Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 2 Methods Cultural and Archaeological

CHAPTER Methods Cultural and Archaeological Figure These archaeologists are working to uncover a fresco on a building in , Italy . was famously covered in ash when nearby Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE . The ash has preserved many structures and artifacts from the time . credit Restoration Work by Justin , BY ) CHAPTER OUTLINE Archaeological Research Methods Conservation and Naturalism Ethnography and Ethnology Participant Observation and Interviewing Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis Collections INTRODUCTION Fieldwork is one of the most important practices of anthropology . While all of the of anthropology conduct in some form to gather information , each may use different methods of conducting research . The concept in the field was traditionally based on the practice of traveling to distant regions to study other cultures within their native environmental . In recent decades , the field has broadened to include diverse settings such as one hometown ( as in urban anthropology ) the Internet ( visual or virtual anthropology ) or collections in university archives and museums ( or museum anthropology )

Archaeological Research Methods LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe archaeological techniques for uncovering artifacts . Explain the importance of context in making sense of artifacts and describe how researchers record content while working in the . Describe the law of superposition as used in the field of archaeology . Describe the different types of relative dating methods used by archaeologists . Identify and briefly four absolute or chronometric dating methods . Many people have an inherent fascination with the human past . Perhaps this fascination stems from the fact that people recognize themselves in the objects left behind by those who have lived before . Relics civilizations , in the form of cultural artifacts , temples , and burial remains , are the means by which we can begin to understand the thoughts and of ancient peoples . In the quest to understand these ancient societies , human curiosity has sometimes led to fantastical myths about races of giant humans , dragons , and even extraterrestrial beings . In the realm of archaeology , less speculative methods are used to study the human past . approaches and techniques are the foundation of archaeology today . Archaeological Techniques In archaeology , the step in conducting research is to do a survey of an area that has the potential to reveal surface artifacts or cultural debris . Surveys can be done by simply walking across a , or they may involve using various technologies , such as drones or Google Earth , to search for unusual topography and potential structures that would be to see from the ground . Cultural artifacts that are found may become the basis for an archaeological excavation of the site . A random sampling of excavation units or test pits can determine a site potential based on the quantity of cultural materials found . coordinates are often collected for each piece of cultural debris , along with notes on plants and animal found at the site , which can be indicators of potential natural resources . Features such as trails , roads , and house pits are documented and included in a full set of notes . Government agencies have different protocols about what constitutes an archaeological site the standard in many areas is six cultural objects found in close proximity to one another . When preparing a site for excavation , archaeologists will divide the entire site into square sections using a grid system , which involves roping off measured squares over the surface of the site . This grid system enables archaeologists to document and map all artifacts and features as they are found in situ ( in the original location ) All objects and features uncovered are assigned catalog or accession numbers , which are written on labels and attached to the artifacts . These labels are especially important if artifacts are removed from the site . Excavation is a slow process . Archaeologists work with and even toothbrushes to carefully remove earth from around fragile bone and other artifacts . Soil samples may be collected to conduct pollen studies . of natural origins , such as seeds , shells , or animal at a site may be examined by other specialists , such as , who study animal remains , or , who specialize in the analysis of ( plant ) remains with an interest in the historical relationships between plants and people over time . Every cultural and natural object and feature is fully documented in the notes , with its exact placement and coordinates recorded on a map using the grid system as a guide . These coordinates represent an primary context . objects are moved before documentation takes place , the archaeologist will lose the archaeological context of that object and its associated data . Archaeological context is the key foundation of archaeological principles and practice . In order to understand the and even age of artifacts , features , and , one needs to know their context and association with other objects as they were found in situ . Objects that have been removed from their primary context are said to be in a secondary context . Careful and proper documentation is vitally important . This information becomes part of the archaeological record and guides and contributes to future research and analysis .

FIGURE This dig site in , England has yielded thousands of artifacts left behind by Roman occupiers in the years 85 370 CE . credit Digging Archaeology by Son of , BY ) Archaeological Dating Methods Establishing the age of cultural objects is an important element of archaeological research . Determining the age a site and the artifacts found within is key to understanding how human cultures developed and changed over time . Other areas of science , such as paleontology and geology , also use dating techniques to understand animal and plant species in the ancient past and how the earth and animal species evolved over time . Relative Dating The earliest dating methods utilized the principles of relative dating , developed in geology . Observing exposed in canyons , geologists noted layers of different types of stone that they called strata ( stratum in the singular ) They hypothesized that the strata at the bottom were older than the strata higher up this became known as the law of superposition . According to the law of superposition , notjust geological layers but also the objects found within them can be assigned relative ages based on the assumption that objects in deeper layers are older than objects in layers above . The application of the law of superposition to archaeological is sometimes called stratigraphic superposition . This method assumes that any cultural or natural artifact that is found within a stratum , or that cuts across two or more strata in a cutting relationship , is younger than the stratum itself , as each layer would have taken a long time to form and , unless disturbed , would have remained stable for a very long time . Examples of forces that might cause disturbances in strata include natural forces such as volcanos or and the intervention of humans , animals , or plants . The law of superposition was proposed in 1669 by the Danish scientist Nicolas Steno . Some of the applications of this law by scholars provided ages for ( large animals , most commonly mammals ) and dinosaur bones based on their positions in the earth . It was determined that the mammalian and the dinosaur bones had been deposited tens of thousands of years apart , with the dinosaur remains being much older . These indications of the true age of fossil remains suggested a revolutionary new understanding of the scale of geological time . It was eventually determined that if a set and sequence of strata is noted in several sites and over a large enough area , it can be assumed that the ages will be the same for the same strata at different locations in the area . This insight enabled geologists and archaeologists to use the structures of soils and rocks to date phenomena noted throughout a region based on their relative positions . Archaeologists call this method archaeological , and they look for layers of artifacts to determine human cultural . Stratigraphic layers found below cultural layers provide a basis for determining age , with layers above assumed to be more recent than those below .

42 Methods Cultural and Archaeological Stratigraphic Modern Day Ground Surface Youngest ( uppermost ) DEL 328 Oldest ( deepest ) FIGURE According to the principle of superposition objects found at deeper layers ( called stratum ) are older than those found above . In this illustration , the pottery fragments in Stratum can be assumed to be older than the shell buttons found in Stratum The objects nearest the surface ( aluminum can , plastic bottle ) are obviously most recent . attribution Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) Another method of dating utilized by archaeologists relies on typological sequences . This method compares created objects to other objects of similar appearance with the goal of determining how they are related . This method is employed by many of archaeology to understand the relationships between common objects . For example , typological sequencing is often conducted on created by Indigenous peoples by comparing the types of points found at different locations and analyzing how they changed over time based on their relative positions in an archaeological site . Another form of typological sequencing involves the process of seriation . Seriation is a relative dating method in which artifacts are placed in chronological order once they are determined to be of the same culture . English , Petrie introduced seriation in the century . He developed the method to date burials he was uncovering that contained no evidence of their dates and could not be sequenced through stratigraphy . To address the problem , he developed a system of dating layers based on pottery ( see Figure ) Access for free at

cuss . meme mu . cuts a . FIGURE Petrie Egyptian pottery seriation method is built upon the observation that styles change with time . Petrie arranged pottery artifacts into similar groups based on stylistic features and placed them along a relative timeline based on these features . credit Evolution of Egyptian prehistoric pottery styles , from I to II and III by Petrie and Commons , Public Domain ) Typological sequences , stone tools , and other objects that survive in archaeological sites are not only used to provide dating estimates . They can also reveal much about changes in culture , social structure , and over time . For example , there are changes in stratigraphy during the agricultural age , or Neolithic period , at around . These changes include the appearance of tended soils , that indicate the cultivation of plants , evidence of more sedentary living patterns , and the increased use of pottery as the storage of food and grain became increasingly important . Archaeological evidence also shows a growing population and the development of a more complex cultural and economic system , which involved ownership of cattle and land and the beginning of trade . Trade activities can be determined when pottery types associated with one site appear in other nearby or distant locations . Recognizing the connections between objects used in trade can shed light on possible economic and political between neighboring communities and settlements . Chronometric Dating Methods Chronometric dating methods , also known as absolute dating methods , are methods of dating that rely on chemical or physical analysis of the properties of archaeological objects . Using chronometric methods , archaeologists can date objects to a range that is more precise than can be achieved via relative dating methods . Radiocarbon dating , which uses the radioactive isotope ( is the most common method used to date organic materials . Once a living organism dies , the carbon within it begins to decay at a known rate . The amount of the remaining residual carbon can be measured to determine , within a margin of error of 50 years , when the organism died . The method is only valid for samples of organic tissue between 300 and years old . To ensure accuracy , objects collected for testing are promptly sealed in nonporous containers so that no atmospheric organic substances , such as dust , pollen , or bacteria , can impact the results . Dating systems that measure the atomic decay of uranium or the decay of potassium into argon are used to date nonorganic materials such as rocks . The rates of decay of radioactive materials are known and can be measured . The radioactive decay clock begins when the elements are first created , and this decay can be

measured to determine when the objects were created used in the past . Volcanic materials are particularly useful for dating sites because volcanoes deposit lava and ash over wide areas , and all the material from an eruption will have a similar chemical signature . Once the ash is dated , cultural materials can also be dated based on their position relative to the ash deposit . The technique of dendrochronology relies on measuring tree rings to determine the age of ancient structures or dwellings that are made of wood . Tree rings develop annually and vary in width depending on the quantity of nutrients and water available in a year . Cross dating is accomplished by matching patterns and narrow rings between core samples taken from similar trees in different locations . This information can then be applied to date archaeological remains that contain wood , such as posts and beams . Dendrochronology has been used at the Pueblo Bonita archaeological site in Canyon , New Mexico , to help date house structures that were occupied by the Pueblo people between 800 and 1150 CE . The Laboratory of Research , based in Tucson , is the world oldest dendrochronology lab . Go on a ( ti ) The most effective approach for dating archaeological objects is to apply a variety techniques , which allows the archaeologist to triangulate or correlate data . Correlating multiple methods of dating provides strong evidence for the time period of an archaeological site . Strategy What It Is How It Is Read Assumptions Growth Tree ring . Count rings ring year no duplication or Dendrochronology in life , width pattern ring and measure missed rings regional comparability . Radioactive Decay Dun eli of decay known 14 decay or . decay and after er unit exchange with atmosphere and atom counting death productions rates constant volume TABLE Chronometric Dating Techniques Conservation and Naturalism LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe conservation efforts undertaken in the United States in the century . salvage anthropology and describe its origins and methods . Provide an example of an anthropologist who used their research to help the people they were studying . Explain why museums can be said to have created exhibits reflecting limited interpretations and describe efforts to correct this limitation . Early Efforts The conservation movement began in the century as people in Europe and America began to realize that human settlement and the exploitation of the world natural resources had led to the destruction or endangerment of numerous animals , plants , and environments . Efforts began in the 18605 to understand and protect the remaining natural landscapes and habitats . These efforts were partly motivated by concern for wildlife and natural areas . However , also were the concerns of sporting organizations and . The primary aim conservation efforts was to preserve natural ecosystems for parks or wilderness areas so that and outdoor enthusiasts would have places to hunt , and explore . Many areas preserved by these early efforts are still protected today , such as Yellowstone and Yosemite National Parks in the United States .

An element of this early period of conservation was the effort to collect specimens for display in natural history museums . This collection effort was part of a movement known as naturalism , which seeks to understand the world and the laws that govern it by direct observation of nature . The late and early centuries saw a marked growth in naturalist collections worldwide as many cities and nations sought to establish and fill their own natural history museums . These collections have been particularly useful to and , who use specimen collections of mammals , birds , and plants to identify natural objects and animal remains found at human burial sites . Many archaeology labs have collections of animal skeletons for comparative anatomy , analysis , and identification ( see Figure ) FIGURE Collections of bones , such as this collection of specimens from various animal species housed at the Wildlife Forensics Lab in , Oregon , serve as a useful resource for . credit Wildlife Forensics Lab by US Fish and Wildlife Service , Public Domain ) In addition to animal specimens , Native American baskets and other Indigenous art objects were collected and placed in natural history museums . When visiting the Museum in , New Zealand , visitors today encounter two large totem poles in the foyer Northwest Coast totem poles are common in most older museums throughout the world . These totem poles were gathered from America Northwest Coast in the late and early centuries as part of the worldwide conservation and naturalism movement . Most museums sought to purchase such artifacts , but in some cases , artifacts were stolen when Indigenous owners were unwilling to sell them . Many natural history museums also established dioramas depicting both Indigenous peoples and animals in their natural world . The practice of installing dioramas of Indigenous people is now heavily criticized because of the implication that Indigenous peoples are akin to animals and plants . Many museums have stopped this practice and have even dropped the phrase natural their names . However , the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in Washington , and the American Museum of Natural History in New York both maintain the designation and still display dioramas of Indigenous peoples .

FIGURE This diorama of Native Americans is on display in the Indiana State Museum in , Indiana . Such dioramas have come under criticism for the way that they depict Indigenous peoples and cultures . credit Native Americans Indiana State Museum by Commons , Public Domain ) Salvage Anthropology Connected to the collecting of Indigenous artifacts is a practice known as salvage anthropology . Salvage anthropology was an effort to collect the material culture of Indigenous peoples in the United States and other parts of the world who were believed to be going extinct in the later century . During this period , many anthropologists dedicated themselves to collecting material objects , stories , language lists , and from tribal peoples worldwide . Many collections were made through legitimate means , such as purchasing objects or sitting down with collaborators ( called informants in older anthropological vernacular ) to record traditional stories , but some collecting involved the theft of tribal cultural items or purchases from intermediary traders . Many of these anthropologists were hired by the Bureau ofAmerican Ethnology ( BAE ) a division of the Smithsonian Institution , and spent considerable time living with Native peoples on the reservations that were by then home to most Native Americans . Language was a special research focus for linguists and anthropologists , as many Native languages were rapidly going extinct . Through analysis of language , an anthropologist can understand the meaning of words and their context as well as gain a sense ofa culture philosophy and . Anthropologists were not paid well to do this work for the BAE . Some began supplementing their income by buying cultural objects at a low cost from the people they studied and selling those objects at a much higher rate to museums . This practice is now acknowledged as unethical and exploitative . The anthropological research of this period has also been criticized for focusing solely on cultural knowledge while ignoring the hardships faced by the culture . For example , few anthropologists chose to help their subjects address the circumstances of living in poverty on the reservations . Leonard was an anthropologist working during the salvage anthropology period who did take action to help the people he was studying . Around the turn of the century , was conducting research to collect the languages of the people living on the Reservation , in Lincoln County , on Oregon coast . He worked extensively with collaborators from the Coos , Coquille , Lower , and of whom were living at the Reservation and some who had returned to their native published a series of oral histories based on his research . He also helped the tribes locate lost treaties from the 18503 and use those treaties to successfully sue the federal government . In the treaties , the government had promised to pay the Indigenous peoples of Oregon coast for their ancestral land if they peacefully relocated to the Reservation . The people upheld their part of the bargain , but they

never received any payment . helped a Coquille man named George travel to Washington , and locate copies of the treaties in the National Archives . In 1908 , the tribes began the process of successfully suing the federal government for payment for their lands . This process took some 40 years to complete for many tribes , and not all tribes have been fairly paid to this day . Museum Collections Most of the materials collected by anthropologists during the period of salvage anthropology ended up in museums and university archives . Many natural history museums now display large dioramas featuring the material objects of numerous tribes . Museum research libraries house extensive collections of manuscripts and . Archaeologists have contributed to these collections as well many museums contain large collections of human remains . Indigenous peoples have criticized these collections , especially the gathering of human remains , which is seen as sacrilegious . Today , there are millions of sets of human remains ( some full skeletons , but most single bones ) in museum repositories that have never been studied and perhaps never will be . Anthropologists spent so much of their time in the early period collecting that they had little time to study or analyze what they found . Many collections were put in storage after the anthropologists who had gathered them moved on to a new project or passed away . There are currently millions of material artifacts and ethnographic manuscripts that have never been fully studied . These archived materials offer research opportunities for anthropologists as well as for Indigenous peoples , who are making use of these collections to help recover parts of their cultures that were lost due to the assimilation policies of the past 200 years . One person who has taken advantage of these archives is linguistic anthropologist Henry . has spent years studying the languages and cultures of the tribes of western Oregon , the Chinook , and tribes . He conducted research with the Grand Ronde tribe in the and and became a speaker of Wawa , a trade language spoken by tribes from southern Alaska to northern California and as far east as Montana . He has taught the language at the Grand Ronde Reservation for nearly 30 years . He is also one of the experts on the languages , spoken by the tribes of the and Valleys , and in 2013 , he began a project to translate the Jacobs notebooks . Jacobs was an anthropologist from the University of Washington who studied the languages of the Northwest Coast from 1928 until his death in 1971 . He more than 100 notebooks with information on the languages of the peoples of western Oregon , with a special focus on . Jacobs published a book of oral histories in 1945 , Texts . He also worked with speaker John Hudson to translate numerous texts prepared by earlier anthropologists Leonard and Albert . Jacobs and Hudson were able to translate several of these previously gathered texts , but many remained untranslated when Hudson died in 1953 . along with colleague , spent many years learning and then translating a set of the Jacobs notebooks that recorded the knowledge and history ofa man named Louis . In 2017 , and published My Life , by Louis ofa Grand Ronde Reservation Childhood . and work is a example of the research possibilities offered by the existing work anthropologists . worked closely with the Grand Ronde tribe on this project and endeavored to make sure that the translation of story would the people of the tribe to help them to better understand their own history . His research and work with members of the Grand Ronde tribe spanned 50 years , beginning with his project , which involved extensive work with Grand Ronde members , who at the time were not a federally recognized tribe . In the , began working with the tribe to teach Wawa to tribal members . The tribe today has an extensive language immersion project to teach the language to young people . has been a consistent , serving as advisor , teacher , instructor , and researcher . work has helped the tribe recover parts of its culture and history that had been lost for many decades .

48 Methods Cultural ond ! FIGURE This page of an anthropologist notebook from 1949 contains a travel itinerary for several months . Contemporary anthropologists are likely to have such information in digital format . credit Field Notes Mexico , 1949 ( Page 180 ) by James Arthur Heritage Commons ) PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Albert FIGURE Albert was a ethnologist who pioneered the study of Native Access for free ot

American languages . Here he is at age 61 . credit Albert by Commons , Public Domain ) Personal History Albert was a Swiss philologist and ethnologist who emigrated to the United States in 1868 . He had a great interest in linguistics and Native American languages , and he gained attention in 1872 for his comparative analysis of 16 southeastern tribal , which opened up new areas of research in linguistics . In 1877 , he was hired to work on the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region as an ethnologist . He also collected many notebooks of languages from Native peoples in California and Oregon . He is most noted for his studies of the languages of the southeastern tribes and his ethnography of the Tribes of Oregon . was in numerous languages and published in English , French , and German in the United States and Europe during his career . He also became quite in numerous Native languages . His large work was aus der ( Etymological research on place names from Switzerland , a study of Swiss place names that is still the standard authority today . Area of Anthropology Philology , ethnology , linguistics Accomplishments in the Field One of most analyses was of the southeastern tribal languages , principally the language of northern Florida . Based on analysis of the notes of the Catholic priest Father , who had collected language texts from the people in , determined that was a distinct language group that had gone extinct . also examined the language of South Carolina , concluding that it was related to the languages of the western Great Plains . From 1881 to 1885 , worked in Louisiana , discovering two new languages and completing ethnographic descriptions of the southern tribes . In 1886 , he found the last speakers of the and languages and related them to the languages as well . He published his studies of the Gulf tribes in the work A Migration Legend ofthe Creek Indians ( 1884 , 1888 ) In 1877 and 1878 , spent time among the tribes of the Grand Ronde Reservation in Oregon . He collected some of the professional notes on the , and languages from some of the last speakers , and he published and made notes about the mounds . Upon leaving the reservation , he spent time researching the traditions of the people in their traditional lands in the Valley . He then went to the Reservation , where he collected notes on the language . He worked his notes into a work , The Indians Oregon ( 1890 ) volume of the US Department of the Interior Contributions to North American Ethnology . was commissioned by the Bureau of American Ethnology ( BAE ) in 1891 to investigate the people of the United States and Canada , a study he never fully completed . Illness forced him to retire , but near his death , he remained engaged in studies of Chinese languages . After his death , his wife , Louise Horner , sold his notes to the BAE . She was also hired by the BAE to help translate much of his work . letters mention his wife being with him throughout his travels she likely contributed in numerous ways to his studies . Importance of His Work was one of the professional anthropologists to visit many tribes and was able to collect and narratives from peoples who were gone within the next decade . He analyzed language families in the and provided early of connected languages . work is fundamental to the study of the languages Oregon and the southeast Gulf area of the United States . His professional work , which applied rigorous methods to collect Native languages , predates much of the work of Franz Boas , who is credited with implementing methods in the study of human societies . Interpretation and Voice There is increasing acknowledgement of the role of interpretation in the study of the human past . Although ideally grounded in research and the best evidence available at the time , all conclusions about what might have been are based on the interpretations proposed by the authors of history . The backgrounds and viewpoints of those conducting research and publicizing play a role in the conclusions

they reach and share with other scholars . Interpretation and perspective are affected by many factors , including racial category , nationality , religious beliefs , social status , political , ambitions , and education . For many years , anthropological studies were almost always conducted by White , male scholars who grew up in the Northern Hemisphere and were educated in the same system . These common backgrounds represent a interpretive bias . After being into museums , many collections of cultural artifacts have not been altered in more than 100 years . When these material objects were initially placed on display , choices about their arrangement and the written descriptions that accompanied them were made by museum curators . Most of these curators did not reach out to the of the artifacts or their descendants for input , and many exhibits do not accurately depict or describe the objects on display . Museum exhibits have been found to contain inaccurate information about objects material composition , makers , tribal cultures , collection sites , and proper use . Many other display objects are lacking this information altogether . Several museums are now seeking the help of Native people to better understand and more accurately tell the story of their collections . These Native perspectives are correcting misconceptions about the meaning and context of cultural artifacts and providing correct information about basic things such as the materials and processes used in the objects production . Native input is also guiding museums in making choices about how objects are arranged and displayed . This input has been invaluable in helping museums more accurately tell the stories and dis lay the context of the peoples who originally created the objects on display . Ethnography and Ethnology LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this , you will be able to Identify early anthropological practices pertaining to ethnography . ethnology and provide examples of how it is used in anthropology . Describe efforts to achieve multiple perspectives in anthropological research . anthropology and describe its aims . The Development of Ethnography and Ethnology As discussed in at is Anthropology ?

ethnography is a method used by cultural anthropologists to create a description of a culture or society . gather and utilize information from many sources , such as , museum collections , government records , and archaeological data . In the century , a form of ethnography deve that was called armchair anthropology , in which theories about human societies and human behaviors were proposed solely based on secondhand information . Lewis Henry Morgan is a known practitioner of this type of research . The content of his most famous publication , League ofthe , or ( 1851 ) was gathered primarily from other books he read . Morgan did meet with Native peoples at various times in his career , but he did not conduct ethnographic research among the before writing League ofthe , or . In the later century , numerous anthropologists and other scholars undertook research projects with hundreds of tribes throughout the Americas , many of them by then living solely on federal reservations . Many of these researchers were by Columbia University professor Franz Boas , a German scientist who was originally trained as a physicist but became most famous as an anthropologist . Boas insisted that scholars obtain ethnographical information directly from the peoples they aimed to write about , rather than collecting information from other published sources . Boas quickly established himself as a leader in the of anthropology and eventually took an associate role at the federal Bureau of American Ethnology .

FIGURE Franz Boas is credited with establishing the standards of research that became the foundation of contemporary anthropological practices . Here he is in 1915 , 57 years old . credit Franz Boas by Canadian Museum of Commons , Public Domain ) Boas advocated for and published in all four of anthropology and asked many key questions in his scholarship . In his 1907 essay Anthropology , Boas two basic questions for anthropologists Why are the tribes and nations of the world different , and how have the present differences developed ?

Boas 1974 1982 , 269 ) Boas was responsible for hiring scholars and sending them out into the to collect information about various Indigenous peoples . His standards of research became the foundation of the contemporary science of anthropology . One area of interest for early anthropologists was the similarities and differences between various Indigenous societies . This interest in comparison led to a branch of anthropology called ethnology , which is a cross cultural comparison groups . In early anthropology , ethnology aim was to understand how various Indigenous societies were related to one another . This included the relations among language dialects , dress , and appearance and to what degree and in what direction various tribes had migrated from one location to another . Early anthropologists explored these questions with the hope of tracking changes in tribal cultures . Another leading concern was how Native peoples initially got to the Americas . Anthropologists have used the practices of ethnology to establish relationships and shared cultural elements that help illuminate migration patterns from the old to the new world . Ethnology is still a common practice in linguistics , archaeology , and biological anthropology . Some additional uses of ethnology are fused with archaeological methods and analysis . is a form of archaeology in which , following methods largely created by American archaeologist Lewis , archaeologists access ethnographic information about recent or existing human cultures to draw conclusions about human cultures in the archaeological past . In 1978 study , he draws comparisons between the ways in which contemporary Indigenous peoples disposed of animal remains and the evidence observed in refuse sites . These comparisons inform a model that is used to understand more about how Indigenous peoples ancestors may have disposed of remains in the past . Such models are not perfect , but many Indigenous cultures have maintained aspects of their culture to the present day .

Perspective and Interpretation in Ethnography Ethnography is still commonly used by cultural anthropologists . Practitioners today consult multiple informants during their research in order to gather a variety of perspectives on a culture or society . No one person has a full or authoritative View of their own culture multiple viewpoints are essential to a full description . Many early anthropological studies only invited male perspectives , introducing a male bias into the resulting . Now , anthropologists deliberately seek varied perspectives , consulting people of different genders and ages and who occupy different roles . Anthropologists can introduce bias into an ethnography . The most challenging aspect of in cultural anthropology is to observe and study another culture without bias . Having an ethnocentric or perspective means someone is judging a culture according to the standards of their own culture and belief system . To observe a culture from the perspective of the people being researched is to have an perspective . For anthropologists to be effective researchers , they must be able to observe and gather data from unbiased and perspectives . In addition , an anthropologist interpretation of the information gathered can alter their research . Earlier anthropologists were primarily male and White , so their were based on interpretations made through these lenses . Feminist anthropology attempts to address this male bias . Feminist anthropology is recognized as having begun as early as the , with attempts made ( by male anthropologist ) to include more information on women in their ethnographic research . In the , female anthropologists such as and Ruth Benedict began publishing in the , but not until the 1928 publication of Margaret Mead Coming in did a female anthropologist gain prominence . FIGURE This postage stamp honors anthropologist Margaret Mead . Mead was one of the first female anthropologists to be acknowledged for her work and insights . credit Margaret Mead Stamp by John , BY ) Women contributions and perspectives became much more pronounced in the later parts of the century . Feminist anthropologists seek not only to claim a role for themselves in the equal to that offered to men but also to expand the focal points of anthropological inquiry to include areas of life such as family , marriage , and , as well as the economic and social roles played by women . The dominance of male anthropologists had biased analysis of human societies toward roles and activities .

Many early archaeological research , for example , assigned no role to women in early societies or assumed that women roles were limited to maintaining households and raising children . Evidence of womens subsistence and economic activities was either not looked for or ignored . It was also assumed that women in early societies had subservient roles to men , when in fact most early societies have now been found to be very egalitarian , with equal status accorded to women and men . Feminist anthropology has both expanded research to include women roles and aimed to understand the gender roles in other societies on their own terms , rather than according to the gender roles of the researchers own society . Other perspectives emerged in anthropology in the as more members of minority groups began entering the . One category of minority voices that has been a asset to anthropology is that of people with Indigenous ancestors . Practitioners with this type are part ofa called Indigenous anthropology . Indigenous anthropology is discussed in detail in Indigenous Anthropology . Participant Observation and Interviewing LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to participant observation and identify best practices associated with it . Describe what makes a good informant for anthropological research . Describe best practices for conducting an interview from an unbiased and perspective . Explain the concept of ownership of cultural information . Identify the rights of study informants . List practices required by institutional review boards before research can begin . Describe the aim of research projects in anthropology . Participant Observation Working in the often places anthropologists in settings very different from what they are familiar with . Upon first arriving at an unfamiliar location , it is common for anthropologists to feel out of place and uncomfortable as they adjust to a new culture and environment . Many anthropologists keep a daily log of their feeling and impressions in their new environment . Researchers studying other cultures practice a method called participant observation , which entails directly participating in the activities and events of a host culture and keeping records of observations about these activities . Researchers may create various types of records of their interactions as participants and their observations about the host culture and environment . These might take the form of notebooks , computer , digital recordings , photographs , or . Researchers working in the may also collect objects that will remind them of the culture they are studying , often memorabilia such as maps , tourism brochures , books , or crafts made by the people they are observing . Some researchers regularly record impressions of activities while they are occurring so that they do not forget to make note of important aspects of the culture . But many researchers will wait to take photos , draw images , or write in their notebooks until after an activity is over so that they do not disturb the culture through their efforts at documentation . In either case , it is important that researchers be respectful and responsible and always ask for permission from subjects before taking photos or recordings . Many researchers will have gathered signed permission from their subjects before beginning their research and will work with a documented plan that has been approved by their institution before going into the . Interviewing informants An important source of information about a culture is interviews with various people who grew up in that culture . Interviews can be uncomfortable for people , and it is important that researchers do all they can to help subjects feel at ease . Researchers will normally conduct an interview in a familiar space for the informant , such as the informants home . They will help the subject ease into the interview by participating in introductory and hosting protocols followed in that culture when a visitor comes to someone home . The researcher will start off the interview with the exchange of pleasant comments and will introduce themselves

54 Methods Cultural and Archaeological by explaining who they are , where they come from , and why they are doing this research . Then the interview may commence . Interviews can be short or long , and there may be meetings and further interviews based on how knowledgeable the informant is . Many informants are chosen because they are deeply conscious of multiple aspects of their culture . This type of insider information is vitally important to an anthropological research project . In addition to interview questions , survey questions may also be asked during these meetings . The use of recording equipment , for both audio and video recordings , is common during interviews . However , such equipment may be considered intrusive by some , and their use is always at the discretion of the informant . Express permissions must always be obtained both to create a recording and to use a recording in future projects . FIGURE Ethnographic researchers engage with the cultures they are studying by spending time with their people . Here Mako , a man , greets Stuart Butler . Butler spent two months with Mako , walking between villages and visiting with residents to learn about both traditional customs and contemporary practices and challenges . credit 06 24 Walking with the JPEG RESIZED 0025 by Make It Kenya , Public Domain ) Ethical Considerations Contemporary sociocultural researchers and anthropologists must follow protocols established by an institutional review board ( as well as any research protocols to the culture being researched . For social science research , are committees housed within a university that must review and approve research plans before any research begins . There may also be a parallel review process within the host culture . The proposed research is normally fully planned out before the review process can begin , with specific information about the type of research that will be conducted , including examples of questions to be asked , potential risk factors to subjects , plans for emotional support for subjects , means the identity of subjects , language used to fully disclose the intent of the project to subjects , and the plan for archiving the research data . Many Indigenous nations have their own research protocols , and foreign countries will have their own research protocols and processes for securing permission to conduct research as well . Researchers conducting sociocultural , medical , or clinical studies must gain written consent for all interviews from their informants , and they must be transparent as to why they are conducting research and how it will be used in the future . There are normally various levels of protocols pertaining to research , based on the potential to cause stress or harm to the subjects . At the highest level , full disclosure and signed permission as well as complete anonymity of the subjects involved in the project are required . A research plan should also specify whether recordings , notes , and data will be archived for future use or destroyed at the end of the project . Content gathered from research may make its way into articles or books or become part of a vast body of anonymous data available to other researchers . These possibilities should be discussed with collaborators . Collaborators are usually anonymous unless they choose to allow their names to be used . Many researchers now assign to their subject culture rights to review reports and edit and correct erroneous Access for free at

information and interpretations as well as ownership rights of the product and the research data . Alternately , researchers may destroy research data once the project is over so that it can not be used in ways other than what was originally intended . research projects are becoming the norm for many professional researchers , who establish trusting relationships with collaborators over the length of their careers . During the early years of anthropology , it was almost unheard of for researchers to establish relationships with the subjects of their research , but many scholars began to view relationships as exploitative . relationships involve a regular return to the subject culture , on an annual or semiannual basis , to follow up on projects and programs . Researchers often include their subjects in the planning and administration of their projects and will at times seek a research objective based on the needs of their subjects . This type of research is more and often has an applied focus , seeking to solve problems and issues as by the collaborating culture . Those who engage in type of research make it a primary aim to help the collaborating culture rather than to seek information pertinent to their personal projects . This type of research has been developed in response to the criticisms of Indigenous scholars such as Vine , who questioned whether early anthropologists did anything for the people they studied . A researcher wor in this fashion will listen closely to the concerns expressed by those they are studying and aim to identify a project that will ultimately help the collaborating culture address issues as important , either directly working toward a solution or by offering insights into the causes and subtleties of the issue . The researcher will include members of the culture in their team , and the results of the research will be given to the people for their use . Researchers working in this manner may still publish their , but the subject community will be part of the regarding what is important and what should should not be published . The subject community will also have control over any projects that develop on the . In some cases , the researcher is required to submit all manuscripts intended for publication to a committee formed by the collaborating culture for review , correction , and approval . Many Indigenous anthropologists who are tribal members are required to submit their publications to their council for approval before they publish . Contemporary anthropological researchers often assign ultimate ownership of the material they collect to the who provided the information . In fact , there are scholars today who , when publishing , assign authorship to the community they worked with and assign themselves the role or compiler . An example is the text Wawa Our Elders Teach Us to Speak It , which is authored by the Wawa Dictionary Project and published by the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon , with the scholar Henry acknowledged as the compiler of the information . Intellectual property protocols in many countries now assume that ownership of ethnographic content is assigned to the informants . Informants have rights , both legally and per policies , to both participate and not participate in a study and to have their data removed from a study if they choose . Ethical researchers will listen to their informants , and if they are at all worried about the effect their will have on their informants or other people , they will either pull the data out of the study or a way to make it completely anonymous . No researcher wants to have their informants adversely affected by their involvement in a research project . The consent paperwork , which must be signed by all informants , should address these concerns and allow the informants to freely choose their level of participation . Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify differences between quantitative and qualitative information . Provide an example of how an anthropologist might model research . Describe the steps of the method . Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Information Quantitative information is measurable or countable data that can provide insight into research questions .

Quantitative information is one of the most direct ways to understand limited , questions , such as how often people in a culture perform a certain action or how many times an art form or motif appears in a cultural artifact . Statistics created from quantitative data help researchers understand trends and changes over time . Counts of cultural remains , such as the number and distribution of animal remains found at a campsite , can show how much the campsite was used and what type of animal was being hunted . Statistical comparisons may be made of several different sites that Indigenous peoples used to process food in order to determine the primary purpose of each site . In cultural research , qualitative data allows anthropologists to understand culture based on more subjective analyses of language , behavior , ritual , symbolism , and ofpeople . Qualitative data has the potential for more responses via questions , which can be coded and categorized in order to better identify common themes . Qualitative analysis is less about frequency and the number of things and more about a researcher subjective insights and understandings . Anthropology and other in the social sciences frequently integrate both types of data by using mixed methods . Through the triangulation of data , anthropologists can use both objective and frequency data ( for example , survey results ) and subjective data ( such as observations ) to provide a more holistic understanding . Modeling Many anthropologists create models to help others visualize and understand their research . Models help people understand the relationships between various points of data and can include qualitative elements as well . One very familiar model is a map . Maps are constructed from many thousands of data points projected onto a surface to help people understand distances and relationships . Maps are typically , but we are of course all familiar with the version ofa world map known as a globe . Maps and globes are built on data points , but they also include qualitative information , such as the colors used to represent various features and the names of various geographical features . Other familiar types of models include graphs , calendars , timelines , and charts . is also a modeling tool today . or the Global Position System , is increasingly used in archaeology . A model ofa research site can be created using computer programs and a series of coordinates . Any artifacts found or important features within the site can mapped to their exact locations within this model . This type of mapping is incredibly helpful if further work is warranted , making it possible for the researcher to return to the exact site where the original artifacts were found . These types of models also provide construction companies with an understanding the most sensitive cultural sites are located so that they may avoid destroying them . Government agencies and tribal governments are now constructing maps of important cultural sites that include a variety of layers . Layering types of data within a landscape allows researchers to easily sort the available data and focus on what is most relevant to a particular question or task . Wild food plants , water sources , roads and trails , and even individual trees can be documented and mapped with precision . Archaeologists can create complex layered maps of traditional Native landscapes , with original , trails , and resource locations marked . has applications in the of historic periods . By comparing the placements of buildings at various points in the past , models can be created showing how neighborhoods or even whole cities have changed overtime . In addition , layers can be created that contain cultural and historic information . These types of models are an important part of efforts to preserve remaining cultural and historic sites and features . The Science of Anthropology Anthropology is a science , and as such , anthropologists follow the method . First , an anthropologist forms a research question based on some phenomenon they have encountered . They then construct a testable hypothesis based on their question . To test their hypothesis , they gather data and information . Information can come from one or many sources and can be either quantitative or qualitative in nature . Part of the evaluation might include statistical analyses of the data . The anthropologist then draws a conclusion . Conclusions are rarely 100 percent positive or 100 percent negative generally , the results are somewhere on a continuum . Most conclusions to the positive will be stated as likely to be true . Scholars may also develop methods of testing and retesting their conclusions to make sure that what they think is true is proven true through various means . When a hypothesis is rigorously tested and the results conform with empirical

observations of the world , then a theory is considered likely to be accurate . Hypotheses are always subject to being disproven or as more information is collected . Collections LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify and explain the issues and needs of archival collections . Identify and explain the issues and needs of collections . Describe current controversies regarding ownership of anthropological artifacts and human remains . Recall two pieces of legislature pertaining to questions of ownership . provenance and describe its importance in anthropology . Not all anthropological research is done in the . There is much to be learned from the collections of manuscripts and artifacts housed in universities and museums . These collections make it possible for anthropologists to study human cultures within the setting of special research laboratories that have been designed to preserve and organize materials collected and perhaps interpreted by scholars of the past . Archives Archival collections contain published , or original manuscripts that are deemed enough to be placed in conditions designed to preserve them against damage or loss . Such collections may contain correspondence , maps , drawings , original drafts , rare books , or other papers and media that need special care . Photographs are a major resource in many archives , and they need special handling . Preservation policies of archival collections include practices such as keeping resources out sunlight and away from moisture . While archives offer researchers a great range of valuable resources , they typically impose rather strict policies on those wishing to access these resources . Researchers typically must wear gloves when handling materials to prevent damage from the oils and acidity of human skin . Normally , archival collections do not circulate ( can not be removed from the host site ) and researchers may have to apply for permission to enter the site or use any information . Archives may charge varying rates to make copies of material or to use images of the resources in their collection for publication . To access some archives , researchers must plan ahead by scheduling a time to visit and making previous arrangements to access collections . Some sites do not allow researchers to scan materials using scanners , instead stipulating the use of photography or overhead scanning . Some archives do not allow the patron to scan , photograph , or copy a manuscript in any way , with all arrangements for copies and reproductions having to go through the archives staff . The step in archival research is typically to review a list or similar aid that indexes and describes the resources available in a collection . These descriptive aids can help researchers determine whether a collection contains resources that their needs and can make a visit to a selected archive more and worthwhile . Finding aids have become so well constructed that they may provide researchers with enough information to enable the researcher to request copies of materials and avoid the effort and expense of traveling to the archive in person . Most archives offer downloadable aids of their most important collections on their websites , and there may be additional printed aids available on request . Most archives will make requested copies for a moderate fee and will mail or email researchers a packet of the reproduced materials . The cost of procuring such copies is almost always much less than the cost of traveling to an archive site and paying for housing and meals . However , ifa collection is potentially full of material important to a research project , it may be better to visit in person . Collections collections of objects such as basketry and pottery are normally housed separately from manuscript collections . Such collections may host tens of thousands of individual cultural objects . These collections typically require much more care and management than manuscript materials . Extensive planning goes into determining the best way to contain and store each type of object in order to slow deterioration over

time , with special attention paid to both the temperature and the moisture levels in storage areas . Handwoven baskets will be supported so that their are not under stress , and all organic objects will have been previously frozen , perhaps several times , to destroy any insects that may live in the . Collections of animal and human remains utilized by biological anthropologists or archaeologists must be properly stored and controlled against further degradation by reducing temperatures and maintaining moisture controls . Some very ancient organic collections may need to be chemically stabilized so they do not degrade . Objects made from organic as wooden canoes , basketry , reed sandals , or human particularly prone to degradation . Organic artifacts that have been sealed away from contact with the air for centuries , such as boats found on the bottom ofa river or lake , will degrade fast once exposed to the air , so they may be kept permanently frozen or preserved with an ammonium glycol solution to stabilize decay . FIGURE This pair of yucca sandals , collected in 1875 , is an example of an organic artifact of the Southern people . Yucca is a perennial plant with large tough leaves that can be used for various purposes . credit Sandals , Southern , yucca , collected in 1875 Native American collection Museum , Harvard University by Commons , All objects in collections storage must be well organized to make them accessible for further research opportunities . Collection materials that have been used to make claims about human experience or evolution must remain accessible to future researchers in case there are challenges or additional questions about their . In addition , if an anthropologist who donated and is responsible for overseeing a collection at one institution should die or move to another research institute , there needs to be a plan for the period of retention for the collection , or the time that the collection will remain in the archive . Many biological and cultural collections have been preserved in repositories since the day they were collected , with no plans to ever remove them from an archive . There are collections in the Smithsonian Institution that have been there since the institution was built in the . These collections continue to grow at museums and universities around the world . In the early century , many museums adopted the practices of painting objects with lacquer and spraying organic collections with pesticides such as to prevent insect damage . These solutions were proven to ultimately be harmful . Lacquer tends to alter the color and chemical structure of objects and is thus not a good preservation material , and and other pesticides pose health threats to humans . Both museum staff and tribal members who receive repatriated objects and human remains are very concerned about the hazards these chemicals pose to to the environment , if they should be reburied . Efforts to clean many collections are underway . Ownership A question being asked by both anthropologists and subjects of research today is who owns the objects housed in material collections . In the past , anthropologists or their host institutions assumed ownership of anything

they collected , along with the right to publish images of materials and sign over ownership of the objects to collections repositories . In recent decades , tribal peoples and other subjects of research have begun asking questions about whether such objects really should be considered the property of these repositories . Many of these artifacts were not even collected by scientists but rather donated or sold by collectors , some of whom removed the artifacts from burial sites . Artifact hunting is a common cultural practice in some countries , such as Peru , where many people dig in Inca sites to locate artifacts to sell . Questions of ownership become particularly pressing when the objects in question are human remains . Until the , tribal peoples in the United States had little or no power to repatriate their ancestors . Repatriation is the process of restoring human remains objects of religious or cultural importance to the peoples from whom they originated . In the United States , repatriation is executed under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act ( passed into law in 1990 . Prior to 1990 , Indigenous peoples in the United States had no legal means to claim return of any of the millions of human remains that had been collected and placed in museums and archaeological collections since the century . Another important piece of legislature is the National Historic Preservation Act ( passed in 1966 . The act was passed to ensure that federal agencies would identify and take actions to protect and preserve the nation historic sites and locations . It especially impacted Indigenous communities and their cultural and historical resources . Section 106 of the requires that federal agencies follow a formal review process before undertaking any type of development project ( 36 800 ) This process includes identifying what the actual undertaking is , such as the development of a road or other major capital project . Once this is established , the agency must make a effort to identify any historic resources ( years of age ) in the area and determine if they are eligible for protection under the . After this measure is completed , the agency must initiate consultation with the state historic preservation ( or tribal historic preservation ( and other interested groups and individuals . This step can include a variety of meetings or activities and a period of that a project is going to commence , during which feedback is requested by the lead federal agency . Public meetings might be held , with speakers selected to introduce and describe the project . During the consultation period , correspondence and feedback is welcomed from concerned tribes , institutions , or individuals . Tribes and other community groups with an interest in any cultural objects likely to be found on the site are required to be consulted . Successful consultation often takes place during the earliest planning stages of a project . Lack of early consultation can lead to a failure to identify historic resources of cultural and religious importance . The process places the burden of determining the potential effects of the project on the federal agency , according to three established categories no potential to effect , no adverse effect , and adverse effect . The agency must then seek concurrence from appropriate and and potentially other consulting parties . If there is an adverse effect , the agency , the , and other consulting parties will negotiate mitigation terms and solidify them into a memorandum of agreement to ensure completion of the mitigation measures . In most cases , Native groups do not believe that archaeological excavations alone are an appropriate mitigation measure , but each community has its own interpretation of what is appropriate . Generally , anytime a road is built or a building is constructed , there needs to be a section 106 review of the project because of the likelihood of encountering Native American cultural sites in almost all locations in the United States . Through the consultation process and cooperation between and , decisions are made as to the status and disposition of any cultural objects recovered from cultural sites . Tribes typically advocate for the of human remains and the return of cultural objects to the concerned tribes . The is not perfect , as it does not completely halt construction that will destroy a cultural site and does not apply to collections placed in repositories before 1966 . In the early century , the United States made it illegal for to remove artifacts from archaeological sites on federal lands under a law called the American Antiquities Act ( 1906 ) More recently , made it possible for tribes to repatriate objects covered under the act , such as human remains and funerary objects . Under this law , more than sets of remains had been repatriated as of 2010 , but millions of artifacts and sets of additional remains are still in repositories . In addition , there are human remains and funerary objects of US origin in collections worldwide that are not subject to

repatriation . One problem surrounding repatriation is that many artifacts and remains lack clear provenance , or detailed information about where they were found . Lack of clear provenance also limits an object usefulness to researchers . In many cases , wide regions are provided as the origin of an artifact , making it unclear which tribal culture it relates to . Objects that , for example , are labeled as coming from New York may have been created by members of tribes or bands of tribes . In general , the more a provenance is , the better Narrowing an object down to Buffalo , New York , reduces its possible tribal sources to just a few . Objects that have too broad of a context are nearly impossible to repatriate because repatriation is supposed to return an object or human remains to the original tribe . In 2010 , was expanded to allow for groups of tribes to repatriate objects of wide regional association back to a previously reburial or repatriation location . Under this expanded version of the law , a greater number of objects and human remains will be able to be returned to their communities . Concerns about ownership have also been raised regarding the ethnological and ethnographic research collected in millions of documents in hundreds of research collections around the world . Some tribal peoples have raised concerns that this material represents their ancestral intellectual knowledge and that it was taken from them without full disclosure of how it would be used . Many anthropologists published books made tenure at their universities based on such research . Meanwhile , little was done with the information to help the tribal peoples it described , who were struggling under political and legal pressures to assimilate . In some cases , tribal peoples have implemented research projects utilizing these manuscript collections that have the explicit goal of helping their people with cultural recovery efforts . One example of Indigenous peoples utilizing archive materials to their advantage is offered by Oregon Coquille Indian Tribe , which made use of archival documents to successfully restore their tribe to federal recognition in 1989 after the tribe was declared terminated by the federal government in 1954 . Their restoration bid was made by the fact that the records of their tribal culture were collected in faraway archives . Essential to the tribe success was George , son of the aforementioned George who was aided by Leonard . designed and implemented an effort to collect copies of anthropological manuscripts pertinent to the Coquille tribe from the Smithsonian Institution . In 1995 , 1997 , and 2006 , the Southwest Oregon Research project initiated by the Coquille Indian Tribe , University of Oregon anthropologists , and students from western Oregon pages of documents about the tribes Oregon from the Smithsonian Institution and the National Archives . These materials have since become a major collection at the University of Oregon Knight Library Archives , special collections division , and additional copies have been given to 17 regional tribes . These projects are examples of the repatriation of intellectual knowledge to the tribes that the information was collected from . Many libraries now have policies that allow concerned tribes to repatriate their intellectual knowledge in the form of copies of collection materials for little or no cost . Recordings of songs represent a particularly sensitive and special type of cultural artifact to many tribal people . Archives have historically not been very attentive to the concerns of tribes regarding their collections . For more information , consult the Protocols for Native American Archival Materials . ETHNOGRAPHIC SKETCHES Summers Collection and the Grand Ronde Tribe by author David Lewis The Summers Collection is a collection of more than 600 Native objects from the West Coast of the United States , collected by the Reverend Robert Summers , an Episcopalian minister . A large portion of the collection , some 300 objects , was collected from the Grand Ronde Indian Reservation , which is close to where Summers lived in , Oregon . In the , Summers would regularly visit the people of Grand Ronde and purchase objects they had in their homes or were using . Most of these objects are woven baskets and trays made in a traditional manner , many predating the formation of the reservation in 1856 . Sometime in the

, Summers passed his collection on to his associate Reverend Freer , who donated the collection to the British Museum in 1900 . The collection has remained part of the British Museum collections since then . The value of this collection lies not only in the objects and their unusually good preservation but also in the care Summers took to document the people he purchased them from , their use , and their cultural background . It was unusual in early anthropology for a collector to be so comprehensive in documenting material collections . Summers was likely aided by his wife , who was a professional botanist and would have been meticulous in her work documenting botanical collections . In the , the Grand Ronde tribe became aware of the Summers Collection at the British Museum . In 1999 , representatives of the tribe visited the museum , viewed the collection , took photos of all objects related to the tribes , and copied all the notes they could . Since then , the tribe has worked through a series of museum curators to see if it would be possible to repatriate the collection to the Grand Ronde . The British Museum is one of the largest repositories in the world , holding sacred and cultural objects from numerous nations , many once part of Britain extensive colonial empire . The British Museum rarely allows , fearful that allowing one to occur would set a precedent resulting in multiple other cultures submitting claims . Still , curators of the North American collections have suggested that something could be worked out if there were a book deal to help publicize their collections and enough publicity . In 2018 , the Grand Ronde tribe was able to negotiate the loan of some 16 objects from the collection . The objects were placed on display in the new Museum and Cultural Center in Grand Ronde . While there , the objects were studied by cultural experts who focused on understanding how they were made and how they might be able to replicate the techniques . There are no protocols for international repatriation . The Grand Ronde tribe had to work diplomatically to form negotiated agreements and establish a relationship with the British Museum . After more than 100 years of assimilation , many traditional skills had been lost to the Grand Ronde people . The opportunity to regain some of this lost ancestral knowledge by studying these cultural goods is a rare gift . MIN ACTIVITY Participant Observation When practicing participant observation , researchers immerse themselves in a cultural context and make observations and notes about what occurs . This activity is structured to take place in a few hours and can be accomplished in your community . Spend about an hour in a public place , such as a mall or store , park , bus , train , or library , and observe what people around you are doing . Take notes about their actions , interactions , clothing , foods , mannerisms , and anything else that might seem interesting . Note characteristics and mannerisms pertaining to culture , language , ethnicity , masculine and feminine roles , and roles . Try not to be conspicuous , and do not record conversations unless they are spoken quite loudly so as not to be intrusive . If anyone asks what you are doing , just explain that you have an assignment in a college course to make an anonymous report on local culture . Return home and write a report on your research . In the report , give of what you witnessed , and analyze how you personally responded to different cultures or mannerisms . About of the report should be ethnographic reporting , and should be analysis . Try to eliminate your personal bias or admit when you have one , and identify when you are basing your analysis on personal opinions . Pay attention to the need to maintain the anonymity ofyour subjects as if this were an actual anthropology assignment . Do not identify people by name instead , use pseudonyms . As a step , give a presentation about your experience that summarizes the high points ofyour

participant observation . Suggested Readings Boas , Franz . 1974 ) 1982 . A Franz Boas Reader The Shaping ofAmerican Anthropology , 911 . Edited by George Stocking Chicago University of Chicago Press . Boyd , Robert , Kenneth Ames , and Tony Johnson , 2013 . Peoples ofthe Lower Columbia . Seattle University of Washington Press . Gross , Joan , ed . 2007 . Teaching Oregon Native Languages . Oregon State University Press . Louis . 2017 . by Louis Reminiscences of a Grand Ronde Reservation Childhood . Translated by and Henry . Oregon State University Press . Natalie , ed . 2014 . Research A Practical Guide . New York . Lewis , David 2009 . Termination of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon Politics , Community , Identity . University of Oregon . Lewis , David 2015 . Natives in the Nation Archives The Southwest Oregon Research Journal of Western Archives ( Edward . 1949 ) 2021 . Selected Writings of Edward in Language , Culture , and Personality . Edited by David . Berkeley University of California Press . James ( 1980 ) 2016 . Participant Observation . Long Grove , IL Press . Reuben Gold , ed . 1905 ) 2003 . Original Journals ofthe Lewis and Clark Expedition , 18044806 . Vol . Madison Wisconsin Historical Society .

Key Terms absolute dating methods ( see also chronometric dating methods ) dating methods that use physical and chemical properties of artifacts and structures by humans to establish their age without reference to other artifacts . For example , radiocarbon dating is used to date organic materials generally up to years old . a specialist who studies plants and seeds appearing in an archaeology site . archaeological context the place where an object was originally found , along with other associations , such as the stratum it was found in , features , and other objects associated with it . archaeological excavation the process of uncovering artifacts and other biological and cultural remains in the historic and prehistoric past of sites . armchair anthropology a method of conducting anthropological research without doing , relying instead on materials and documents previously collected by others . artifacts objects that are portable and show evidence of human cultural activity for example , bones that show evidence of drawings sketched on them , stone tools , pottery , etc . chronometric dating methods dating methods used to analyze various physical or chemical characteristics of an artifact in order to assign a date or range of dates for its production . relationship a principle in geology and archaeology that suggests that a geologic or cultural feature that cuts across another feature is the more recently deposited of the two . dendrochronology an absolute dating technique that uses patterns of growth of tree rings and to determine the approximate age of wood . natural objects found at an archaeological site , such as seeds , bone , shells , that show no sign of human craftsmanship . perspective viewing and attempting to evaluate other peoples and cultures according to the standards of those cultures an insider point of view . ethnology the study of differences and relationships between various peoples , societies , and cultures . or ethnocentric ) perspective viewing a culture from the perspective of an outsider looking in . features cultural structures found at an archaeological site that are not movable or portable , such as parts of a temple , altars , tombs , etc . feminist anthropology an approach to anthropology that seeks to transform research methods and by engaging with more diverse perspectives and using insights from feminist theory . hypothesis a supposition that is subjected to research in order to be proven or disproven through data collection . Indigenous anthropology the study of one own culture or society using anthropological methods . The term has come to mean any application of Indigenous knowledge , perspectives , and scholarship in anthropology . institutional review board a university research committee that reviews biomedical or social science research proposals to determine if they appropriately protect human participants , informants , and subjects . interpretation the act of explaining the meaning of something . interview a method of research in which the researcher asks questions of an informant to gain information about a person , society , or culture . law of superposition the geological principle of stratigraphy that assumes that materials , normally rock layers , found beneath other materials are older that the materials on top . the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act ( 1990 ) a US law that protects human remains and cultural and ceremonial objects and artifacts from collection and requires the return of such items already collected to the originating tribes . also allows for the repatriation of the same materials from museums and other repositories . naturalism an approach that seeks to understand the world and the laws that govern it by direct observation of nature . in the context of anthropological research , describes a research method whereby the researcher allows informants to answer questions without a limit in time or subject . oral histories histories of previous events , moral or ethical lessons , or stories of creation that are passed down by memorization . Many oral histories are also called mythologies , legends , texts , or folklore . participant observation an anthropological

research method in which the researcher enters a cultural community and collects information through observation of and participation in the culture . primary context the context of an artifact , feature , or site that has not been disturbed since its original deposition . provenance the location of an artifact when it is found . The provenance is normally recorded when the artifact is in situ , or before it has been removed . qualitative data data , such as language , feelings , or impressions , that is normally collected when the researcher is at the research site . radiocarbon dating a dating technique for organic substances that measures the decay of radioactive carbon in the sample also called ( or ) dating . This is the most widely used technique for dating organic artifacts between 50 and years old . relative dating describes methods of determining the relative order of past events through comparisons of two or more artifacts without determining their absolute age , sample is older than sample because sample was found beneath sample repatriation the process of returning human remains , associated funerary objects , and ceremonial items to the originating culture . research question a question that can be proved or disproved through research and observation . retesting the practice of conducting experiments or research more than once in order to determine if the are accurate . Retesting helps eliminate human and other errors in testing and create a range of accuracy . salvage anthropology a particular period in early anthropological practices ( during which tribal cultures were subject to extreme collecting from researchers . The practice occurred because of fears that Native cultures Summary Chapter discusses how anthropologists gather information . All of the of anthropology conduct in some form to gather information , each may use different methods of conducting research . The concept of working in the was traditionally based on the practice of traveling to distant regions to study other cultures within their native environmental . In recent decades , the has broadened to would go extinct and there would be nothing further to study . scientific method a method of expanding knowledge by asking questions , creating a hypothesis , collecting data , and presenting reasoned based on evidence . secondary context the context of a cultural or natural objects that has been moved or disturbed from its original location and is thus no longer associated with its place of origin for example , a burial that has been moved from its original location due to geological shifts or natural disaster . seriation a relative dating method that places similar artifacts from the same area in a chronological sequence . statistics the science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities and inferring proportions in a whole from those in a representative sample , or the numerical data collected and analyzed in this manner . strata plural of stratum in geology and archaeology , distinct layers natural or archaeological material . stratigraphic superposition a relative dating method that assumes that any cultural or natural artifact that is found within a stratum , or that cuts across two or more strata in a relationship , is younger than the stratum itself . stratigraphy the process of identifying the order and relative positions of strata . stratum singular of strata one layer of deposited natural or archaeological material . theory a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something . collection a collection of objects or artifacts . typological sequence a set or group of objects ordered according to their types . an archaeologist who specializes in the of animal remains at an archaeological site . include diverse settings such as one hometown ( as in urban anthropology ) the Internet ( visual or virtual anthropology ) or collections in university archives and museums ( or museum anthropology ) Research methods for cultural anthropology and archaeology are covered in detail . the chapter explores the issues that need to be considered when analyzing information gathered during research . This includes the biases of the

anthropological researcher . Also covered is some of anthropological study and how and the history of the research methods used in methods have changed over time . Critical Thinking Questions . Explain how conservation , as practiced in the anthropological inquiry ?

What does this and early centuries , attempted to approach offer to the ?

preserve animals , plants , and human cultures . What rights do tribal peoples have when research . Describe salvage anthropology . Why was it is conducted on them ?

practiced ?

What are some criticisms of this . What are the ethical responsibilities of approach ?

anthropologists when conducting research ?

What is different about anthropology as practiced What practices should anthropologists follow to in the century compared to the way it is be sure their research proceeds in a moral and practiced today ?

ethical manner ?

Why is it important to have multiple perspectives . Name and describe the most important pieces of when describing human culture ?

How do government legislation in the United States anthropologists gather these multiple pertaining to the rights of Indigenous peoples to perspectives ?

cultural artifacts and knowledge . What is a feminist anthropological approach to Bibliography Adams , William Mark . 2004 . Against Extinction The Story of Conservation . London . Boas , Franz . 1974 ) 1982 . A Franz Boas Reader The Shaping ofAmerican Anthropology , 911 . Edited by George Stocking Chicago University of Chicago Press . Cole , Douglas . 1985 ) 1995 . Captured Heritage The Scramble for Northwest Coast Artifacts . Norman University of Oklahoma Press . Horatio . 1846 . Ethnography and Philology . Vol . United States Exploring Expedition during the Years 1838 , 1839 , 1840 , 1841 , 1842 , under the Command of Charles Wilkes , Philadelphia Sherman , Margaret ( 1964 ) 1971 . in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries . Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press . Dell . 1980 . What Is Ethnography ?

In Language in Education Essays , Washington , Center for Applied Linguistics . Morgan , Lewis Henry . 1851 . League ofthe , or . Rochester , NY Sage Brother . Stocking , George , 1966 . Franz Boas and the Culture Concept in Historical Perspective . American Anthropologist 68 (