignored how racism is connected to disparities in health , premature birth , and medical treatment . Instead , discussions of premature birth disparities centered on class , despite the fact that Davis interviewed professional Black women who were college educated . Davis argues that racial disparities and medical racism perpetuated by systemic and structural racism can not be addressed in healthcare settings if healthcare workers do not discuss race . This racial refusal has a historical precedence in the United States , where history and how that history has affected peoples lives is routinely omitted ( Davis 2019 , 88 ) Finally , are everyday instances of racism , homophobia , sexism , and other that are observed in the world as thinly veiled insults directed toward individuals from historically excluded groups . People who commit might not even be aware they are committing them . include verbal and nonverbal snubs and insults that communicate hostile , derogatory , or negative messages to individuals based solely on their with a marginalized group . For example , one of the of this chapter , as a Muslim woman of South Asian descent , born in New Orleans . is often asked , Where are you from ?

When she answers , New Orleans , the next question is often Where are you ?

This type of denies agency as an American . Class Class refers to a group ofpeople with the same socioeconomic status and proximity to power . In a system , status stems from wealth and ones proximity to the power that wealth builds . Economically , class systems are most often associated with the capitalist mode . People in the United States often think of the term middle class when considering class systems . economic mode of production based around markets , ownership of land and resources , and wage produced classes that are grounded in the acceptance of the idea that earned wealth or status is the basis for social hierarchy within a nation . In capitalist nations , a persons status in society directly relates to the amount of money they have acquired or the position they have achieved in their career . systems often emphasize social inequalities because of the hegemonic idea that relation to capital determines a person value in society . For instance , Bill Gates is looked up to for his status as a billionaire , while those who work in fast food are often seen as not deserving of a living wage . This system of inequality , especially in the United States , is tied to the idea of , with those at the top of the class system assumed to have worked hardest or to be most deserving of positions and those at the bottom assumed to be personally at fault for their lack of wealth . Capitalism includes the concept of social mobility , or the ability of an individual to move up into higher and thus more powerful classes merely by working hard . Social mobility is the basis for the American Dream , the idea that poor Americans can attain a higher class . On the other hand , anthropologist Katherine Newman has done decades of research on downward social mobility , or the ongoing loss of capital and ensuing loss of social status . Newman ( 1999 ) found that in the last decades of the century , divorce , emigration , company downsizing , and technological advancement left many individuals struggling to maintain their class ( also see Gans 2009 ) Furthermore , the 2008 recession and the economic crash experienced due to the pandemic led to downward social mobility for millions . In addition to class , the United States also uses the concept of are assumed to require higher education , involve less manual labor , and pay more , while are considered less skilled , more manual , and lower paying . However , Forbes magazine found that there are many blue collar jobs ( plumbers and electricians ) that have higher earnings than many white collar jobs ( such as or level ) yet they carry lower status within US social hierarchy . What distinguishes from if it isn about how much money they make ?

German social scientist Max Weber argued that there were considerably more than two classes that determined the social inequalities and among people in capitalist societies . In his seminal essay The Distribution of Power with the Community Classes , Parties ( 2010 ) originally published in German in 1921 , Weber argues that there are multiple , overlapping systems from which to gain power and links social to three components socioeconomic status , prestige , and political party connections . Power , in capitalist and class societies , often stems from capital , which is wealth in the form of money or other assets . Economic capital is monetary but is not the only form of capital . French sociologist Pierre distinguished between various forms of capital economic , social , cultural , and symbolic . social capital as the resources people use to gain social status , such as mutual acquaintances , shared cultural knowledge , or shared experiences . Social capital can also determine one power . Cultural capital refers to the , skills , and that people acquire that create cultural authority in an institutionalized form , this takes the form of educational attainment . Symbolic capital , or the resources available to an individual because of honor , prestige , or recognition , is tied to economic , social , and cultural capital . For instance , successful athletes often have symbolic capital , and this type of capital can increase their social capital and economic capital with endorsements from corporations and other opportunities . However , athletes can also lose their symbolic capital when a scandal or controversy involving them is uncovered , resulting in them losing their endorsements and contracts , which in turn affects their economic and social capital . A good example of how individuals utilize social capital in the United States is the networking that exists in schools . In Pedigree How Elite Students Get Elite Jobs ( 2016 ) sociologist Lauren Rivera utilizes participant observation to show how investment banks , consulting , and law decide who gets hired and who doesn , drawing on analysis of social and cultural capital in the American class system . Often , interviewers from elite use the phrase not a good fit when deciding not to hire someone in order to skirt around potential accusations intent . Riviera concludes that if a candidate is not from a school , the only way for them to get hired by such a is to have some other social capital connection vouch for their abilities . When those with symbolic capital use their power against those with less power in order to change their actions , they are exercising symbolic violence . Symbolic violence is a type of nonphysical violence manifested in power differentials between social groups ( upper class and lower class ) For , symbolic violence reinforces ideologies that legitimize and naturalize the status quo . In many instances , symbolic violence reinforces social inequalities . This is perhaps most evident in the language used when referring to other groups . During the long history of migrations toward the border , symbolic violence has been used linguistically by English speakers to refer to migrants in terms that alienate them and set them outside of a common human identity . Labels such as illegals , illegal aliens , and undocumented workers are applied across cultures , families and individuals by a single dimension . Linguistic slurs are especially associated with symbolic violence . When human beings are represented in such simple and stark terms , it can become more socially acceptable to oppress them and see them as undeserving of empathy and respect . Capitalism and class systems can also be analyzed in terms of race . Initially popularized by political science and Black studies scholar Cedric Robinson in Black The Making ofthe Black Radical Tradition ( 1983 ) racial capitalism is the process through which the key aspects of capitalism ( surplus , etc . become articulated through existing relations of racial inequalities . In Robinson framework , capitalism is racial not because of some conspiracy to divide workers or to justify slavery but because racialism had already spread through Western feudal society when capitalism developed . Racial capitalism can clearly be seen in the slave trade and colonialism . Scholar states that slavery still persists as an issue in the political life of black America . because black lives are still imperiled and devalued by a racial calculus and a political arithmetic that were entrenched centuries describes this as the afterlife of life chances , limited access to health and education , premature death , incarceration , and impoverishment ( 2007 , Slavery was a system of capitalism , one that continues to exploit others to the present day . Class systems emphasize social inequalities because for some people to have money and power , those individuals must exploit and oppress other groups . Capitalism and class societies are often supported by the ideas that those with power earned that power and those without it have individual moral failings instead of acknowledging that the structure of capitalism , which necessitates a working class , generates inequalities .

Gender and Patriarchy Although there is a detailed exploration of gender , patriarchy , and power in Gender and Sexuality , this chapter will discuss how gender is tied to social inequalities . Anthropologists have studied how gender relations play a big part in experiences of inequality . Gender relations can interact with various other powerful cultural institutions to further oppress individuals . An important concept to grasp when seeking to understand gender and power is patriarchy , a system of social inequality based on gender in which power is assumed to be in the hands of men and characteristics associated with femininity are less valued . Patriarchy is related to male lineages and in which men hold more political , social , and economic power or prestige . Recently , the claim that patriarchy remains a powerful force has been challenged by some social commentators , who argue that this system of oppression does not exist in modern society and that women and men experience equal opportunities in terms of employment , rights , and salary . Many anthropologists and other social scientists challenge this claim , pointing out ways in which patriarchy still impacts women lives . Many anthropologists have made connections between gender and patriarchy , poverty , and race . In her in the poor , mostly Black midwestern suburb of Meadow View , sociologist Sharon ( 2000 ) observed a particular type of oppression experienced by local women . Women living in poverty were relied upon and expected to keep their families together . described women tasked with managing , work in a place where public systems of care and assistance , or even buses , were largely unavailable . The interpersonal and even internalized forces of patriarchy and power can also make women compete to lose , meaning they will deliberately not succeed at some things in order to gain social capital among their peers . For instance , anthropologist , 2013 ) who spent two years studying the interactions of Black teenage girls in a predominantly White high school ( which she aptly named Underground Railroad High School ) found that the girls in this high school downplayed their achievements in order to in with peer groups and friends . Academic success was sometimes experienced as a social hindrance for those whose goals were family and children . PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY William Willis Personal History William Willis ( was a Black intellectual , anthropologist , historian , and scholar of the century . He was born in , Texas , but his family moved to Dallas because of threats from the Ku Klux Klan . After graduating from Howard University as a history major , Willis volunteered for service with the US Coast Guard . Eventually , he began his graduate studies in anthropology at Columbia University , drawn to the program by the of the tradition . Area As a graduate student , Willis wanted to study Black culture and Black relations at home and abroad , but he was not able to do so because of the dominance of the study of Native Americans in American anthropology at the time . Nevertheless , Willis remained convinced of the importance of the historical approach in anthropology and of studying cultural change through time , considerations that were largely ignored by other theoretical popular in anthropology at the time . Importance of His Work Willis became the Black faculty member at Southern Methodist University ( While he was popular as a professor in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at , he faced numerous hurdles . He received the least pay and has said that he felt like he was the workhorse of the department ( quoted in Harrison and Harrison 1999 , 253 ) teaching the greatest number of new courses . Despite being promoted to associate professor with tenure , Willis resigned from in 1972 , citing the covert and overt racism he experienced in the anthropology department .

His 1972 article Skeletons in the Anthropological Closet , published in , declared that anthropology claim of being the science of man was delusional and asserted that anthropology virtual silence on the domination and exploitation of people of color at home and abroad , living outside the boundaries of White societies , was not consistent with the tradition of . Willis argued that anthropology was organized around the needs of White people and that most White anthropologists did not see people of color as real human beings . Intersections of Inequality LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain and give examples of . Discuss how accumulated wealth creates systems of social inequality . Give examples of the ways that governing bodies can negatively impact the lived experiences of individuals . Explain caste systems as a type of intersection of political , economic , and racial inequalities . Explain implicit around poverty , wealth , and equity disparities . When thinking about social inequalities , it is useful to conceptualize race alongside other characteristics . is the observation that one class , race , sexuality , age , and ability can all and complicate experiences . The concept of can be traced back to War America , when Sojourner Truth made her Ai I a Woman speech in 1851 at the Ohio Women Convention in , Ohio , addressing the exclusion of Black women from the for women rights . However , the term coined by critical race theorist and legal scholar Crenshaw ( 1989 ) in the context of discussing Black feminism . Crenshaw argued that the experience ofbeing a Black woman could not be understood in independent terms of either being Black or being a woman instead , it needed to include interactions between the identities , which often reinforce one another discredits the notion that one single aspect of , for capture the multidimensional nature ofpeople experiences of oppression . In other words , emphasizes the ways in which identities pertaining to features such as race , gender , and class interact to impact people lives . Anthropologist Faye Harrison , coeditor of Pioneers in Anthropology ( 1999 ) has done extensive work on . She argues that race is always lived in and ways ( Harrison 1995 , 63 ) For instance , the lived experience ofa woman of color will be different from that of a White woman . Even though they both experience oppression from patriarchal systems , a woman of color has the added intersection of race , impacted by her identity as a woman . Much of the work on has come out ofa critique of the original feminist movement , which sometimes generalized women experiences as monolithic ( Hill Collins 2000 Davis 1981 McCall 2005 Sacks 1989 ) Feminist and women studies scholar Chandra ( 1984 ) criticized the approach of previous feminist authors , arguing not only that women of color do need White women to save them but that their experiences are vastly different . By incorporating race with gender and class , feminist scholars have illustrated how experiences of race are dynamic . In the collection of studies of race , class , and gender that occurred around the turn of the century , anthropologist ( 2002 ) developed the concept of the Sojourner syndrome to capture the interlocking ways in which race , class , gender , and resistance to oppression shape Black women bodies and biology . The Sojourner syndrome emphasizes that race , class , and gender are not necessarily multiplied to mean more oppression , but they change the ways people experience oppression . In the Harlem Birthright Project , funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( to study racial disparities in health , uses the Sojourner syndrome to argue that Black women , because of intersecting structural inequalities , are forced to do more work than either their White female or Black male counterparts , which increases their stress levels and negatively impacts their health .

Another way intersectional identities can compound oppression is captured by the term . Misogyny is the socialized prejudice against women and feminine characteristics . a term coined by queer Black feminist Moya Bailey , describes the racist misogyny that Black women specifically experience . is the intersection of the systems of sexism and racism experienced by Black women . More recently , Bailey has written about Black women digital resistance to on YouTube , Facebook , and other online platforms ( 2021 ) In addition to creating challenges to the status quo , can also inspire creative opportunities for new perspectives and new role models . On January 20 , 2021 , former senator Kamala Harris was inaugurated as the vice president of the United States . Not only is she the first female vice president and the ranking female official in US history , but her ethnic and racial background makes her the first Black American and the first Asian American person to hold this office . When she broke these glass ceilings ( barriers to promotion that often affect women and members of minority groups ) she was celebrated as a role model for many . There is even an unofficial Twitter fan group that calls itself The Movement ( as well as other groups inspired by her example ( Mamas for ) Her supporters frequently cite her background as an inspiring triumph that allows for new voices representing diverse groups in our society . Overall , the administration has pledged to have the most diverse cabinet in American history ( see the ' On October 28 , 2021 , President Joe appointed Sara ( as the US special advisor on international disability rights . In this foreign policy role , who lost her eyesight at the age of seven , will promote and protect the rights ofpeople with disabilities , again representing diverse voices of historically underrepresented groups . FIGURE Kamala Harris participates in a meeting on voting rights with Black women leaders on July 16 , 2021 . Harris is the woman to hold the position of vice president of the United States as well as the first Black American and the Asian American to hold this . credit by Lawrence The White , Public Domain )

PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Yolanda Moses , FIGURE Yolanda Moses ( credit as Sites of Global Citizenship by Olivia , BY ) Personal History Yolanda Moses was born in Washington , but spent most of her childhood in Southern California . An active participant in the civil rights movement in the , she was inspired to pursue a doctoral program in anthropology after meeting Margaret Mead . Area Moses is currently professor of anthropology and associate vice chancellor for diversity , excellence , and equity at the University of California , Riverside . Her research focuses on the origins of social inequalities , relying on both comparative ethnographic and survey methods . She has examined gender and class disparities in the Caribbean , East Africa , and the United States . Moses most recent research has focused on issues of diversity and change in universities and colleges in the United States , India , Europe , and South Africa . Accomplishments in the Field Moses has served as president of the American Anthropological Association ( the City University of New York City College of New York ( and the American Association for Higher Education ( She received the Donna Award for leadership and mentoring of women from the American Council on Education in 2007 and the Franz Boas Award for Exemplary Service to Anthropology from the American Anthropological Association in 2015 . Importance of Her Work Moses has received numerous grants from the Ford Foundation , the National Science Foundation , and the National Endowment of the Humanities . These grants have been awarded for projects examining the experiences of faculty who are women of color , questions of leadership and diversity in higher education , and , more broadly , race and human variation . She is a coauthor of Race Are We So Different ?

and was in the RACE Project , a national public education project on race and human variation sponsored by the American Anthropological Association . Global Inequalities Anthropologists , along with other social scientists , recognize that all social systems and structures have developed through a multitude of decisions made by people with social , political , and economic power as well as through the daily interactions and imaginations of individuals . The current world system is the result of an amalgamation of events and historical forces that led humanity , step by step , to the world as it is today . Social systems and social structures are constructed and governed by the people who live within them they are not , and they are not unchanging . Capitalism is an economic system , but it is also the result of the ways in which people and groups interact with each other and with the natural world . Presidents elected by slim

Intersections of inequality margins , compromises that one political party over the other , and responses to natural disasters and other events , some ofwhich may have seemed inconsequential at the time , all played a role in creating the current reality . Structures exist and order the world , but they do not exist outside of it . When talking about the effect of capitalism , it is important to recognize the ways in which these systems of inequality can intersect to both the powerful and exploit the poor . Wealth inequalities and capital accumulation have deeply impacted and continued to impact cultures around the world , leaving almost none untouched . There are two broad forces that shape this movement of economic capital . One of those forces , which encourages further and further accumulation of wealth within a single family , is wealth . wealth is wealth that is passed down through generations , accumulating interest over many years . This money is typically invested to increase its value rather than circulated in the economy , further impacting wealth inequalities . The other force that has affected global wealth inequalities is colonialism . Colonialism is a system through which European ( and eventually American ) countries exerted power over areas of the world in order to exploit their natural and human resources . Capitalism relies on the extraction of resources , laborers to process those resources , and consumers to purchase the products . Colonialism provided all three in the form of a global proletariat ( worker ) class a group ofpeople whose labor is the foundational resource for production . Contemporary scholars recognize colonialism as one of the most important forces in the current global system of inequality . Kingdoms and Tribes of Africa before Berlin Conference European Control after 1914 Gold Land Occupation Belgium France Germany Great FIGURE Map of Africa before and after the Berlin Conference . These maps show the diversity of African cultures before colonization and the arbitrary colonial borders established by European nations . attribution Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) In the middle of the century , many previously colonized countries gained independence . Due to worldwide economic and ongoing colonial relationships with powerful Western countries , most did not have the means to develop their infrastructure , political organization , or economic sectors . These countries were also at a disadvantage as a result of decisions made by European powers at the Berlin Conference , which split Africa according to the wants of Western colonial powers rather than established Indigenous territories and spheres of political . Part of the ongoing turmoil within Africa stems from the fact that national boundaries were created with resources in mind , instead of the people who lived there . What exactly does this have to do with social inequalities , poverty , or wealth ?

And how do international trade and development policies affect people without power at local levels ?

In the simplest terms , international structures of power affect every part of daily life for those living in poverty , especially people of color , women , and people living with disabilities . The intersections , economic , and social institutions reduce the number of resources available , leading to profound levels of inequity . Recognizing the effects of

colonialism is vital to understanding the continuing inequities and poverty that are characteristic of so many territories that were once colonized . To understand international structures of poverty and wealth , it is useful to also examine . refers to the indirect ways in which modern capitalist interests continue to put pressure on poor nations through economic , political , or military means in order to further exploit wealth for multinational corporations and their allies . Rosemary Hollis , professor of Middle Eastern studies , once argued that Britain went out the door and came back in through the window ( Foreign Affairs Committee 2013 , Ev 20 ) meaning that it gave up its colonial holdings only to these nations through other means . The main way in which plays out is through economic . The Global North , a term that represents powerful nations along with corporations and intergovernmental groups run by individuals from these countries , exerts power through targeted economic relief . The agencies for economic relief are the World Bank Group and the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) These groups , which have a lot of money , loan that money to Global South nations , which are exploited and underdeveloped countries that are experiencing economic or political crises . However , these loans come with many stipulations , most ofwhich are called . Austerity practices force governments to reduce public funding for health and education sectors , thus privatizing health care and education . For countries whose citizens are poor , introducing private health and education sectors results in a severe lack of access because many individuals can not pay for these services . Structural Violence Privatization is also part of global economics . is an economic model that prioritizes privatization services in order to decrease government spending , based on the idea that free markets and supply and demand will lead to economic progress and development . policies have historically led to power structures that increase inequity for those who are already marginalized the poor , women , and people of color . When individuals can not their basic needs , they experience ongoing harm . Norwegian sociologist Johan calls this experience of intersecting , overlapping structures of discrimination ( racism , sexism , classism , ageism , etc . structural violence . Structural violence occurs when social institutions or practices reinforce inequalities , preventing certain social groups from obtaining basic needs . This can be an intentional or unintentional consequence . Anthropologist and physician Paul Farmer ( 2003 ) work in Haiti addresses the connections between practices and structural violence . Farmer notes that the intersection of gender , race , class , and health disparities in Haiti result in health challenges for which the political , economic , and social systems take little responsibility . In the township of , Haiti , where residents were predominantly farmers , a dam funded by the IMF a fertile valley and displaced residents from their , forcing them to move to the less fertile hillsides or to cities . They were provided with no subsequent public support networks , such as schools or hospitals . The amalgamation of these of economic resources from farming , forced wage labor in the cities , and privatized education and in what Farmer described as an inherently oppressive way of life . Many of the villagers who moved to , the capital of Haiti , were forced to rely on wage labor , with some resorting to the sex tourism industry to survive . In the , some of these villagers became infected with HIV . For these Haitians , the displacement from their villages , caused by the dam funded by the IMF , was the root cause of their later inability to basic needs and their experience of further suffering . This is a prime example of structural violence . By understanding how class systems , poverty , wealth , and economic inequities intersect around the world , anthropologists can hope to change international programs that are based on hierarchies between the world and third world and between the powerful and exploited classes . Anthropologist William Willis states that anthropologists must give no credence to the vicious theory that poor people are responsible for their poverty ( 1972 , 149 ) Theories of inequity show that poverty and success are most often the result not of individual actions but of the identities that individuals have , the diverse obstacles they have experienced , and , in large part , the lottery of their birth . Anthropological examinations of inequity must take careful consideration of institutional and structural inequalities while still upholding the ability of the individual to be an instigator of broader change . According to Willis , anthropology goal is to end the

poverty and powerlessness ( 1972 , 149 ) experienced globally by people of color . Studying In Addressing Inequities within Anthropology LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Examine the effects of White supremacy in anthropology . Give examples of how anthropologists in other are working against White supremacy and colonialism . Explain what anthropology entails . This section explores how anthropologists have looked within their own discipline to address ways in which they may be reproducing inequities through their practices and approach . Anthropologist Laura Nader uses the phrase studying up ( 1972 ) to call for more research on people and institutions with power . Following anthropologist Pamela ( 2017 ) this chapter uses the phrase studying in to address how anthropologists have looked at their own practices , training , and assumptions and how anthropology as a discipline may in fact be contributing to inequities for students , practitioners , and the communities with which anthropologists engage . Even though the construct of race has roots in anthropology , anthropologist ( 2005 ) argues that critical studies of race and racism did not originally develop in anthropology . attributes this to the fact that anthropologists still do not agree about the role of race and racism within the discipline or how the categories of race have emerged and persisted in society . In addition , argues that many cultural anthropologists have focused on ethnicity , becoming race by not even mentioning race in . warns that race anthropologists consequently ignore racism ( 2005 , 670 ) In recent years , anthropologists have looked at the ways in which knowledge production and anthropological methods are rooted in White supremacy . Within the of archaeology , anthropologists Maria Franklin and colleagues discuss how archaeology has been used to justify imperialism , the displacement of Native Americans and Indigenous peoples from their lands , racism , ethnocentrism , and xenophobic nationalism throughout the world ( Franklin et al . 2020 , 754 ) However , archaeology does not exist in a vacuum , and these anthropologists also discuss ways to reimagine archaeology to do work , especially in light of the Black Lives Matter movement . These efforts include encouraging growing numbers of members of minority groups as academic colleagues and seeking research sites that represent the lived experiences of minority populations . In 2020 , Meredith Poole , a researcher for the Colonial Foundation in , Virginia , began a project ( archaeologists identifying previously unrecognized Black archaeologists and excavators who had worked for Colonial in the . Additionally , Colonial archaeologists are currently working to excavate the First Baptist Church ( one of the earliest Black churches in the United States . Projects such as these are critically important to the academic search for truth . Not only does this knowledge correct inaccuracies in the historical record , but it also serves to correct the course of future academic work .

FIGURE In recent years , Colonial has undertaken various projects aimed at highlighting the contributions of Black archeologists and the lived experiences of people of color in the American colonial period . Additionally , they have added interpreters representing the lives of both free and enslaved Black individuals . credit Colonial Virginia Duke of Gloucester by , BY ) Archaeologists Kylie Quave and colleagues ( 2020 ) have written about the ways in which introductory archaeology classes taught in the United States have often been problematic and how those teaching these courses are currently using and theories to revise curricula to promote equity within the discipline . Quave and her colleagues found that students taking revised curricula developed more complex understandings of the and harms of archeological knowledge production and were better able to articulate the inequities in the discipline . In April 2021 , the Association of Black Anthropologists ( ABA ) the Society of Black Archaeologists ( and the Black in Collective ( released a collective statement regarding the possession and unethical use of the remains of the children of MOVE and the Africa family . In May 1985 , the city of Philadelphia dropped two bombs onto the MOVE compound , home of a revolutionary group of Black people opposed to capitalist growth and committed to and interspecies harmony ( ABA , and 2021 ) The bombs killed 11 MOVE members inside the compound , including children , and destroyed the neighborhood , incinerating at least 61 homes . Two forensic anthropologists , Alan Mann and Janet , were hired by Philadelphia to identify the remains . In April 2021 , various news outlets revealed that either Mann or kept the remains two child victims , Tree Africa and Africa , in their personal possession after the investigation , moving them between the University of Pennsylvania and Princeton University . In addition , the family of the deceased were never of the remains , nor were the remains returned to the family . In response , the ABA , and supported and the demands of Mike Africa , who was six years old when the Philadelphia police dropped the bomb on MOVE . The collective statement acknowledged the long history of White supremacy and within the discipline and called on White anthropologists to actively work to undo the violence committed against non White communities . In An Moving Further toward an Anthropology for Liberation ( 2010 ) edited by anthropologist Faye Harrison , the term anthropology is used to emphasize the responsibility of anthropologists to work for the enhancement and empowerment of those most alienated and dispossessed . While refers to different ideas in different disciplines , the principal goal of the is to encourage more anthropologists to accept the challenge of working to free the study of humankind from the prevailing forces of global inequality and dehumanization and to locate it in the complex struggle for genuine transformation ( Harrison 2010 , 10 ) This work to , transform , and liberate anthropology is still happening , and the discipline still has a long way to go in each of the of anthropology and methods and pedagogy to make classroom spaces more

equitable . Suggested Resources Documentaries , Larry , prod . 2003 . Race The Power ofan Illusion . and Pedro Kos , 2017 . Bending the Arc . Rachel Elizabeth . 2018 . When Feminism Is White Supremacy in Harper Bazaar , August 16 , Crenshaw , Neil , Gary Peller , and Kendall Thomas , 1995 . Critical Race Theory The Key Writings That Formed the Movement . New York New Press . Jenkins , and Justin Leroy , 2021 . Histories Capitalism . New York Columbia University Press . Williams , Bianca , Dian Squire , and Frank , 2021 . Plantation Politics and Campus Rebellions Power , Diversity , and the Emancipatory Struggle in Higher Education . Albany State University of New York Press . James , Alyssa , and . Daughters . Podcast . Smithsonian Institution . 2020 . Talking about National Museum of African American History and Culture . Last updated June , ACTIVITY American Census Archive Research Browse through the US Census Bureau website ( Look at the categories from 1790 , when the first US census was taken . Compare them to the 2020 census . How are these categories different ?

Who is being counted and how ?

Who is excluded ?

Go one step further and search through two different zip codes . Look at the demographic makeup of each area . Can you see differences in household income ?

Education attainment ?

What ifyou go to Google Maps ?

Can you correlate this information with other causes of inequities ?

Are there grocery stores in these areas ?

Bus and subway stops ?

What is the population density of the area ?

Do you know anything of the history of the zip code ?

Construct a visual that best explains the differences between the historical and contemporary . Then , do the same with the two zip codes . Draw conclusions about social inequalities throughout history and in contemporary times .

Key Terms agency the capability to act and make decisions . not acknowledging the historical experiences ofa group , and thus attempting to understand societies without taking into consideration their connections to other cultures . the ways in which populations are divided and categorized as a means of control , often by the state . bourgeoisie the class of people who own the means of production . Historically , the bourgeoisie were descendants of powerful feudal families . capitalism an economic mode based around markets , ownership of land and resources , and wage labor . Capitalism has produced classes that are grounded in acceptance of the idea that earned wealth or status is the basis for social hierarchy within a nation . caste a system of social inequality based on an individual circumstances , wherein people are not allowed to move out of their social group . class a group of people with the same socioeconomic status and proximity to power . colonialism a system through which European ( and eventually American ) countries exerted power over areas of the world in order to exploit their natural and human resources . color blindness the idea that people don see color , meaning that they are unaware of the ways in which someone may experience the world because of the color of their skin . cultural capital , skills , and people acquire that allow them cultural authority . An institutionalized form of cultural capital is educational attainment . anthropology an approach to anthropology that emphasizes the responsibility of anthropologists to work for the enhancement and empowerment of those most alienated and dispossessed . the dispersion of a people from their original home . downward social mobility an ongoing loss of capital and the ensuing loss of social status . economic capital monetary assets , including material assets that can be converted to money . egalitarian describes a society or other group in which diverse roles are all given the same power and accorded the same respect among the group . habitus the ingrained habits and dispositions that are socialized into people from birth depending on their status in society used to explain how individuals uphold cultural systems . hegemony the ways in which people with power keep their power through the subtle dissemination of certain values and beliefs . hierarchy a type of social organization in which certain people or roles are given more power and prestige than others . ideological state distinct and specialized institutions such as religious institutions , public and private education systems , legal systems , political parties , communication systems ( radio , newspapers , television ) family , and culture ( literature , arts , and sports ) inequality the unequal distribution of resources . inequity the unequal distribution of resources due to an unjust power imbalance . institutional inequalities power imbalances that stem from the policies and practices of organizations ( education , government , companies , etc . that perpetuate oppression . wealth wealth that is passed down through generations of descendants , accumulating interest over many years . interpersonal inequalities power imbalances that are rooted in personal biases and occur every day , and inequalities that exist at institutional and systemic levels . the notion that characteristics such as class , race , gender sexuality , age , and ability can all and complicate one experiences , and a single aspect of , for insufficient to capture the multidimensional nature ofpeople experiences of oppression . a system in which people succeed entirely through hard work and natural abilities . Someone who believes that they live in a consequently overlooks any structural or racial inequities that may keep individuals from accessing the resources necessary for success . everyday instances of racism , homophobia , sexism , etc . that are observed in the world as thinly veiled insults directed toward historically excluded groups . the racist misogyny that Black women experience . misogyny the socialized prejudice against women

and feminine characteristics . the 1948 displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians from their homes translates from Arabic as disaster or an extension of that explores the government power to decide how certain categories ofpeople live and whose deaths are more acceptable . the indirect ways in which modern capitalist interests continue to put pressure on poor nations through economic , political , or military means in order to further exploit wealth for multinational corporations and their allies . an economic model that prioritizes privatization of public services in order to decrease government spending . oppression the unjust exercise of power , either overt or covert , that is often used to control or harm on entire groups ofpeople . paradigms that often a discipline during a time period . patriarchy a system of social inequality based on gender , in which power is assumed to be in the hands of men and characteristics associated with femininity are less valued . power the ability to exert control , authority , or over others . proletariat the class of people who sell their labor and live offa wage , aka . the powerless majority . racial capitalism the accumulation of capital through existing relations of racial inequality . racial refusal the refusal to mention or talk about race . Racial refusal is a silent form of racism . racism power intertwined with racial prejudice . repressive state institutions through which the ruling class enforces its control , including the government , administrators , the army , the police , courts , and prisons . resistance the act of challenging power and domination . social capital the resources that people use to gain social status , such as mutual acquaintances , shared cultural knowledge , or shared experiences . social mobility the ability of an individual to move up into higher and thus more powerful classes merely by working hard . social the hierarchical organization of different groups of people , whether based on Critical Thinking Questions . Name two situations impacted by social racial category , socioeconomic status , kinship , religion , birth order , or gender . Sojourner syndrome the interlocking ways in which race , class , gender , and resistance to oppression shape Black women bodies and biology . The Sojourner syndrome emphasizes that race , class , and gender are not necessarily multiplied to mean more oppression , but they change the ways people experience oppression . state apparatus a system consisting of two intertwined but distinct sets of institutions , the repressive state apparatus and the ideological state apparatus , which function together to maintain state order and control . structural inequalities power imbalances that exist at a level above personal interactions and institutions and are based on the accumulated effects of institutional decisions across society and history . structural violence the experience of intersecting , overlapping structures of discrimination ( racism , sexism , classism , ageism , symbolic capital the resources available to an individual because of honor , prestige , or recognition . symbolic violence a type of nonphysical violence that is manifested in the power differential between social groups and reinforces ideologies that legitimize and naturalize the status quo . systematic oppression the intentional mistreatment of certain groups . systemic inequalities power imbalances created by the of interpersonal , institutional , and structural inequalities . systemic oppression the ways in which political , economic , and social inequalities are normalized and perpetuated . systems the powerful , overarching beliefs according to which the world is organized that the ways in which individuals interact with their world . White privilege the ways in which White people receive advantages at the expense of other populations . White supremacy the idea that White people are a superior race and should dominate society at the expense of other , historically excluded groups . Whiteness an identity based on the maintenance or pursuit of power and proximity to power . inequality that you have personally experienced .

In each of these situations , did you consider yourself to be in the position of more or less power ?

The American Dream is a pervasive ideology in the United States . What is the role of social mobility in this ideology ?

To what extend do you think that systems of inequality restrict people ability to achieve the American Dream ?

Did you ever take a standardized test for admission to a school , undergraduate program , or graduate program ?

What kinds of inequities might these types of tests reinforce ?

What social class do you think your family occupies ?

What are three ways you would describe that social class ?

Are they economic , social , racial , Have you ever out a form that asks you what your race or ethnicity is , perhaps for a college application or at the doctor ?

What categories do you recall ?

Do you ever question these categories ?

Are you ever about these categories ?

What are some examples of that you can see in your everyday life experiences ?

How does accumulated wealth create systems of social inequality ?

What are some examples of hegemony that you can think of in your culture ?

Have you seen diversity , equity , and inclusion practices gain popularity at your institution ?

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