Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 7 Work, Life, and Value Economic Anthropology

Work , Life , and Value Economic Anthropology Figure Four entertainment professionals indicate their job satisfaction ( credit De los de by manual , BY ) CHAPTER OUTLINE Economies Two Ways to Study Them Modes of Subsistence Gathering and Hunting Pastoralism Plant Cultivation Horticulture and Agriculture Exchange , Value , and Consumption Industrialism and INTRODUCTION Ifyou are in college , someone has probably asked you the question , So , what you want to do after you graduate ?

Are they asking about the hobbies you would like to pursue ?

Are they asking about the vacation spots you would like to visit , the sporting events you would like to attend ?

No , of course not . When people ask about your plans , they are asking about work . After you graduate , you will be faced with a similar question What do you do in life ?

or What do you do for a living ?

It is one of the things people ask when they meet someone new . What do people mean when they ask what someone does for a living ?

Certainly , they are wondering what kind ofwork that person does in order to meet basic needs for food , clothing , and shelter . But they are wondering more than just that . Ifsomeone answers , I a circus clown , or I a tax accountant , what does that reveal ?

Only where their paycheck comes from ?

Or does it also give some idea about where they live , what they eat , how they spend their days ?

Does it hint at what is important to that person ?

Of course , it can be misleading to generalize . But the way a person makes a living does often say something about that person way of life . In some cases , the question ofwhat a person does for a living is notjust an individual matter but one for the whole society . In some societies , most people meet their basic needs by doing roughly the same thing . And even in societies where different people play different roles , there is a fundamental process for making and distributing things that people need and want . Economists and anthropologists agree that this is the most basic of an economy the central way in which societies meet basic material needs and wants . More , an economy is a system for making , circulating , and using things , including material goods , services , and information . Economic systems are shaped by ideas about the meaning and value of objects , actions , and people . In many economic systems , some groups gain control over the work and leisure of others , structuring relations of inequality that operate through techniques of discipline ( in the realm of work ) and persuasion ( in the realm of consumption ) Like nosy strangers at a cocktail party , anthropologists always want to know what people do for a living . Archaeologists are curious about how people in the past developed strategies for making a living in response to different environmental conditions and sociocultural pressures . Physical anthropologists are interested in how human biology evolved alongside ways of using the environment to meet basic needs . Cultural anthropologists study the social and cultural implications of different ways of making a living . And linguistic anthropologists focus on the roles of language , and metaphor in shaping different strategies for making a living . This chapter takes a close look at the primary ways in which humans interact and have interacted with the environment to meet their basic needs , in the past and in the present day . This area of study is called economic anthropology . Economies Two Ways to Study Them LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Distinguish between economic anthropology and the discipline of economics . Describe the universalist and normative approaches to studying economic issues . Understand the importance of diversity , holism , environmentalism , and cultural relativism to economic anthropology . Explain how economic anthropology social groups and power relations . Maybe you ve had a course on economics or read a book by an economist . There are many good ones . A favorite of the author of this chapter , Jennifer Hasty , is Capital in the Century , by the French economist Thomas . It is an unusual book for a contemporary economist to have written . In fact , almost anthropological . Most economics research is not very anthropological . Recall the three commitments of short , diversity , holism , and environmentalism . Across the four , anthropologists also value cultural relativism and reaching for an insider point . When an anthropologist considers how societies , groups , and individuals make a living , they incorporate these commitments and values . Take a look at a few of the articles featured in the January 2021 issue of Economic Anthropology . Religious Networks and Small Businesses in Honesty and Economy on a Highway Entanglements of Gifts , Money , and Affection in the Narratives of Ukrainian Sex Workers Human Capital Development in Western Alaska No pa ellos Entrepreneurship as a Form of State Resistance in Havana , Cuba Note the diversity of cultural ( the West African country of , the eastern European country of Ukraine , the North American state of Alaska , and the Central American island country of Cuba ) Other articles

in this same issue focus on economic issues in Kentucky , Spain , Italy , China , and Colombia . The titles also demonstrate an interest in linking ways of making a living to other aspects of society , such as religion , gender , and political resistance . All are based on aimed at understanding the multiple perspectives of local peoples and groups . Note also terms such as resistance , indicating an anthropological interest in social groups and power relations . Perhaps most importantly , the point of these articles is not to evaluate economic practices as better or worse compared to an ideal . Rather , economic anthropologists analyze the cultural and historical features that shape economic practices in different cultural . As for environmentalism , this issue also features a discussion by anthropologists on the topic ofwhat economic anthropology contributes to the understanding of climate change . In this one issue , all of the central elements of anthropology are on full display . How is this approach different from the one taken by the discipline ?

Compare Economic a premier economics journal , the American Economic Review ( AER ) The January 2021 issue features such articles as the following Going Negative at the Zero Lower Bound The Effects of Negative Nominal Interest Rates The Distributional Consequences of Public School Choice Politically Feasible Reforms of Nonlinear Tax Systems Lack of Selection and Limits to Delegation Firm Dynamics in Developing Countries Job Seekers Perceptions and Employment Prospects Heterogeneity , Duration Dependence , and Bias The thing you might notice in this list is the lack of any cultural context , with the one exception being the vague reference to developing countries . School choice where ?

Whose tax systems ?

Which job seekers ?

Although some of these articles do specify the context in the article text , that detail is not considered a important part of the analysis to warrant inclusion in the title . This suggests that mainstream economic analysis assumes that history and culture do not play a very strong role in economic issues such as school choice , tax systems , and job seeking . Economists tend toward universalism , which assumes that economic processes operate in much the same way all over the world . In fact , a central concern of economics is to discover the universal principles that govern economies anywhere and everywhere . Implicit in most economic analysis is the idea that most realms of society work like markets , responding to universal forces of supply and demand . Moreover , economists view people as , rational actors situated within the various realms of society . Economists use statistics rather than to evaluate these activities , sometimes searching for best policies to encourage economic growth or discourage inequality . Most of the articles in the January 2021 issue of the AER focus squarely on the economic realm , tracing relationships between factors within this realm rather than reaching beyond it , as anthropologists tend to do . And , in the January 2021 issue of the AER , there is no mention of environmental issues . This comparison is not intended to denigrate the discipline but rather to show the difference in how anthropology frames economic issues . Anthropologists take a approach to economic issues , describing what people think and do as they make a living and how their practices change over time . Economists take a approach , describing how market mechanisms shape different areas of human life and how those processes change over time . Modes of Subsistence LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to modes of subsistence . Describe the general elements of all modes of subsistence . List the four main modes of subsistence humans have used to make a living . Understand how each society has a predominant mode of subsistence but may also practice strategies from other modes .

Anthropologists have a term for the way that people interact with their environments in order to make a living mode of subsistence . There are four main modes of subsistence that have been used throughout human history , pastoralism , plant cultivation , and . Each of these modes incorporates distinctive strategies for producing , exchanging , and consuming the things that people need to survive . At the most fundamental level are the basic necessities of food , clothing , shelter , and health . Modes of subsistence provide solutions to meet these needs by generating materials from the environment and developing techniques of labor and forms of technology to process those materials . Beyond these very important functions , modes of subsistence also organize society to get the necessary work done . Societies develop roles , groups , and institutions to divide up the workload of producing things . Modes of subsistence also entail ways of trading and circulating things within and beyond local groups . And , modes of subsistence emphasize certain ideals and values . This chapter will examine the four basic modes of subsistence one by one , including their development and a detailed ethnographic example of each . While each mode of subsistence is explored separately , it is important to recognize that most societies have a predominant mode of subsistence that incorporates various practices from other modes . The chapter also discusses the contemporary predicaments faced by many peoples practicing the first three strategies and why one might want to protect and support those economic . Gathering and Hunting LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to the subsistence strategy of hunting and gathering , also known as . Identify and distinguish groups in prehistory and contemporary societies . Articulate how promotes certain other cultural forms . Overturn assumptions about the supposed hard life of groups . Recognize the challenges facing most groups today . Imagine that you were stripped of all possessions and transported to a grassland environment along with 30 or so other people . How would you begin to make a living ?

How would you food and shelter ?

How would you keep your body comfortable and healthy ?

Throughout the millions of years of evolution , those living in such environments practiced a strategy known as . Some peoples still practice this and congenial way of life . In gathering and hunting societies , people rely on the natural resources readily available in their environment . They gather fruits , nuts , berries , and roots and collect honey from wild bees . They hunt and trap wild animals , and they in rivers and lakes . Many groups also engage in limited ways in other modes of subsistence , which will be examined later in the chapter , but their main way of making a living is through gathering and hunting . You might be surprised to see the word gathering appear before describing this subsistence strategy . The word order a key debate about this subsistence strategy . Some researchers object to hunting because it privileges hunting as the most important activity of such groups . Early interest in these groups focused on the hunting activities of men as the most prestigious and valuable subsistence practices . In fact , by both women and the vast majority of calories in the diets of such groups . This chapter will refer to this subsistence strategy as the people who practice it as . The as Subsistence Strategy The of northern are a resilient example of the way of life of peoples as well as the contemporary challenges facing such groups . Like most peoples , the traditionally lived in seminomadic groups of 20 to 30 people , called bands . About of contemporary still practice this way of life . bands settle temporarily to gather and hunt the resources of a particular area , then move on to other areas in seasonal migrations . Sometimes , groups agglomerate into camps of several hundred to take advantage of seasonal foods such as berries . On most days , both men and women venture out into the savanna to gather food . Men seek out meat , honey ,

Gathering and Hunting and baobab fruit , while women gather tubers , berries , and greens . When work is assigned based on a sex , anthropologists call this a sexual division of labor . In society , men and women do specialize in obtaining different foods , but the division is not hard and fast sometimes men pick berries , and sometimes women gather honey . FIGURE Women of the cooking and socializing . The practice a traditional lifestyle . credit Day Time with the tribe by , BY ) Women go out gathering in small groups , picking fruits by hand and using digging sticks to bring up edible roots . They carry foods in grass baskets and leather pouches . People feed themselves throughout the day and bring home foods to share with the whole band in the evenings . men often hunt in pairs at dawn and dusk , using bows and arrows coupled with expert tracking skills . They use animal ligaments for and craft their arrows from wood and guinea fowl feathers . They use the sap of the desert rose plant to poison their arrow tips . Back when the area was teeming with large animals , hunters brought down zebras , giraffes , and buffalo . As the big game have diminished , they more often target antelope , monkeys , and warthogs . The have forged a mutually relationship to obtain honey , a highly valued food that contributes 10 to 20 percent of the calories they consume . men whistle or strike trees to summon a , a bird that eats beeswax . Hearing this summons , the bird calls back to the honey hunter in a chattering response . Using this , the leads the hunter to a beehive . Hunters use smoke to calm the bees while they cut into the hive to harvest the honeycomb . After eating some of the honey on the spot , hunters then leave wax for the birds . Some honey is also brought back to camp to share with other members of the band . 215

216 Work . Life . and Value Economic Anthropology FIGURE men have forged a mutually relationship with this bird , known as a . The bird helps the men locate beehives and , after harvesting the honey from the hives , the men leave wax from the honeycomb for the bird . credit Lesser , Indicator minor , at National Park , South Africa by Derek , BY 20 ) Like most peoples , the are highly egalitarian , meaning that all people are considered equal and all resources are shared equally . Gathered foods brought back to the camp , including meat , are shared among all members of the band . groups deplore stinginess as the worst human fault , and people who refuse to share are met with gossip , ridicule , and even ostracism . Decisions are made through public discussions leading to group consensus . No person has any sort of leadership role . Rather , people with experience in certain areas of social knowledge provide their expertise as needed . is not common , but it does occur , sometimes leading to personal violence and even a split in the band if the can not be resolved . Violent between groups is very rare among . The Sociocultural Complex of Gathering and Hunting Anthropologists have features of society as distinctive to groups found all over the world . Groups such as the and in Australia , the and in South America , the and in Asia , and the and Shoshone in North America have all constructed similar based on gathering and hunting ( Lee 2018 ) The social features of this way of life include mobility , sexual division of labor , egalitarianism , and vast knowledge of their environments . The most common feature of is mobility . Such groups typically move in seasonal cycles over broad territories , regularly meeting up with other groups at spots such as water sources and patches of ripe vegetation . Bands tend to their subsistence activities to their own territories , but if faced with a scarcity of resources , they will commonly ask other groups for permission to gather and hunt in neighboring territories . These requests are facilitated by friendships and marriages that develop when bands camp together at certain times of the year . As a result , such requests are nearly always approved . The second feature common to societies is the sexual division of labor . Often , men do most or all of the hunting , though recent archaeological evidence suggests that some women also hunted in the past . Both women and men gather , but they often gather different things , and women bring home the majority of gathered foods . The relative equality of women in societies is linked to their primary role in supplying calories to the diet . Hunting is a prestige activity , however , giving prominence to men who are particularly successful hunters . Access for free at

Gathering and Hunting FIGURE A man returns from a successful hunt . Like other societies , the utilize a sexual division of labor , with women doing the bulk of the gathering and men doing most of the hunting . credit Success by , BY ) The third feature of is a strong tendency toward egalitarianism . As they are so often on the move , do not typically own many material possessions , and those they have are circulated through the band on the basis of need . All gathered and hunted foods are shared among all members of the band . Generosity is praised and admired . People are considered equal and are actively discouraged from valuing themselves above others . Greed and excessive pride are stigmatized and punished with gossip and criticism . People who or refuse to share can be ostracized from the band . These are broad . The mode of subsistence commonly coordinates with these sociocultural features , but some groups do provide exceptions . In particularly productive environments , can settle down in one place for periods of time . The availability of allows groups in coastal or riverine areas to form permanent or semipermanent settlements . Diet and labor patterns also vary . Closer to the equator , groups rely more on gathering because plants are plentiful . Farther from the equator , in cooler climates , vegetation is scarce in winter , and rely more on hunting . Degrees of inequality and also vary somewhat , often in association with the availability of resources . Situations of scarcity often generate social . While one can describe a general mode of subsistence , it is important to acknowledge the diversity of strategies and features within this mode . All , however , absolutely must possess deep knowledge of the plants , animals , and sources of water in their environments . Many can identify over a hundred sources of plant and animal foods in their environments , along with detailed information about where and when they can each type . Often , they rely on a few staple foods that are readily available . When the Dobe of the Desert can not other foods , they count on nuts , a highly nutritious , food . Eating 300 nuts ( a hefty serving ) supplies calories and 56 grams . At certain times of the year , nuts constitute nearly half of the diet of the Dobe . Contemporary Challenges to Gathering and Hunting Societies Originally , all lived as . In the early century , the British colonial government attempted to convert them to farming and Christianity , but the successfully resisted . Since the , however , farmers and herders have claimed their territory , making the squatters on land they have occupied for millennia . The plants they rely on for food have been to make way for the onion and sweet potato crops planted by farming groups . watering holes have been appropriated for irrigation . The Tanzanian government has responded with yet another attempt to settle the , building villages on their lands and 217

attempting to convert them to farming . About of all people now live in these villages , where they receive donations of food from the government . They live in poverty on the land stolen from them by their farming and herding neighbors , who discriminate against them as troublesome primitives . Many now farm for part of the year and then leave their villages to engage in for several months . Over the past few years , however , the have won several victories in their struggle to regain control over their lands . In 2007 , the local government leased square kilometers of land to the royal family of the United Arab Emirates for use as a personal safari playground . Removed from the land and to a government reservation , the protested , and some were imprisoned . Their campaign against the deal was supported by a coalition of local and international groups . The controversy garnered attention in the global news media , and the government eventually rescinded the deal . In 2011 , the asserted a claim to hectares of land , and the Tanzanian government consented , granting them title to this land . It was the time the Tanzanian government had ever recognized the land rights of peoples . Like the , all contemporary gathering and hunting groups face economic and political pressures that threaten their way of life . Herders and farmers encroach on their territories , leasing or purchasing their lands and then forcibly evicting the original inhabitants . Local and national governments attempt to settle such groups in permanent villages in order to establish their own rule of law , collect taxes , provide education and medical care , and assimilate them as citizens . Often , groups agree to settle and then , after a while , abandon the villages established for them and escape to their lands to resume a . Many say they love living close to nature , making their own material culture , and working and resting at will , always on the move . The Original Affluent Society Comparing Ancient and Contemporary agricultural and industrial societies , people often assume that peoples must live a hard ife , oppressed by the struggle to find enough ood and plagued by malnutrition and poor health . Archaeologists and cultural anthropologists who have studied gathering and hunting groups have found otherwise . Researchers have discovered that have stronger bones , lower blood pressure , and ess heart disease than neighboring farmers , due to the amount they do and the abundance of , nuts , and vegetables in their diets ( American Heart Association 2012 University of Cambridge 2014 ) In IIS ethnographic work among the Dobe , anthropologist Richard Lee found that they worked on average three to four days a week obtaining food and spent the rest of their time socializing and enjoying life . described the Dobe as , and free of nutritional ( 1993 ) Indeed , some lave remarked that the notion of famine is unknown to their culture . While Harvard economist John Kenneth has referred to the wealthy industrial economy of the United States as the society , anthropologist Marshall describes the gathering and hunting lifestyle as the original society . some 95 percent of evolutionary history , and human ancestors relied on gathering and hunting to make a living . In evolutionary terms , it is only very recently that humans have established other modes of subsistence . Farming was invented around years ago , far too recently to have shaped humans biological evolution very much . By contrast , were practicing gathering and hunting for more than two million years . have evolved to any lifestyle , it would be . This suggests that humans brains and bodies might be best suited to the lifestyle described by who study groups long walks in nature a diet of mostly fruits , nuts , and vegetables and plenty of leisure time to relax and talk . Maybe humanity ancestors were as robust and happy in their way of life as many contemporary . Maybe . The problem with this sort of thinking is that people today really dont know what life was like for ancestors . The archaeological record of fossils and artifacts can reveal much about the diet and diseases , but they tell very little about early social structures and cultural values . Some anthropologists have looked to contemporary gathering and hunting groups to understand the way of life of humanity ancestors . Maybe they , like contemporary peoples , lived in egalitarian bands with group and a division of labor based on gender , valuing sharing and stinginess . Certainly , they must have had impressive knowledge of the resources and dangers in their

environments . And yet it is a mistake to view the way of life of contemporary societies as examples of the way of life of humans evolutionary ancestors . Groups such as the are not frozen in time , practicing a static of the deep past , but rather constantly changing and innovating , blending new ideas and practices with older ones just as farmers , herders , and industrialists do . Most contemporary groups have lived side by side with farming and herding groups for centuries , often trading with those groups and even experimenting with their subsistence methods from time to time . Most have been forced to relocate to less advantageous lands due to the encroachment of these herders and farmers . The culture of many groups has been shaped by their incorporation as marginalized minorities in larger such as . As the way of life of contemporary has changed so in the past century , it to draw conclusions about human evolutionary history based on their example . Pastoralism LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe the process of animal domestication . List the array of practices associated with the subsistence strategy of pastoralism . Identify the cultural features associated with the herding way of life . Provide a detailed example of a pastoralist society . Discuss the challenges facing contemporary pastoralist societies . In many gathering and hunting societies , bands follow herds of wild game as they move in seasonal migrations . Researchers speculate that such hunting practices may have led to the development of a new subsistence pattern around to years ago . Relying on their expert knowledge of the behavior and biology of game animals , hunters might have begun to control the movement of wild herds , steering the animals to territories that might be especially rich in grazing resources or conducive to certain hunting strategies . These new practices may have been a response to the diminishing of key game species due to , prompting hunters to devise strategies to enhance the animals diet and reproduction . This relationship may have deepened over time as people discovered the nutritional resources available from live animals , such as milk and blood . Rather than killing an animal for meat , early herders out how to from live animals and guide their reproduction to enlarge the herds . They began to selectively breed the healthiest and heartiest animals in their herds . They learned how to process animal products such as milk , hides , and hooves for use as food , textiles , and tools , and some used dung to fuel their . This process is called animal domestication . Humans in different environments domesticated a wide range of prey animals , including sheep , goats , cattle , water buffalo , yaks , pigs , reindeer , llamas , and alpacas . Pastoralism is the mode of subsistence associated with the care and use of domesticated herd animals . Pastoralism shares many features with , in particular the practice of ranging over a broad territory in seasonal cycles . Indeed , as they move with their herds to optimal grazing lands , many pastoral peoples gather fruits and nuts or occasionally hunt small game . Unlike gathering and hunting , however , herding promotes a sense of ownership over resources , as families develop close relationships with herds . Rather than sharing resources as do , consider their herds to be family property . Herds associated with a family are passed down to subsequent generations , most frequently from fathers to sons . Archaeologists believe that pastoralism was developed around the same time as farming . In many regions , the two subsistence strategies are practiced by neighboring groups in symbiotic relations of trade . Often , a group will combine pastoralism with farming . Where rain is plentiful and soils are rich for cultivation , farming is used to take advantage of these resources . Pastoralism is utilized in areas with more marginal soils or unpredictable rainfall , conditions not optimal for farming but able to support herd animals if they are moved regularly to newly grown pastures and freshwater sources . who do farm usually trade meat , milk , and other animal products for the grains and vegetables grown by neighboring farmers . Most

220 Work . Life . and Value Economic Anthropology contemporary find it necessary to supplement their diet of animal products with the vitamins and carbohydrates in cultivated plant foods and are able to do so through small farming and trade . The Bedouin Flexible Across the dry grasslands of Arabia and northern Africa live about three million Arab peoples collectively known as the Bedouin . Before the century , Bedouin peoples made their living primarily by herding camels , sheep , goats , and cattle . Many still do , although they often cultivate crops or work as wage laborers as well . Among those Bedouin still devoted to herding , most specialize in one or two herd animals particularly suited to the climate and available pastures in their environment . In areas around Jordan , Syria , and Iraq , sheep and goats are preferred , while cattle are kept by Bedouin groups in southern Arabia and . In very dry regions such as the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts , Bedouin groups herd camels , hardy animals with scant need for water . Camels are valued as transport but also for their milk and tasty meat . Camel herding , though a prized tradition , is becoming increasingly rare among Bedouin . Bedouin supplement their camels diet with feed , and many have been forced to sell off their camels as the price of feed rises . Since the , trucks and cars have replaced camels as a means of transportation for the Bedouin , sometimes used to bring food and water to herds in arid regions . FIGURE A herd of goats relaxes at a Bedouin camp near Jericho , in what is now the West Bank . Bedouin peoples rely on herding animals such as camels , sheep , cattle , and goats for meat , milk , and . credit Bedouin Goats 1557 by James , BY 20 ) Bedouin have traditionally lived in small camps that are moved as frequently as needed to fresh pastures for their herds , sometimes as often as every few days . This form of herding is called nomadism . Each camp consists of several tents , each one housing an extended family . Typically , a tent might house a married couple with their children and one or two siblings of the husband . Within the camp , several tents might house people who are related to each other , as sons marry and establish their own tents . For instance , a camp could comprise 70 to 100 people , including the families of several brothers , each tent housing the family ofa brother , a son , or an elder . Often , the families of the camp move together during the summer months , then converge with other groups in larger camps during the winter months . Camps usually consist of to 15 tents . Access for free at

FIGURE A Bedouin tent in Jordan . Tents can be quickly constructed and easily transported , making them the perfect home for those lifestyle that requires frequent movement . credit Bedouin Camp by young , BY ) Instead of ranging freely , other Bedouin have traditionally moved their herds between two permanent settlements , one for the summer months and the other for winter . This pattern of pastoralism is known as transhumance . In societies that practice this form of subsistence today , young children and the elderly often remain in permanent camps , from government health care and schools . Some Bedouin use transhumance to combine herding with small farming . For instance , some Egyptian Bedouin plant barley in the fall and then move with their herds into the desert , leaving behind a few people to tend to the crops . In the summer , the mobile group returns to harvest the crops , and the entire group spends the summer together . Stone houses have replaced tents in many permanent camps . Both tents and houses are rectangular , divided into two or three rooms . One area is for women , with a kitchen and storeroom . One area is primarily for men , where guests and relatives are entertained . Sometimes , a third area is devoted to the care of sick or young animals . Like , divide work according to a sexual division of labor . For the Bedouin , that division is determined by the types of animals herded by the group . When both large and small animals are kept , men take responsibility for larger animals , such as camels and cattle . Women herd , feed , and milk smaller animals , such as goats and sheep . But when only small animals are herded by a group , men usually do the herding , while women do the feeding and milking . Where sheep are kept , women spin the wool into yarn , then weave it into strips used to make tents . I ! FIGURE A Bedouin woman working at a loom . Spinning and weaving are tasks typically assigned to women in 221

Bedouin societies . credit Weaving Demonstration by Alan , BY ) Unlike , strongly value private property , primarily in the form of their herds . The wealth of a family is judged by the size of their herds . Bedouin sons and daughters both inherit herd animals from their fathers , though sons receive more than daughters . Because women are barred from caring for large animals , if a woman inherits camels , she usually entrusts them to a brother or cousin . All property is shared among members of the family . Bedouin who live in desert regions have extensive knowledge of their challenging environment . They have a large vocabulary for describing different kinds of sand and analyzing dune shapes and other changes in their surroundings ( Men often go on long drives through the desert , scouting out good grazing spots or looking for rabbits to hunt . Arabian Bedouin are expert trackers , able the age and physical condition of a camel from its tracks as well as when the track was laid and the weight of the animal burden . The Sociocultural Complex of As with , the subsistence mode is coordinated with particular sociocultural features . First and foremost , these are cultures that revolve around herd animals . All aspects of culture are shaped by a preoccupation with herds . The size of a family herds is a measure and social status . Animals are used for meat , milk , blood , cloth , and leather . Animals are gifted to cement social relationships such as marriage and slaughtered to commemorate special occasions or the visit of an honored guest . Animals are passed down from fathers to children , establishing the social position and durability of families . Many pastoralist societies have vibrant traditions of music and oral poetry celebrating their animals and their herding lifestyle . A second feature of pastoral societies is mobility . When herding is the primary livelihood , the group must constantly be on the move . Many agricultural societies also keep domestic animals , but in these cases , the people and their animals stay put on the farm , as crops are the fundamental means of survival . Therefore , farmers tend to have many fewer animals than herders . With larger herds feeding from what are often marginal lands , must drive their animals to fresh pastures on a regular basis , often in seasonal cycles over large . The mobile life of herding groups is structured by various strategies of nomadism and transhumance , as with Bedouin groups . Mobility discourages the accumulation of private property other than herd animals , further enhancing the value of animals to herding groups . Third , rely on a division of labor based on gender and age . And the workload is heavy . Those living in pastoralist societies must herd animals to good pasture , provide them with water , search for new pastures , protect animals from predators , care for sick and weak animals , process animal products such as meat and milk , and produce or obtain all the other elements of material culture necessary for daily life ( 2018 ) herding is often carried out by boys , while older men take on more complex tasks such as providing water from wells and hunting down predators ( 2018 ) Older men also manage herds , buying and selling animals to optimize ratios of male to female , old to young . And men settle arguments and make family decisions about resources and security . Women are frequently responsible for milking animals , processing milk products such as cheese and yogurt , and selling those products in local markets . Women and girls make tents and mats , set up and break down camps , gather and wild foods , and do the cooking . Women also care for sick animals and people , maintaining the store of knowledge about available plant medicines . The fourth feature of herding societies is a vast store of knowledge about animals and the environment . have developed an intimate understanding of the vegetation and water sources necessary for their herds as well as medicinal and edible plants available in different zones of their . They have deep insight into the anatomy and behavior of their herd animals . They know the qualities associated with different species and how to mix species by gender and age to maintain the availability of animal products such as milk , meat , and wool . Previously , scholars thought that pastoralism was destructive to the environment because of . In recent decades , however , studies have demonstrated that herding groups strategically rotate their herds across their to control the impact on the environment , creating a sustainable way of life .

. 223 Contemporary Challenges to Like many , the Bedouin require large tracts of land to continually provide fresh grazing for their herds . Families are associated with territories and rarely go beyond them . The that encompass Bedouin territories do not recognize their right to ownership , however , and consider those lands . Eager to control this land , governments have asserted various policies to settle the Bedouin , providing schools and health clinics in order to lure them away from their nomadic pastoral lifestyle . In Egypt , for instance , the government has seized desirable coastal areas from Bedouin groups and sold the land to investors who want to build hotels for the tourism industry . In 1999 , the Egyptian army bulldozed a tourist campground run by local Bedouin in order to clear the way for a hotel . The Tourism Development Authority claimed that the Bedouin had only recently lived on the coastal lands and so did not have any right to remain there . In Israel , the government often destroys Bedouin camps and villages in order to make way for settlements and military zones . In November 2020 , Israeli soldiers demolished Bedouin structures in the occupied West Bank . Tens of thousands of Bedouin have been displaced by such demolitions and banished from their grazing territories . Pressured by government regulations and military interventions , many Bedouin now live settled lives in villages and cities across North Africa and the Middle East . Many combine sedentary herding with small farming . Some work as taxi drivers or managers of cafes or campgrounds . Some have become wealthy by investing in the tourist economy and other ventures . Many speak nostalgically of their nomadic way of life and sometimes venture out into the desert again to pasture their herds . FIGURE A Bedouin Palestinian woman in front of the remains of her home , which was destroyed by Israeli law enforcement . Tens of thousands of Bedouin have been displaced by the that now encompass Bedouin territory . credit Commons , Public Domain ) The predicament of the Bedouin is shared by many contemporary . Climate change has made rainfall increasingly unpredictable , threatening the sustainability of grazing herds on marginal lands . Governments and global investors are eager to gain control over land in order to cultivate crops or create tourist attractions and conservation zones ( 2018 ) Some governments have sought to formalize land ownership among pastoralist groups , creating a competition among groups and individuals to gain title to collective ( 2015 ) In some places , such as , elite groups of herders have seized control over land , making life for small herders . Some nomadic pastoral groups , such as the of West Africa , have cultivated their distinctive cultural practices as forms of heritage to be protected by human rights organizations or otherwise marketed to tourists . Welcoming researchers and to study their unique dances , the have been the subject of over 17 documentary . Spectacular images of the elaborate dress , costume , and face paint of

dancers have been featured on the cover of National Geographic , Elle magazine , a World Bank brochure , and several and album covers ( 2018 ) Some groups perform their ceremonies for audiences of European tourists . In their and dances , groups men compete to be selected as the most beautiful dancers by the young . While such involvement in tourism can provide income to impoverished pastoral groups , many anthropologists worry about the of culture and the exploitation of marginal groups for privileged Western audiences . Some question the future viability of pastoralism as a way of life , suggesting that it might give way to more sedentary forms of ranching . But the transition to ranching would require huge investments of labor and money in necessities such as fencing , feed supplements , veterinary care , permanent wells , trucks , mobile phones , and even airplanes . If herding is practiced in harmony with the environment without these costly inputs , pastoralism may continue to provide a sustainable way of life . Plant Cultivation Horticulture and Agriculture LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify and distinguish horticulture and agriculture as distinct subsistence strategies of plant cultivation . Describe the cultural forms associated with horticulture and agriculture . Trace the connection between the development of agriculture and the development of villages , towns , and cities . Many thousands of years ago , one of humanity ancestors might have spied a sprout emerging from a refuse pile , nuts , and seeds . Perhaps it was a lightbulb moment , ifl could do that on purpose Or maybe it was somebody who dug up a plant and moved it closer to camp Genius ! Now I dont have to walk so far ! Somehow , people discovered that they need not rely on the whims of nature to provide them with plants rather , they could grow the plants they wanted in places more convenient to them . This basic manipulation of nature is called cultivation , and were experimenting with it for thousands of years before the development of farming . The real revolution happened when people began to design their whole way of life around the sowing , tending , and harvesting of plant crops , depending primarily on those crops as sources of food . By planting the seeds of the most desirable plants , humans began to alter the features of those plants over generations of sowing and harvesting . This process of plant domestication took hold around to years ago , possibly spurred by the warming climate after the last ice age . As plants became bigger , tastier , more nutritious , and easier to grow , larger groups ofpeople could be supported by permanent gardens with no need to migrate . Eventually , some people did have to farm at all and could specialize in crafts such as pottery , metalwork , basketry , and textiles . Markets emerged as farmers , herders , and became entwined in symbiotic relations of trade . Villages grew into towns and cities and , eventually , regional empires . This might all seems like a great leap forward in human development , and indeed it was a big transformation , but farming came with its share of drawbacks as well . Archaeologists used to believe that agriculture was separately invented in three primary regions of the world the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East ( years ago ) northern China ( years ago ) and ( years ago ) Each of these regions featured the domestication of grains as carbohydrate sources . These grains were combined with lentils and beans as sources of protein , along with meat obtained through trade with neighboring pastoral groups . In the Middle East , wheat , barley , peas , and lentils were cultivated . In China , millet , rice , and beans were grown . It is now known that farming was independently invented in many other regions as well ( Bellwood 2019 ) In addition to the three already mentioned , plants were domesticated in Africa , India , New Guinea , South America , and the eastern woodlands of North America . Two Methods of Cultivation Extensive Horticulture and Intensive Agriculture The form of farming that humans developed is known as extensive horticulture . Before a plot of land can be cultivated for the time , the trees and vegetation must be cleared away , an arduous task usually done by men . Sometimes , a strategy called slash and burn is used , which involves cutting down the trees and shrubs

Plant Cultivation Horticulture and Agriculture and burning the rest to the ground , then tilling the ash into the soil as fertilizer . Using digging sticks and hoes , horticultural farmers cultivate the top layer of soil before they sow . As seedlings sprout , they water them and feed them with natural fertilizers such as animal dung , and they weed the gardens regularly . Horticultural societies plant not just one crop but many . They have learned that certain plants are friends is , they enhance one another so they plant these crops side by side . This is practice is known as . For instance , in , squash , corn , and beans were planted closely together in mounds , a combination known as the three sisters . Several corn plants were planted , in the center of the mound . Once the corn seedlings were well established , squash and beans were planted at their base . As they grew , the corn plants provided stalks for the bean plants to climb . The bean plants contributed nitrogen to the soil , fertilizing the other two plants . The squash plants spread across the ground , blocking weeds and protecting the root systems of all three . Typically , societies practicing extensive horticulture have vast knowledge of such sustainable farming methods . These techniques are natural ways to optimize the health and yield of each plant while providing a variable and balanced diet throughout the year . FIGURE In a three sisters plot , corn , squash and beans are grown together . Each plant the other . credit Three Sisters by , BY 20 ) Incorporating organic methods of fertilization and pest control , horticulture is a sustainable form of farming . Over time , however , this method does deplete the nutrients in the top layer of soil . After a certain number of seasons growing crops on a particular plot , it becomes necessary to let that plot lie fallow . When horticultural farmers let a plot lie fallow , they stop cultivating it and let the grasses and brush grow in naturally , which promotes the accumulation of fresh nutrients in the soil . Plots can be left to lie fallow for as little as one season or as many as 20 . While one plot regenerates , the farmer moves on to clear , till , and sow another plot for cultivation . often have several plots of land in various stages of fallow and cultivation . This method of rotating crops over various plots of land is called extensive or shifting cultivation , as it involves multiple plots over large areas . Horticulture farmers usually have a variety of plots with distinctive soils and climate features , and they tailor farming strategies , including crop species , fertilizers , watering methods , and cycles , for each one . Often in horticultural societies , land is not owned as private property but held in trust by family heads or village leaders who allocate plots of land to individuals . People have the right to use the land assigned to them but not to own or sell it , a practice known as usufruct rights . These rights to use certain plots are passed down through families , via either the father or the mother . When newcomers move into an area , they may approach the leader to ask for plots of land to farm . In many African societies , it is also common for people to loan out their plots to one another in gestures of friendship and mutual aid .

Extensive horticulture typically provides enough resources to support households , perhaps with a bit left over to sell in local markets . This amount left over after the needs of the family are met is called surplus . The modest surplus of is sometimes accumulated by families or village leaders in silos or other structures , held in safekeeping for community use in the lean months before the next crops can be harvested . Horticulture does not usually generate enough surplus to support groups ofpeople who do not farm . religious specialists , and group leaders must all carry on farming alongside these other important activities . Extensive horticulture provides a good way to cultivate crops on land that is not particularly rich with nutrients . Tropical climates tend to have such soils due to the lack dormancy . In temperate zones ( 23 to 66 degrees latitude ) vegetation dies off in the autumn , depositing dead matter into the soil , which then decomposes into a rich substance called humus ( Humus is essentially fertilizer , feeding new plants as they grow in spring and summer . Because vegetation does not ever die off in tropical areas , tropical soils do not accumulate humus to the extent that temperate soils do . With less humus , it is more advantageous to use a plot of land a few times , then let the natural vegetation grow back . Slashing and burning regrowth is a way for tropical farmers to mimic the natural in temperate climates . In climates with warm and cold seasons , the layer of soil is much denser and thicker than in tropical regions . In these areas , it is advantageous to dig deeper to prepare soils for sowing , distributing the layer of humus into a thicker layer of soil to serve as a reservoir of nutrients for the new plants . The seasonal deposit of nutrients in the soil also happens in areas surrounding large rivers that and recede in a yearly cycle . Along the Nile in North Africa and between the and Euphrates in the Middle East , ancient farmers were able to use the same soils over and over again as the rivers helpfully dumped organic matter onto their farmlands every year . Riverine farmers learned to control ofwater , creating systems of irrigation to continually water their crops . Sumerian farmers in the Mesopotamian crescent between the and Euphrates were the to use the plow , using oxen to pull large blades through their garden plots . Plowing makes the soil even richer for planting . FIGURE A Sumerian plow . Sumerian farmers were the first to use the plow , making possible greater yields . credit John Plow by , BY ) The use ofa plow , the development of irrigation systems , and the continuous cultivation of the same plots are part of a way of farming called intensive agriculture . A good way to remember the difference between extensive and intensive cultivation is to think about how extensive farming involves farming multiple plots over extensive territory , while intensive farming involves applying intensive methods to the same plots over and over again . Intensive agriculture generates much greater yields than horticulture , supporting far larger populations . Greater yields mean greater surplus , which means that societies practicing intensive agriculture generate groups of people who don need to farm , such as specialists in craft production , trade , religion , and

government . Farmers who practice intensive agriculture focus on a small number of crops , frequently grains or legumes . They use the surplus generated from intensive methods to trade for other foods , tools , and material goods to meet the needs of their households . Most people use the word agriculture to mean plant cultivation of any kind . For anthropologists , however , agriculture is just one form of plant kind involving intensive methods such as plows , draft animals , irrigation systems , and repeated use of plots . This chapter uses the term plant cultivation to refer to both extensive horticulture and intensive agriculture . References to types of cultivation use the terms extensive horticulture and intensive agriculture . The Flexible Horticulture In the eastern Amazonian rainforest , beside the River , live a group ofpeople known by their neighbors as the . Mixing horticulture with gathering and hunting and some animal domestication , the have created an ingenious and way of life that carefully cultivates the resources of the rainforest , savanna , and intermediate zones ( Posey 2002 ) Like most farming societies , the rely on a small set of staple carbohydrate crops , including sweet potato , manioc , maize , and taro . Every three to years , they clear new plots for their gardens , leaving the old plots fallow . Rather than passively letting the old plots regenerate , however , the plant fruit trees , medicinal plants , and other desirable vegetation that keep the plots productive throughout the fallow period . They also transplant edible and medicinal plants alongside the paths that serve as transit routes throughout their territory . The venture out on these paths in expeditions that supplement their farming endeavors during part of the year . Women gather fruits , nuts , and berries , and men hunt armadillos , deer , and wild pigs . Like the , the regularly harvest honey , the sweet treat of the forest . Another delicacy is the tortoise , slaughtered in large numbers for special festivals . The also with bows and arrows as well as nets and poison . Sometimes , women stay in the village while men go hunting or . Because they farm , the live in villages for most of the year . houses are situated in a circle surrounding a central public space with a men house in the center . Social activities are coordinated by groups based on gender , age , and extended family . Most villages have two men societies , each one associated with a women society . When a boy becomes a man , he chooses which society he wants to join , usually that of his intended . After he marries , his wife joins the womens society associated with her group . Each society has its own leader and meeting place . FIGURE A celebration attended by the and eight other ethnic groups . The celebration promotes the interaction of indigenous groups with each other and the public . credit VI no Meeting of de da dos by Oliver Especial da

do da , BY ) life is organized according to seasons . Planting is done in the low water season , and farming continues until harvest . After this , wild fruits ripen , attracting game for the hunting season , the high water time . This is followed by a period of leisure , family activities , and increased . Then , a new year begins . culture marks these seasons with a calendar of ceremonies . Festivals celebrate the farming and seasons , and rituals are performed to promote the success of these subsistence methods . The are deeply knowledgeable about their environment and work diligently to cultivate the diversity of ora and fauna in the various ecological zones of their territory . In addition to an impressive store of general , each village has individuals with expertise in soils , plants , animals , and medicines . The identify many different within the continuum between forest and savanna , associating each zone with a distinct set of interrelated plants , animals , and soil types . They attract certain species of game for by sowing plants in areas . For farming , they use ground cover such as plants , logs , eaves , straw , and bark to adjust the moisture , shade , and temperature of soils . They fertilize certain crops with the ash of plants , making use of the vegetation cleared and weeded in farming . They meticulously design their gardens in concentric circles to provide optimal light and water to each species of plant , and they complex forms of of plants that one another . For instance , several plants are considered banana neighbors , good to plant next to bananas . Among these is a plant called , a plant used by women to regulate fertility . open areas , the create small areas of special diversity called , or forest islands . To create an , they spread a layer of organic matter , such as termite nests , then sow seeds and transplants of useful trees and plants in the mound of soil . As the plants grow , the cut down the highest trees in the center to provide more light throughout the . The result is a store of medicinal and edible as well as a nice , shady place to rest in the middle of an open . Sometimes , include vines that potable water , providing a sort of drinking fountain for people as they travel about the territory . The nurturing of plant biodiversity is important to the practice of medicine among the . They identify and cultivate hundreds of plants used to treat ailments such as diarrhea , scorpion stings , and . They organize their knowledge illnesses and plants in complex schemes . The identify 50 separate types and treat each one with a plant medicine . The are also masters of zoology . They study the anatomy and behavior of the animals in their environment and use that knowledge for hunting and farming . For instance , when a garden is infested with ants , farmers deliberately plant nests of smelly ants around the plot . The pheromones of the smelly ants scare away the destructive ants . Smelly ants can also be crushed and inhaled as a medicine to clear the sinuses . The keep many pets , including birds , snakes , spiders , and various mammals . One survey found more than 60 species of animal kept as pets in one village alone ! Children are encouraged to observe the behavior of their pets to learn as much as possible .

FIGURE An arial view of the land of the . The are deeply knowledgeable about the ecology of their environment and have developed a number of horticultural practices designed to preserve and enhance the natural abundance around them . credit Commons , Public Domain ) The have developed a vast store of knowledge about their surroundings , and they use that knowledge to promote plant and animal biodiversity and nurture their environment . Some anthropologists suggest that industrialized societies could learn much about environmental management and ecological sustainability from horticultural groups such as the . The Sociocultural Complex of Plant Cultivation As with the , horticulture is often combined with gathering and hunting and even pastoralism to form a , sustainable , and highly successful subsistence strategy . Many societies practicing intensive agriculture also forage and keep animals on the side , although they spend much less time gathering and hunting . As they come to rely more and more on their crops , farming peoples settle down to form permanent villages . Frequently , as with the , those villages consist of houses with a central area for public meetings . Most villages consist of several extended families , each with its own family leader or set of elders . As agricultural methods intensify , it becomes necessary for families to cooperate in the development of irrigation schemes , trade networks , and the allocation and protection of land . Forms of community leadership and group emerge to organize these activities . Those political forms will be discussed in the next chapter . Plant cultivation requires a lot of work , substantially more than . Clearing small trees and brush for new garden plots is backbreaking work , followed by the physical challenges of tilling , sowing , watering , weeding , controlling pests , and ( hopefully ) harvesting . Throughout the year , crops must be either processed for market or household meals or made into something useful . Tools such as hoes , scythes , and plows must be bought or made and constantly maintained . Where used , plows and draft animals require daily care . In order to get all of this work done , agricultural societies rely on the labor of extended families , with chores divvied up by gender and age . Often , men are responsible for clearing land , while women do the sowing as well as the daily work and watering . Children help with garden chores , often charged with carrying water or scaring away the birds and small mammals that scavenge crops . Men make and maintain tools and also tend to draft animals , while women process materials for home consumption , such as food and craft items . Women make pottery , baskets , clothing , and shoes ( until this work is taken over by ) Girls are put to work as babysitters , taking care of younger children while their parents work at other tasks . Typically , men assume positions in the public realm as leaders of extended families and villages , but women often represent their interests in their own groups with their own leadership , as in society . The arrangement of work and power is highly variable . In some societies , men take charge of

marketing crops , while in others , women take on this role . Frequently , as cultivation with the growing of large cash crops such as wheat and rice , men market the cash crops while women sell the vegetables from their gardens . The work of plant cultivation is structured by the yearly cycle of the changing seasons . Frequently , the social life of societies is organized into a similar annual calendar , with festivals , ceremonies , and rituals marking various stages in the process of cultivation . For instance , garden magic , such as the recitation of spells , is often an integral part of preparing garden plots for the growing season . Magical spells and blessings provide a means of encouraging good weather and healthy plants and help manage the anxieties of communities that are heavily dependent on the success of their crops . Harvest time is frequently marked by a large festival , with feasting , the performance of special songs and dances , and the commemoration of gods and ancestors . Successful plant cultivation requires a great deal of knowledge about plant and animal biology , soil composition , geology , and weather patterns ( see 2017 for a wonderful overview ) Many lave a deep understanding of the relationship between soil and seed . farmers in identify six types of soil , good for planting a , corn , sorghum , two kinds of a sixth soil type only good for grazing cattle . Peruvian potato farmers have knowledge of 35 different potato varieties and are able to match each one to the soil type and environmental conditions most conducive to a healthy . rely on environmental indicators to let them know optimal times for planting and . They watch for the and fruiting of wild plants , migratory movements of birds , and changing patterns of stars in the night sky . Many farmers in India look for the blossoming of yellow on the trees to indicate the imminent arrival of the monsoons . Others rely on the pied crested cuckoo , which arrives just ahead of the monsoon rains . societies have various techniques for managing weeds and garden pests . Some weeds are welcome as sources of food and materials for crafts such as baskets . Animals attracted to growing crops are frequently as supplementary sources . Grasshoppers and locusts can be fried into crispy treats , and animals such as rodents can be trapped and eaten as meat . Many use plants to repel weeds and pests . Traditional Chinese farmers used the root bark of the thunder god vine to keep caterpillars and aphids away from their crops . Other plants , such as neem and mint , are used to protect harvested produce rom being eaten by insects . This vast knowledge of the natural world is by a value system that emphasizes environmental conservation and protection . Often , environmental knowledge is entwined with supernatural beliefs and cultural values and preserved in songs , stories , legends , and ritual practices . Ancient religious texts often unction as records of environmental knowledge and values as well as supernatural beliefs and practices . In ancient India , for example , Hindu texts such as the commanded that humans should live in harmony with nature rather than exploiting it ( 2019 ) Certain trees and plants with particular value to humans were revered and associated with supernatural beings . The called for the protection of those trees and plants and assigned penalties for cutting them down . Typically , the cultures of plant promote reverence for nature and compel people to practice sustainable forms of farming that protect the soil and preserve biodiversity . As mentioned earlier , intensive agriculture produces a much larger surplus than horticultural methods . As agricultural surpluses and human populations both grew , villages expanded into towns , which evolved into cities . Emerging about ago , the city of , located in what is now Iraq , was the large urban center in Mesopotamia and possibly the world ( 2007 and 2000 ) At its peak population , it housed to people , with more living in the surrounding metropolitan area . Surrounding peoples practiced agriculture and herding and traded their surplus in the city markets . Within the city , a class of supported themselves without doing any farming , prominent among them cloth makers and . peoples traded widely with groups throughout Mesopotamia and what is now western Iran . The accumulation of wealth in the city supported the building of great temples and city walls by a class of construction workers ( 2019 ) Such public buildings are called monumental architecture . Cuneiform writing was invented as a method of accounting , used to keep track of trade and inventory . Coordinating this complex economy was a centralized government headed by a king .

Like in Mesopotamia , the early cities of in Egypt , in the Valley , and in China all emerged close to waterways , locations where intensive agriculture stimulated increases in population ( 2007 ) Cities provided sites for craft specialization , the organization of regional trade , the building of monumental architecture , the development of writing , and the centralization . With its large stone plaza , pyramids , and ball courts , the city of Monte Alban emerged as an administrative capital in around years ago . With its own plaza and pyramids , the site of in present day Peru developed into a city around the same time as Monte . Built on a base of agricultural surplus , all of these cities demonstrate urban planning , heterogeneous populations , regional trade , and monumental architecture . Contemporary Challenges of Farming Societies Communities relying primarily on extensive horticulture or intensive agriculture are generally able to meet their own subsistence needs . However , with the development of cities into regional empires , many became incorporated into larger structures of trade and government . Under pressure from these structures , farmers past and present were and are obliged to sell their surplus for cash in order to pay taxes and purchase agricultural inputs such as seed and fertilizer . As cities and states grow , they exert pressure on to produce ever higher yields to support greater populations and more elaborate state projects . As become incorporated into demanding states , they become a class of peasants . A peasant is a farmer with a small plot of land incorporated into a larger regional economy . Nearly all contemporary are part of a peasant class in their ( 2018 ) Peasants are often marginalized and disadvantaged , reliant on economic and political structures they can not control , and exploited by urban elites . Many farmers now make up a rural underclass . Extensive such as the require large areas of land in order to allow their fallow plots to regenerate before reusing them . Over the past 30 years , cattle ranchers , loggers , and miners have moved into territory . Unlike the , ranchers and loggers practice ecologically damaging methods , leaving large areas of barren wasteland in their wake . Early on , some communities accommodated iron and gold mining operations , signing contracts that granted mining companies permission to operate in exchange for a small percentage of . However , mining practices polluted the rivers that the rely on for drinking , bathing , and . With the emergence of gold rush towns and the of foreigners into the area , the began to see unwelcome changes in their communities , such as increases in disease and problematic alcohol use . Many turned against outsiders , attacking loggers and miners to force them off of land . As a further problem , the Brazilian government has proposed a series of large hydroelectric dams on rivers to generate power in the Amazonian . These dams would territory , displacing more than people . Recognizing these projects as threats to their culture and way of life , the have joined with other Amazonian Indigenous groups in dramatic protests attracting global attention and support ( Turner and 2006 ) The rock star Sting attended one such protest and later founded the Rainforest Foundation Fund to support the efforts of the to protect their land .

FIGURE representatives are shown a map of mining concessions within their lands . Mining is just one of the threats to the way of life and to the ecological health of their territory that has emerged in the recent decades . credit Commons , Public Domain ) You may have heard this story story of Indigenous peoples who come to be surrounded and dominated by extractive capitalists and state officials . In their relations with Indigenous peoples practicing , pastoralism , and horticulture , states often argue that such people are resisting inevitable progress . Indeed , American world history textbooks often represent the emergence of cities , the expansion of trade , and the creation of bureaucratic states as steps in the triumphal march , key achievements in the development of civilization . But progress for whom ?

The more that is learned about life in nonindustrial , noncapitalist societies , the more questions are raised about these notions . Exchange , Value , and Consumption LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Outline four types of exchange . the concept of reciprocity . the concepts of money and market exchange . Describe how money expresses conflicted notions of morality . Before moving ahead to discuss the last of the four major subsistence methods , its worth reviewing the ways in which goods circulate in societies in accordance with each mode of subsistence . The four subsistence strategies are primarily by their techniques of is , the way people use materials from their environments to make the things they need , such as food , clothing , shelter , and medicines . Previous sections have described how each production strategy entails its own distinctive methods of allocating those needful things to individuals and groups within the community . This section details the various methods of circulating things through social groups . Most societies rely on one primary strategy for making a living , though they very often combine it with one or more others in ways over time . If key foods become impossible to , may take up farming for a few seasons . Many herding groups regularly hunt and sometimes plant crops along their nomadic routes , returning the next season to harvest the crops . Many farmers also keep domesticated animals . So it is with modes of exchange . Most societies practice not just one strategy but a combination of many , dominated by the form of exchange that dovetails with the main subsistence strategy .

Forms of Exchange Recall the importance of egalitarian sharing in societies . When hunters return to camp bearing large game , they divide it equally among members of the band . When gatherers bring back loads of nuts or fruit , they hand them out freely to anyone who is hungry . Everyone is expected and required to share with everyone else . Generalized reciprocity is the anthropological term to describe how people share things with no regard for their value or interest in compensation . This form of exchange does look like exchange at all it looks much more like altruism . But when rigorously practiced by a group , with social sanctions used to punish laziness and stinginess , the result of generalized reciprocity over time is more or less the equal exchange of goods among all members of the group . Outside of societies , generalized reciprocity is also common in many close relationships , such as family relationships and friendships . When you staying in your parents house , does it occur to you to pay them when you grab a soft drink from the fridge ?

If a friend wants to borrow a pair , do you charge them a rental fee ?

Probably not . However , the logic of exchange changes as the intensity of the relationship decreases and value of the object increases . Your parents might give you a car ifyou needed one , but you would not expect a friend to do so without some sort of compensation . In and horticultural societies , another form of reciprocal exchange is common among individuals . Among the Dobe and other San groups in southern Africa , people develop relationships with one another based on a practice called ( Barnard 2018 ) The relationship begins when one person asks another person , often someone in another band , to give them a particular item , such as a digging stick or a cooking pot . This request may be rejected or accepted . If accepted , the two enter into an ongoing relationship of exchange , which may last forever or be broken off at some future point . After an period of time , the receiver makes a return gift , often of somewhat or slightly greater value . The value of the items is never discussed nor is the time between episodes of gift giving . All is made to seem natural and spontaneous . This form of exchange is known as balanced reciprocity . These relationships come with many instance , the right to hunt and gather in the band of your partner . For this reason , many people maintain as many as 10 to 12 ongoing relationships . The main point of balanced reciprocity is not to gain resources and opportunities . Rather , the whole point of these serial exchanges of things is to establish and relationships among people . Some degree of unspoken calculation is involved in choosing gifts that and intensify the relationship over time , with givers slowly raising the value of gifts to deepen the relationship . These special relationships based on reciprocal gift giving are found in many other horticultural and agricultural societies as well . While such relationships seem to be governed by a sense of mutual goodwill , a more and competitive form reciprocity developed among the Indigenous peoples of the Northwest coast of Canada and the United States ( High 2018 ) Among groups such as the , and , chiefs sponsored great feasts called to commemorate births , weddings , deaths , and other important events . At these potlatch feasts , the chief of the host community would present an abundance of gifts to the chief of an invited community . Such gifts included blankets , animal skins , copper plaques , and preserved food . Sometimes , these items were deliberately burned in spectacles of extravagant waste . By foisting this abundance of gifts upon a guest chief , the host chief demonstrated their wealth and power and levied a challenge to the guest chief to counter with an even more lavish feast and greater trove of gifts . Power among neighboring communities was established and reinforced through this competitive feasting , not by acquiring wealth but by giving it away . More recent interpretations of potlatch suggest that such ceremonies not only operated as forms of reciprocity but also helped distribute goods found in one community to surrounding areas where those goods might be impossible to .

FIGURE A potlatch in British Columbia in the . In ceremonies , the power and wealth of a group was demonstrated not by what they acquired but by what they gave away . credit Edward Commons , Public Domain ) The role of leaders in the practice of potlatch is an example of the tendency for leaders to gain control of community wealth and use it for distribution as well as prestige . This practice is particularly pronounced in agricultural societies that have chiefs , such as the peoples of the Hawaiian Islands in the era . Before contact with Europeans , the Hawaiian Islands were ruled by a multilevel system of chiefs who controlled land , natural resources , and trade . Commoners were required to pay tribute to their chiefs in the form of labor , food , and other products . For farmers , this meant that a portion of their agricultural surplus was relayed to local chiefs . These local chiefs then relayed a portion of the tribute they received to regional chiefs , and so on up the pyramid to the great chief . This tribute supported government at each level , including royal courts , political advisers , priests , military strategists , guards , and entertainers . In this way , political leaders became centers of the concentration , which was then used to provide communities with the of government , such as social order , resolution , military protection , trade coordination , and the construction of public works such as , water channels , and temples . In this hierarchical system , tribute up to elites , while government goods and services down to commoners . This is called redistribution , and it a very common feature of , as will be discussed in the next chapter . Tribute was used by leaders to monument building , warfare , trade , and ceremonial feasting as well as the chief own lavish regalia and large retinue of assistants , bureaucrats , and servants . Redistribution is practiced in all state societies . Consider the roads in your neighborhood , the postal service , the public schools , the libraries , research , the courts , the prisons , the are paid for by taxation , the form of redistribution conducted by states . While some see taxation as a predatory fee extracted by unproductive elites , taxation makes possible the social order , the economy , and the wellbeing of state citizens . It important to recognize that redistribution is not a way for individuals to purchase goods and services from the state but rather a system of allocating resources for the of society as a whole . Read this experience of the author of this chapter , Jennifer Hasty , Imagine thatyou go to take a shower and discover thatyou re out . How can you solve this problem ?

Gift exchange ?

government program ?

Surely not . In contemporary Western society , forms of reciprocity and redistribution have become increasingly sidelined by the form of economic exchange markets . A market is an institution that makes it possible for buyers and sellers of goods to meet for the purposes of exchange . In the most concrete sense , a market is an actual place . lfyou need a bar ( or shampoo , ora towel , ora bathtub ) you go the market and buy one . In fact , soap when I travel to , as one ofthe first do when there for the nearest market .

. and Consumption West African markets are noisy , vibrant places full of shrewd women traders with their neat stacks heaps goods . At big markets such as and , you can almost anything you might want , from large appliances to clothes , school supplies , fresh spices , and produce . The air is infused with the shifting aromas of fried plantain , stinky fish , and freshly baked , a kind of doughnut . Music blasts from radios posted at kiosks here and there . Mobile vendors ply the crowded paths , their goods carefully draped on their bodies or stacked on . Customers from all walks of life browse the rows upon rows of seated vendors , everyone chatting and socializing , buyers and sellers haggling the price of goods . Early on , I learned that the value of a product is not fixed but contingent on many factors , such as time , amount , and the perceived identity of the buyer . Just buying a few bars of soap can be a complex social interaction combined with a rich sensory experience . FIGURE Market in downtown , West African markets are noisy , vibrant places , very different from Western grocery stores . credit Clothes Market by Francisco , BY ) More recently , Western grocery stores have opened up in . In contrast to the intense sensory experience of markets , these stores are quiet and , to me , a bit underwhelming . A small number of shoppers silently push their carts up and down the aisles , avoiding eye contact with one another At checkout , a bored clerk rings up your items and informs you ofthe total . It does who you or poor , the total is the same . This is a , predictable experience . In the United States , automatic checkout is becoming increasingly common in stores , eliminating the off chance thatyou might have any sort human contact in the course transaction . With online purchasing , the market is no longer a place at all buta virtual site on a computer screen that absolutely precludes any possibility of direct human interaction . Consumers have responded to the tion of online market relations by embracing the highly expressive and interactive realm of consumer reviews . And even in the shops , people resist the boring antisocial regimen of modern shopping by talking on their cell phones , enjoying food samples , and looking for roman tic partners . All of these forms of exchange can be found in contemporary capitalist societies . Generalized reciprocity is practiced among and very , very close friends . Balanced reciprocity is the unspoken logic guiding most exchanges among friends and acquaintances . If you ask your neighbor to collect your mail while you re out of town , you might expect your neighbor to ask you for a similar favor in the future . Recently , while I was out of town fora week , I asked the parents of my da school friend if they could take her to and from school . They kindly obliged . A month later , I had to leave town again for a week . In that intervening month , I had been unable to reciprocate for the favor of shuttling my child around , so I hesitated to ask those same parents to do it again . Instead , I hired someone , the friend of a friend but a stranger to me . Among strangers , market exchange is the most common form of transaction . In capitalist societies , market 235

exchange is the default setting if all else fails , pay for it . Market transactions are quick and easy , and the participants walk away relatively unencumbered by future obligation . Ifthis is the advantage of market exchange , it can also be a big disadvantage . Without the relations of mutuality and trust established by forms of reciprocity , the participants in market exchange are motivated by the desire to get more than they give . A society dominated by market exchange is therefore dominated by the logic of and greed rather than cooperation and social . Money In the midst of the pandemic , many shops witnessed a scarcity of hard currency , prompting them to put up signs requesting people to use credit or debit cards or mobile payment apps to make purchases . This episode is part of a larger shift over the past several decades away from coins and bills and toward more abstract forms such as chip cards and , the mobile debit apps accessed through smartphones . And even more abstractly , now there are even virtual currencies such as bitcoin and other . Bitcoin is a currency generated by a computer dedicated to solving complex mathematical problems . How is that even money ?

What is money ?

In the formulation of classical philosophy , money is by three functions it serves as a medium of exchange , a unit of account , and a store of value . Imagine that two friends from neighboring groups , one a pastoralist group and the other a horticultural group , meet in town . The pastoralist has a freshly slaughtered goat slung over their shoulder . The is carrying a small sack . They decide they like to trade . The farmer wants all of the meat , but the herder wants only a small portion of the vegetables . Each person wants the trade to be equal that is , they both want to give and receive the same value . How can they conduct this transaction ?

How do they know the value of the things they want to trade ?

It seems natural to imagine these two trader friends attempting to negotiate some sort of barter . The swapping of goods on the spot , however , was never a dominant form of exchange in any culture in the past . Instead , many anthropologists argue that precapitalist peoples relied more on gift exchange , redistribution , and debt to circulate goods through society . So it more likely that the pastoralist would make a gift of the whole goat to their gardening friend , knowing that both would remember the gardener obligation to return the favor with more vegetables ( or something else of fairly equal value ) in the future . Ifthis seems complicated , it probably was . Individuals would have been involved in many such relationships simultaneously whole communities ofpeople all mutually entwined in relations of credit and debt . The other possible solution is money . If these two traders live in a society that uses some arbitrary other thing to enumerate value , they would know that all of the meat has the value of 50 units ( or shekels , cowrie shells , tally sticks , bones , animal skins , brass rods , gold coins , bank notes , or any one of the myriad other objects used as money in the past ) A small portion might have the value of only 10 units . Ifthese two have come with their wallets , they can use money to make two separate transactions for items of different value rather than trying to negotiate one swap . They can make the exchanges and walk away without entanglement . i ! FIGURE Examples of local currencies . Local currencies are designed to be used only within designated

geographic areas , with the goal of economy of the community . credit Commons , Public Domain ) There are two kinds of money , general purpose and special purpose . The transaction described above is an example of is , money that can be exchanged for a wide variety of goods and services . Dollars , euros , pesos , yen , and bitcoin are all forms of money . money is portable , divisible , and easily available . money is currency that is used to purchase one particular kind of thing . In some pastoral societies of West African , cattle have been used as forms of , or the payment made by a groom to the family of his prospective bride . The people of New Guinea had two forms of money , strings of fox teeth and strings of shell disks . These were used for marriages and other socially important occasions . money is generally more to obtain , transport , measure precisely . In American society , many grocery stores now offer points for loyal shoppers that can be used to buy gas at particular gas stations . Credit card companies , airlines , and other businesses offer similar forms of points . Such currency illustrates the arbitrary nature of money . Industrialism and LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to industrialism and describe how it developed . Articulate the cultural forms associated with industrialism . Describe how the development of industrialism instigated the establishment of colonial empires and the global economic system . Evaluate the effects of colonial subjugation on postcolonial economies and societies . the concepts of modernity and alternative modernity . All of the modes of subsistence previously discussed rely on human labor applied directly to environmental resources to produce relatively small batches of food , tools , and other goods . In the past years , pastoralism , and agriculture all existed side by side , and most groups dabbled in more than one of these modes . In these systems , most work is conducted by groups in the context of the household , whether settled or mobile . These family groups regulate their own work cycles and determine how goods are produced and distributed based on their own needs and strategies . In the in Britain , a new way of producing goods began to develop , slowly at first and then growing exponentially to sweep the globe . That mode of subsistence is industrialism the use of wage labor , machines , and chemical processes to commodities . Taking hold first in Europe , this mode of subsistence drew sets ofpeople away from their households into factories where they performed repetitive forms of labor in return for regular wages . In the factory setting , workers have very little control over their own work cycles and no claim whatsoever on the goods they produce . As a mode of subsistence , industrialism drew from and transformed other modes of production , such as pastoralism and agriculture . Industrialism did not supersede other modes but rather used them as sources of raw materials and labor . with no surplus to supply industry , are deemed useless to industrialism . groups are thus marginalized by contemporary states , often being to reservations where their way of life is difficult or impossible to practice . Cloth , Factories , and Slavery The Rise of Industrialism In the early , sheepherders were producing raw wool throughout the British countryside . As cloth manufacturing was limited in England at the time , traders exported much of that raw wool to European countries such as the Netherlands , where it was processed into cloth . A general rule in economics is that selling raw materials is not nearly as as processing them into commodities to sell to consumers . Envious of European textile processing , British manufacturers sought to greatly expand local processing of British wool into cloth for export . As British manufacturers bought more and more wool , the price of wool

skyrocketed . Large British began to evict peasants from their land so that they could expand their own sheep herds to take advantage of the rising price of wool . FIGURE Industrial weaving was often done by young women . Working long hours in a textile factory was a very difference experience from the weaving that these women mothers and grandmothers may have done at . credit The Bobbin Girl by National Park Commons , Public Domain ) Landless people into British cities looking for work around the same time that manufacturers were ooking for a cheap source of wage labor to process wool into cloth in the new factories . The drive to increase while lowering production costs prompted several key technological innovations , such as the use of water mills and , later , the steam engine to power these factories . Moreover , new techniques or managing the labor force emerged , such as the workday and sets ofwork rules known as discipline . he twin forces of technological innovation and labor management ( some would call it exploitation ) stimulated similar shifts toward mass production of cotton cloth , pottery , and metals . By the , the entire economy of England was completely transformed , now dominated by the mass of in factories for export all over the world . This model of industrial manufacturing of mass commodities spread across western Europe , reshaping urban national economies in the Netherlands , Germany , France , and . Soon , these burgeoning industries had outgrown local supplies of raw materials for their factories and started ooking for additional sources of cotton , sugar , tea , tobacco , and other materials that could be processed into commodities . One solution was found in the expansion of the African slave trade in the and the use of enslaved persons on in the New World to produce raw materials to supply the factories in England . That is a lot of history , and this is an anthropology textbook , but it is important to know why European societies shifted to industrial production in the 17005 . It was not because it provided a better way of life for the majority ofpeople but it generated stupendous for classes of large landowners , factory owners , and transnational traders . For peasants kicked off their land and forced to live in squalor in urban slums , working days under the harsh discipline of the shop steward , this was not progress . For enslaved persons abducted from their homes and shipped to a foreign land , worked to death under threat of the lash , this was not progress . Tor a class of European consumers eager for fancy new clothes and tasty new foods ,

perhaps it seemed like progress . In fact , the modern industry of advertising was invented during this time to tell people that it was progress . Advertising was necessary to stimulate the consumption of all the commodities created by European manufacturers . From a holistic perspective , the notions and development that emerged in Europe went hand in hand with the demands of the industrial economy , providing for the new forms of and domination . Colonialism and Global Capitalism A second reason for providing the brief history lesson in the last section is to show how the development of the industrial economy in Europe generated the global system of capitalism that exists today . After the European slave trade was abolished in the early century , Europeans expanded their control over African , Asian , and New World territories , cultivating new sources of such raw materials as peanuts , cocoa , and palm oil to develop even more lucrative European industries . This expansion of control took the form of colonialism , the political domination of another country in the interest of economic exploitation . From the 15005 to the , European countries strove to dominate much of Africa , Asia , and the Middle East as well as North , Central and South America . Different techniques of rule were practiced at different times and places , but all colonialism involved a set of key features , including violent rule by a European government , the extraction of raw materials , forced labor , taxation , the spread of Christian missions , the denigration of local cultures , the introduction of diseases , and increased local . While their motivations were primarily economic , European claimed to be inspired by a civilizing mission idea that European domination was necessary to bring the of progress , such as hospitals and schools . For colonized peoples , the hardships and injustices of colonial rule far outweighed the meager offered to some groups . Countries under in once under European central Europe Colonized or once controlled by Europe Partially controlled or influenced by Europe Influenced by Europe Never a European colony FIGURE Postcolonial countries of the world . Note the pervasive influence that European nations have had around the globe , with just a few isolated areas that have remained free of European influence or control . attribution Copyright Rice University , BY license ) Economically , the whole purpose of colonialism was to design a system for extracting raw materials to support the industrial economies of Europe . Therefore , European countries such as Britain , France , and Germany sought out sources of valuable minerals for the mining industry as well as good land for growing crops that European manufacturers could process into commodities . In Africa , many fertile regions were seized and sold to White settlers to establish plantations for growing tea , cotton , and other cash crops . The African peoples who lived there were relocated to less fertile lands and forced to work on the White plantations in order to survive . In places where White people found it hard to live ( places with widespread tropical diseases such as malaria ) colonial governments recruited African farmers to grow cash crops such as coffee and cocoa . Colonial subjects were taxed by colonial governments in order to force them to work in mines and on plantations or grow cash crops for export . African businesspeople were edged out of international trade , and

industrial development was curtailed in the colonies to protect European industry . Most colonized countries became independent in the century . Economically speaking , however , colonial domination never quite ended for the vast majority of postcolonial countries . The economies of most African countries are still dominated by a few mining and cash crop exports . As the global prices of such raw materials fluctuate widely from year to year , postcolonial governments find it hard to budget and plan ahead . Moreover , the actual value of raw material exports erodes over time , forcing countries to export more and more just to maintain their economies , making real economic growth and development almost impossible . In response to this dilemma , many postcolonial countries , including India , have adopted ambitious schemes to industrialize their economies in order to get out of the colonial economic trap . Currently , the government of is pursuing a renewed effort at industrialization , hoping to add value to cash crops such as pineapples and and provide jobs to by manufacturing commodities of higher value for local use and export . The One District , One Factory initiative aims to establish a new factory in each of 216 government districts . Modernity , the Sociocultural Complex of Industrial Societies What happens when a country ?

Anthropologists have been interested in how processes of industrialism have unfolded in such as India , China , Brazil , and Mexico . Wherever this transformation occurs , certain other sociocultural conditions tend to follow . Social scientists refer to the complex of features that accompanies industrialization as modernity . While anchored by a set of commonalities , modernity takes different forms in different . There is no one modernity but rather a whole spectrum of that develop as societies industrialize in different ways . Some , such as China and Mexico , focus on strategic industrial zones . Some , such as , seek to establish factories evenly throughout the country . Moreover , societies accommodate the changes of industrialism using their own cultural institutions , practices , and belief systems , informed by their own historical experiences . Some versions of modernity emphasize individualism and allow for vast amounts of inequality among people in different social categories . Other versions of modernity emphasize community and equality . Some scholars use the term alternative modernity to describe versions of modernity that have developed outside of Europe . Nevertheless , industrialism does entail a set of sociocultural forces that interact with local cultural features to produce these distinctive versions of modernity . The of these forces is urbanization . As with the evicted peasants in Britain , people are pushed or pulled into urban centers to jobs when factories are established . Rural farmers must rely on unpredictable factors such as weather and volatile market prices for their goods . And those who grow cash crops usually they have to sell more and more just to maintain their standard of living . These challenges have made farming unattractive to many young people , prompting them to seek better lives in urban areas . As societies industrialize , the pull toward urban areas becomes greater , and trading towns grow into industrial cities , which grow into metropolitan regions . The second notable feature of industrial society is regimented wage labor . In the other modes of subsistence , people are obligated to work to survive , but they maintain control over the conditions of their work , such as when they start and end their workday , when they take breaks , what tasks they perform that day , how they perform those tasks , and how much they produce in a given day . In the factory setting , the nature of work changes profoundly .

FIGURE Punching the time clock . Regimented wage labor is a defining feature of industrial societies . credit Detroit , Michigan ( Vicinity ) Chrysler Corporation Dodge Truck Plant . War Workers Punching In for Their Job of Helping to Punch the Axis by Arthur of Congress ) Factory workers are required to begin work at a certain time and continue until the official end of the workday . Many are made to clock in and clock out by inserting a card into a machine that records their starting and ending times . The work performed in factories often involves repetitive motions and procedures rather than the varied work of other subsistence modes . Regimented labor is supervised by managers , who determine work conditions and procedures and enforce predetermined levels of productivity . Ifa worker does not conform to these expectations , they can be . Even as many industrialized societies have shifted to services as the basis of their economies , they have retained the fundamental structure of regimented wage labor for the vast majority of shop and workers . It is remarkable that societies purporting to value personal freedom require most people to work under such authoritarian conditions . A third feature of industrialism is the grouping ofpeople into social classes . In other modes of subsistence , society is structured primarily by family groups , gender groups , age sets , and regional associations . In industrial societies , systems tend to be increasingly challenged and sometimes replaced by much more mobile nuclear families . Social identity is increasingly reckoned according to occupation . In non Western , class often combines with ethnic and religious identities to create complex cultural forms of inequality and conflict . Inequality among social classes is discussed in Social Inequalities . A fourth feature of industrial societies is an increase in commodity consumption . People of all classes in industrial societies buy , consume , and own an extraordinary amount of stuff . This is necessary , of course , because industrialized capitalist economies produce so much stuff . Food retailers throw away more than 45 billion tons of unsold food products every year . Many clothing companies shred or burn the clothes they can not sell . Marketing and advertising have evolved to stimulate increased consumption by attaching meanings to commodities . Often , ads portray commodities such as perfumes or cars as powerful objects that possess the ability to transform their users . This association of commodities with magical powers is called commodity fetishism . People are encouraged to think that owning or consuming certain commodities makes them beautiful or enviable or gives them membership in a more powerful social class . In fact , commodities do not really have the power to transform people . Commodities are inert . Rather , it is people who have power to transform materials into commodities . Moreover , there is a difference between consuming the same things that powerful people consume and actually being a powerful person . Nevertheless , people in industrial and societies often experience a sense and control through shopping , perhaps because those experiences are denied to them in the workplace . Rather than

thinking about the consequences of industrialism , such as work discipline , inequality , and environmental damage , people in societies dominated by consumerism are invited to view the world as an endless array of exotic and empowering commodities on offer to the modern citizen . Finally , as suggested by their patterns of commodity consumption , people in industrial societies often place a high value on individualism . Increasingly in industrial and societies , people develop identities based on their personal tastes , attributes , experiences , and goals rather than those of their surrounding families or other social groups to which they belong . Rather than living with family , many people in US society live alone for years or even decades . On the one hand , this development provides people with opportunities to choose their own paths in life , to explore new identities and ways of living . On the other hand , individuals are increasingly expected to rely on themselves rather than cultivating relations of mutuality and reciprocity with others . In societies that emphasize , people often face material and emotional hardship alone . Feeling isolated and cut off from social relationships , many experience a sense of alienation . and In the 19705 , the economies of the United States , Japan , and many western European countries began to shift from a base of manufacturing to a base of services and information . Seeking to maximize , large manufacturers moved their factories to poorer countries with cheaper labor , weaker environmental regulations , and lower overall operation costs . Therefore , industrialization increased in places such as China and Brazil just as the United States and other countries became . As production is moved to other parts of the globe , consumption also becomes increasingly global , with large companies seeking to sell their goods to ever larger markets . Increasingly global processes of production and consumption are referred to by the term globalization , a key feature of national economies since the late 19705 . Social theorists such as David Harvey and Frederic have suggested that this economic shift has generated a cultural shift from modernity to . The essential structures of work , consumption , leisure , and social life are not radically reshaped but rather in the shift from industrial to society . Work discipline becomes more rigorous , trade becomes more global , and technology becomes more pervasive and intrusive . In societies , professional , educated elites work in the services and information industries , such as health care , data processing , and technology . These are typically secure jobs with such as health insurance , paid sick leave , and retirement the market for such jobs is increasingly competitive , making them increasingly demanding . Easier to are jobs in retail , transportation , customer service , and other service industries . The class previously employed in manufacturing now competes for these less attractive jobs , which offer few or no . Many turn to the gig economy , working as drivers , house cleaners , and that provide freedom from regimented work discipline in exchange for unstable compensation and no . Inequality increases between those with secure , elite jobs and the vast majority of workers with more insecure employment . Theorists of argue that these changes in the conditions of work create a pervasive sense of anxiety and among all classes of workers . is physical and psychological harm caused by lack of secure income . Increasing and inequality are linked to rising sociocultural polarization and the resurgence of ethnic , religious , and nationalist identities . In both work and leisure , technologies penetrate deeper into the everyday lives ofpeople living in postmodern societies . New media forms shape their social identities and relationships . Through these new forms of technology and media , people in postmodern societies are constantly bombarded with new information , new products , and new demands , giving people the sense of time speeding up . Moreover , of information , goods , and people across the globe create a sense of a shrinking world . David Harvey refers to these changes in our sense of time and space as compression .

PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY David FIGURE David ( credit Guido van Commons , BY ) Personal History David was born in New York and grew up in a family steeped in radical politics . While high school , he became fascinated by Mayan hieroglyphics and translated many glyphs that had only partially been translated before ( Cain 2020 ) He sent his translations to a Mayan scholar , who was so impressed that he helped get a scholarship to a prestigious prep school in Massachusetts . Area studied anthropology as an undergraduate at Purchase and then earned iis in anthropology at the University of Chicago . For his dissertation , he lived in , a rural community in Madagascar . He observed that people in lived beyond the reach of official government , without police or taxation . They had developed their own methods of governing themselves through community consensus . This experience profoundly shaped sense of political possibility . Throughout iis life , he advocated for direct democracy as the most fair and logical way to organize society . In 1998 , became an anthropology professor at Yale University and began engaging in political activism , which included protesting the World Economic Forum and the International Monetary Fund . Despite iis impressive academic accomplishments , Yale decided not to renew contract in 2005 . He believed the decision was largely due to his radical politics . He subsequently landed a job at Goldsmiths College , of London , and then at the London School of Economics . Accomplishments in the Field In his widely acclaimed book Debt the First Years , 2014 ) describes debt as a central mechanism for creating and maintaining inequality in ancient and modern societies . Examining the first recorded debt systems , in the Sumerian civilization of 3500 , he found that numbers of farmers became indebted , forcing them to pawn their children to work off their debt . The increasing enslavement of people in this system led to widespread social unrest . Sumerian kings responded by

periodically canceling all debts . Also practiced in ancient Israel , this periodic cancellation of debt came to be called the Law of Jubilee . Widespread indebtedness in American society has also led to increasing and social unrest , resulting in protest movements such as Occupy Wall Street . called for the reintroduction of the Jubilee , in particular a cancellation of student loan debt and predatory mortgages . Examining the world of modern work , argued that most are pointless and meaningless , calling them In his book A Theory , published in 2018 , he describes how technological advances and increased bureaucracy have led people to work longer hours in pursuit of greater productivity in order to generate for shareholders . Much of what workers produce , however , is useless , bureaucratic that makes the lives of other people more . Such workers include telemarketers , insurance analysts , corporate lawyers , lobbyists , and investment CEOs . Knowing their work to be unnecessary , even damaging , people in suffer moral and spiritual damage from the regimented futility of their daily lives . Importance of His Work David was one of the most innovative economic thinkers of modern times . He forged new ways of thinking about the basic elements of modern economic life , such as work , bureaucracy , debt , and exchange . As a political activist , he participated in social movements working for greater equality , better working conditions , and environmental sustainability . He was a founding member of Occupy Wall Street , the 2011 protest movement against economic inequality . While on holiday in Venice with his new wife , David died suddenly ( Hart 2020 ) He was 59 . Environmental Impacts of Industrial and Societies Industrialism has taken a heavy toll on the environments where it has become a primary mode of subsistence . The burning of fossil fuels to power factories causes air pollution , particularly the buildup of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . This has triggered global climate change . Where factories are built next to water sources , local water supplies can become contaminated with dangerous chemicals . Toxic chemicals such as lead can leach into soils , contaminating crops . The clearing of land for mining , logging , ranching , and cash crops leads to habitat loss , causing dramatic reductions in plant and animal biodiversity . Much of this environmental degradation occurs in poorer countries and poor regions al countries . As discussed in this chapter , anthropologists in all of the four are interested in how people make a living by engaging with their environments , creating systems of production and exchange . Anthropologists also study how such systems create forms of meaning and value as people study , classify , and experiment with the plants , animals , soils , and climate features of their surroundings . With its interest in the interdependence of humans and nature , anthropology has been quick to respond to the environmental threats generated by unsustainable modes of subsistence , such as industrialism and . Practicing climate ethnography , many cultural anthropologists have described how previous modes of subsistence have become impossible due to climate change , particularly in climate sensitive parts of the world such as deserts and areas at or near sea level ( Crate 2011 ) Contributions to a 2016 book , Anthropology and Climate Change , detail the profound sociocultural effects of climate change in places such as Siberia , Ethiopia , New Guinea , the Amazon , Peru , Australia , and Alaska ( Crate and 2016 ) Anthropologist Jerry ( 2016 ) reports how extreme climate are causing droughts , and frosts that threaten local subsistence strategies in New Guinea . In heavily affected areas , horticulture becomes impossible , and people are forced to migrate , sometimes leaving the sick and the elderly behind to die . In areas where people continue to farm , invasive weeds and insects have taken over , destroying crops and . Unpredictable rainfall and cause frequent food shortages when crops fail . Local peoples have responded with a set of strategies to mitigate these changes , such as switching crop species , but horticulture remains a threatened way of life in New Guinea . Similarly , anthropologist Susan Crate ( 2016 ) work in Siberia shows how cattle keeping is becoming increasingly due to ,

unpredictable rainfall , and other unstable climate factors . More and more Siberian young people are abandoning their parents way of life and moving to cities in search of wage work . In this chapter , we have surveyed the four main ways of making a living that people have used throughout human history . These four modes of subsistence did not occur in a neat evolutionary sequence , each new one and replacing the one before . Rather , new strategies were adopted as primary modes of subsistence by some groups and supplementary methods by others . Many groups have experimented with different modes of subsistence , combining them in various ways over time . People change their subsistence strategies in response to population pressures , forced migrations , the spread of new technologies , trade opportunities , and , most recently , global climate change . There is a notable difference between the first three strategies discussed in this chapter and the very last one . Industrialism and are strategies that encompass the world , drawing all other modes of subsistence into the pressures and opportunities of the global capitalist market . As states and corporations seek to gain control over land and natural resources , the modes of subsistence that rely on these resources are threatened . Many people are forced to abandon , pastoralism , and plant cultivation and the whole ways of life associated with those ways of making a living . There is one more important difference between all previous modes of subsistence and the mode of . pastoralism , and plant cultivation are very often ( though not always ) practiced in ways that sustain and protect the environment . Despite efforts at environmental reform , industrialism and are still practiced in ways that harm and deplete the environment . Perhaps people who practice ecologically smart ways of making a living have lessons to teach those who don . Losing these smart ways of making a living would be a cultural tragedy as well as an environmental disaster . ACTIVITY Unstructured Interview Unstructured interviews are a qualitative research method used for research in social sciences and sometimes for interviews and college entrance . Unstructured interviews are free and are more spontaneous than a planned interview . The goal of this less structured type of interview is to have the interviewee relate information in a more open and neutral environment . Use an unstructured interview method to interview a person about theirjob . While the interview will be unstructured some light preparation should be done . Think about these questions as you plan your interview . How did the person acquire that job ?

By choice , convenience , Is the job temporary or permanent , and why ?

What are the challenges of the job ?

Are there risks or dangers ?

Whatare the ?

Does the person get bored ?

How would the person describe the people they work among ?

How would they describe their relations with the boss ?

Are there aspects of unfairness or inequality in the workplace ?

Does the job allow the person to express creativity ?

Is the job personally satisfying ?

Does the person feel free or unfree on thejob ?

What interview indicate about work in your society ?

on the interview . Was the conversation more relaxed ?

Did you feel you were able to get information from your subject ?

What differences were there in this style of interview from a more formal interview process ?

How might the information you got be different ?

Key Terms alternative modernity versions of modernity shaped by local social and cultural forms . animal domestication the processing of animal products for use as food , textiles , and tools . balanced reciprocity the practice building social relationships through the exchange of gifts of roughly equal value . band a form of social organization associated with societies . Bands are relatively small , often around 50 people , ideal for a nomadic or seminomadic lifestyle . colonialism the political domination of another country in the interest exploitation . commodity fetishism the association of commodities with magical powers of personal transformation . cultivation basic manipulation of nature , such as the intentional growing of plants . egalitarian emphasizing equality and sharing . extensive horticulture a form of plant cultivation in which new plots are regularly cleared , prepared with digging sticks or hoes , and fertilized with animal dung , ash , or other natural products . extensive or shifting cultivation a horticultural practice in which plots of land are farmed for a period of time , then left to lie fallow as farmers move on to cultivate other plots . fallow describes a plot of land that is not cultivated for a period of time so that wild vegetation may grow in naturally . the mode of subsistence in which people rely on resources readily available in their environment . peoples collect fruits , nuts , berries , and roots and harvest honey . They also hunt and trap wild animals . money money that can be exchanged for a wide variety of goods and services . generalized reciprocity the practice of sharing without regard for the value of objects or interest in compensation . globalization the dramatic increase in global processes of production and consumption since the humus organic matter in soil formed by the decomposition of plants . a friendship developed through gift exchange , practiced among the Dobe and other San groups of the . industrialism the mode of subsistence that uses wage labor , machines , and chemical processes to commodities . intensive agriculture a form of plant cultivation in which one plot is farmed over and over again using methods such as plowing , terracing , and irrigation . planting certain species of plants side by side to enhance their health and growth . markets institutions that allow for buyers and sellers to meet for the purposes of economic exchange . mode of subsistence a way in which people interact with the environment to meet their needs . Each mode of subsistence involves its own forms of knowledge , techniques , technologies , and social organization . modernity the complex of sociocultural features associated with industrial society . money a medium of exchange , unit of account , and store of value . monumental architecture large structures built for public viewing or use , such as pyramids , temples , sports arenas , and . nomadism the practice of moving frequently in search of resources . pastoralism the mode of subsistence associated with the care and use of herd animals . peasants farmers incorporated into larger regional economies , often states . plant domestication the process of adapting wild plants for human use . the cultural shift associated with . potlatch a feast in which a trove of gifts is presented by the host chief to the guest chief in order to demonstrate wealth and gain prestige . physical and psychological harm caused by lack of secure and stable income . redistribution a system whereby goods are collected and stored by a leader and later given out or used for public . seminomadic the practice of settling in one place for a period of time , usually a few weeks , then moving to a new site to fresh resources . sexual division of labor the assignment of work based on a persons sex . slash and burn the technique of preparing a new plot by cutting down the trees and shrubs , burning the vegetation to the ground , then tilling the ash into the soil as fertilizer . money money that is exchanged for items or services . surplus amount of harvest left over after supplying

the needs of the household . compression the postmodern feeling that time is speeding up and global space is shrinking . transhumance a technique practiced by many pastoralist groups that combines a settled lifestyle with routine movement . Societies that practice transhumance may move between two permanent settlements in an annual cycle . Summary Anthropologists take a approach to studying economic issues , examining how social and cultural features relate to economic production , markets , and consumption . Humans use four main modes of subsistence to meet their needs , pastoralism , plant cultivation , and industrialism . societies such as the are highly mobile and egalitarian . Pastoral societies such as the Bedouin are also mobile but allow for the accumulation of wealth in the form of herd animals . Plant are settled peoples who practice either extensive horticulture or intensive agriculture . Cities and craft specialization are developed from the surplus generated by intensive agriculture . In the three modes of subsistence , forms of reciprocity structure the circulation of goods in Critical Thinking Questions . Ifyou could choose to practice a mode of subsistence forjust one year , which one would it be ?

What would be the advantages and disadvantages ofyour choice ?

Why is egalitarianism so prominent in one form of subsistence and less prominent in others ?

How could egalitarian behavior be encouraged in industrial and societies ?

Programs that attempt to change the of , and are often called development programs . Do you think the target groups of such programs see them as development ?

What are Bibliography Another transhumance strategy involves most people residing in a settlement and sending a smaller group out to pasture the animals at certain times of the year . universalism the belief that social systems have operated roughly the same way all over the world at all times past and present . usufruct rights rights to use a resource but not to own or sell it . society . In intensive agriculture and industrialism , the market economy based on money forms the dominant mode of exchange . Industrialism was developed in Europe and motivated the colonization of many other parts of the world . Industrial societies are associated with wage labor , work discipline , social classes , commodity consumption , and high degrees of inequality . Some industrialized societies have become by shifting production to poorer parts of the world with cheaper labor costs . In societies , more people work in the service industries than in manufacturing . The intensive extraction , pollution , and waste associated with industrial and societies are increasingly harmful to the environment . the advantages and disadvantages of such programs ?

Do you view them as development ?

Have you or someone you know experienced ?

What might be the solution to this widespread problem in contemporary societies ?

How can industrial and societies learn the lessons sustainability from peoples who practice other , more environmentally friendly modes of subsistence ?

What needs to be done to promote the knowledge , values , and practices of environmentalism ?

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