Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 19 Indigenous Anthropology

CHAPTER 19 Indigenous Anthropology Figure David Lewis , the author of this chapter , with a canoe donated to Grand Ronde Tribe by the Heritage Center . The canoe was found preserved in the clay of the River in Oregon . credit Dean Rhode , Public Domain ) CHAPTER OUTLINE Indigenous Peoples Colonization and Anthropology Indigenous Agency and Rights Applied and Public Anthropology and Indigenous Peoples INTRODUCTION The author if this chapter , David Lewis , explains his deep connection to the material I , David Lewis , am the author of this chapter and a Native member of the ted Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon . I am a descendant of the original , and Chinook tribes of western Oregon . I connect the problems facing Indigenous peoples to the overwhelming lack of knowledge about Native peoples held non people in American society . I have experience researching Indigenous peoples throughout the Rim , but in my work , I have focused on the Native peoples of Oregon . Scholars of Indigenous peoples will normally focus on one or a few Indigenous cultures in their work , but in , a cross section can be found of the sociopolitical themes a global context . Because of my research focus , this chapter contains mainly examples from Oregon and the Northwest Coast , with the inclusion of a few other case studies and examples from other regions . This chapter privileges North American subjects over global Indigenous subjects . Regardless of this focus , be aware that most of the topics discussed

here exist in some form in all global Indigenous cultures , especially those undergone colonization and a struggle for rights , which include nearly all Indigenous peoples today . Indigenous Peoples LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Name different terms used for Indigenous peoples and describe the history and current connotations of each . Explain what is meant by the statement that Indigenous peoples have become minorities in their own lands . blood quantum and explain its current application . Explain what is meant by the phrases urban Indian and reservation Indian and describe social and cultural characteristics associated with each . Provide two examples of challenges experienced by Native peoples in the United States . Explain the need for Native perspectives in studies about Native peoples , using the debate over oral histories as an example . Indigenous peoples are those ales who are the original human populations ofa land . They are also referred to as Native peoples , peoples , tribes , First Nations peoples , and Aboriginal peoples . In the United States , they are often referred to as American Indians or Native Americans . The terms used to refer to Indigenous peoples are by the nation or territory they are a part of . For instance , in the United States as a whole , the more genera term is currently Native Americans , but in the southwest portion of the United States , American Indians is quite common , while in Alaska and Canada these peoples refer to themselves as First Nations . Hawaiian Indigenous peoples prefer the term Hawaiian . In Mexico , Indigenous peoples are called la gente indigena de Mexico . In Australia , the commonly accepted terms are Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander , referring to two broad but distinct cultural groups , and Indigenous Australians , referring collectively to both . Terms used for Indigenous peoples often reflect political , social , and economic systems . Indians is a term that was once very commonly used in United States to describe the nation original inhabitants . The word is a part of the legal and po history of these peoples , appearing in hundreds of treaties and thousands of federal documents pertaining to legal rights . But many Indian people do not like the word because it was imposed by Christopher Columbus , who mistakenly thought that his journey across the Atlantic Ocean had landed him in . Pointing out that the term Indian is a case of mistaken identity , many Indigenous peoples prefer to be la by their tribal names . There is not one mind about which terms to use for Indigenous peoples . There are scholars who refuse to use words such as Indian and scholars who embrace the word . Some scholars advocate changing the use of the term Indian in history books and historical documents . However , changing historic texts alters the original expression and the meanings associated with it . To change terms in this context would literally change history and mislead students of this history . There has been another tendency in American culture to misuse the term Native American to refer to a single monoculture . The majority of Americans have never spent time with Native individuals or engaged in any studies of Native peoples and thus do not have any true knowledge of actual Indigenous cultures . Until recently , Native cultures and Native history have not been accurately covered in educational institutions . Only in the past decade has there been movement toward offering accurate of Native peoples in public schools in the United States . While this is a positive development , stereotyping of and even racism toward Native peoples remain . The most accepted and appropriate way to refer to any Indigenous person is to use their actual tribal association , if known , rather than a general term such as Native American . The scholarly debate over these words is somewhat separate from the way the terms are used in Native communities . Many Indigenous communities have no issue with the word Indian and think the whole debate over word choice is a distraction from the problems that affect their communities , such as poverty , substance use issues , poor health care , and inadequate education .

Minorities in Their Own Lands Indigenous peoples are thought of as minorities in most countries . Many colonizing peoples sought to eliminate Indigenous peoples and practiced various strategies to reduce their power to control land and natural resources and even to maintain their cultures and identities . Historically , adult Indigenous people , and even some young people , were forced to work for , often doing hard labor or other menial tasks , without any opportunities to accumulate wealth or claim a position of higher class . Christianity in various forms was forced on Indigenous peoples through government policies . Children were either not offered any education at all or forced into boarding schools where they were required to adopt the colonial culture . In this manner , many Indigenous people lost touch with their cultural heritage , and most Indigenous groups dwindled in number , some disappearing altogether . This trend was particularly pronounced in Latin American countries . Most people living in these countries today have some Indigenous ancestry , but as Indigenous identities have been so discouraged , few openly identify with this portion of their heritage , choosing to focus on their White Spanish identities . It is evident that assimilation pressures , the process of changing the culture of a person or group of people to some other culture , through socialization or education , have largely succeeded when remaining peoples who identify as Indigenous become minorities within their own native territories . FIGURE Indian Training School in Salem , Oregon ( left ) and members of the Indian School battalion in 1914 . right ) This boarding school was created in 1885 and is still operating today . Education policy before the 19705 focused on assimilating Native peoples . Current policies are more supportive of Native culture . credit left , Indian School , Hall , 5495 Street Northeast , Salem , Marion , OR by Steve of Commons , Public Domain right , The Commons , Public Domain ) Many Native Americans , along with members of other Indigenous groups such as the of New Zealand , do not like to be categorized as minority groups in their own homelands . Native Americans in the United States and the tribes ofNew Zealand have treaties and sovereign rights that accord them access to and ownership of resources that other immigrant minority groups do not have . Some federal funding for programs is allotted to minority groups as a whole , including Native peoples . The Native peoples meant to from this funding have commented that this approach does not recognize the special relationships the Indigenous peoples have with the state . The especially have asked not to be considered a minority group . Instead , they wish to claim rights granted them by the Treaty of to the services and resources of the federal New Zealand government .

FIGURE This illustration , done by artist , depicts chiefs signing the Treaty of with representatives of the British Crown in 1840 . This treaty is recognized as granting the people rights to the services and resources of the federal New Zealand government . credit The Signing of the Treaty of by New , BY ) Membership in Tribal Community Tribal relations among Indigenous people in the United States are governed according to a series of rights first created through federal laws and policies , then later adopted by individual tribal nations . Tribal nations now have the right to manage their own membership laws and policies , with each tribe setting its own blood quantum rules for membership . Blood quantum refers to a genealogical relationship to ones original tribal people . Native people issue from parents who are both members ofa tribe , while Native people have parents or grandparents who have at least 50 percent Native blood . A person can even be a Native , with parents from two tribes , but be considered by the tribe they are enrolled in because the tribe only acknowledges the Indigenous blood from the enrollment tribe ( 2017 ) Some of the terms for people of mixed heritage in the Americas are mestizo ( common in Latin America ) and ( common in Canada ) Some nations , such as Canada , assign different rights to people of mixed Indigenous heritage communities are accorded different rights from First Nations communities . Although Indigenous heritage is preferred in most Native communities , the rate of outmarriage is such that pure Indigenous bloodlines are becoming rare . In the United States , most Native people have mixed heritage . An exception is the Navajo Nation , which has a significant number of Navajo members due to its large population of more than members . Normally , individuals have to prove they have a blood quantum of a certain percentage to enroll in a tribe . Some tribal policies require a strict accounting of only the bloodlines that originate within that tribe . Other tribes allow for any Indigenous blood as counting toward membership requirements . The latter policy is closer to the cultural practices followed by many Native peoples before they became wards of the federal government . It was common for many tribes to adopt people who moved into their area and took up their culture . In addition , marriage customs of all tribes , which disallowed marriage between individuals too closely related , encouraged members to marry outside of their village or tribe . Spouses brought into a village would be adopted without discrimination . In tribes in Oregon , women would more commonly go to their husbands villages . In other cultures , such as that of the Seneca of the Northeast , men would move to their wives villages . Some scholars View blood quantum as a means for the United States government to prevent people from claiming tribal heritage , ultimately causing tribes to . This view is not shared by all tribal peoples . Blood quantum was written into most tribal constitutions in the as a means of determining tribal . This policy has caused numerous problems in contemporary communities , where tribal

members sometimes attempt to marry their cousins in order to marshal their is , raise or maintain the percentage of blood quantum in their offspring ( 2005 ) Scholars have noted that most tribes will continue to lose members due to outmarriage unless membership requirements are changed , even though most blood quantum requirements are currently well below . Many tribal communities are shifting policies so that individuals can claim tribal membership by establishing descent from an enrolled tribal member ( Thornton 1997 ) Membership in the Grand Ronde tribe of Oregon requires a blood quantum of Grand Ronde blood and an ancestor or parent who was on a tribal roll or record in the past . The tribe counts only genealogical connection to original tribal residents of the reservation . Unfortunately , many people have moved on and off the reservation over the years , and records have not been accurately maintained . Proving past residence on the reservation is difficult . In addition , more restrictive changes to the membership requirements since 1999 have reduced the number of members . One controversial change made in 1999 requires that the parent of a potential new member must have been enrolled in the tribe at the time of the prospective member birth . This change denies membership to the children of those who became members after having children and the children of those born during the period between 1956 and 1983 , when tribal rolls were not maintained . One result has been split families , in which younger children born when their parents were on the tribal roll are deemed members , while their older siblings are not eligible for enrollment . The issue has become politicized at the reservation , with some enrolled members fearing that a of new would impact services and funds and others wanting to expand enrollment to allow more descendants into the tribe . These questions of identity , both political and social , will likely continue to excite debate in the coming decades , as many tribes acknowledge that unless they change membership requirements , they may cease to exist in the future . Tribal Groups and Communities Most Indigenous communities are extremely poor and face a number of challenges resulting from centuries of colonization , settlement , and exploitation . In the United States , Canada , and Australia , Indigenous peoples were forcibly relocated to reservations , often marginal lands set aside for Native peoples after European settlers and colonists claimed their original homelands . Many North American reservation communities have been , and continue to be , kept in a state of perpetual poverty . Reservations typically have few employment opportunities , high substance addiction and alcoholism rates , and high morbidity rates caused by poverty . Some tribes have been successful in making good education available to young people through successes in casino development and effective management of federal education grants , but there is a disparity of completion rates at all levels of education . A 2011 report by the Higher Education Research Institute found that among those enrolled in degree programs , approximately 17 percent of Native students completed the degree within four years , compared to 45 percent students , 43 percent of White students , 26 percent of students , and 21 percent of Black students ( et al . 2011 , 10 see also and Abraham 2016 ) the United States , tribal reservations were historically prevented from developing their own industries by the Nonintercourse Act sections of the Trade and Intercourse Acts . This legislation made it illegal to sell beyond the borders of a reservation , which were viewed in the same way as state borders . Tribes can Congress to approve a industry , but the petition can take decades to be approved . Many reservations have languished for two centuries with few or or opportunities for Native peoples ( Miller 2012 ) Those who leave reservations rarely return as residents . Still , Indigenous on reservations in the United States enjoy the comfort of living within their own cultures and face less discrimination in their communities than they would in communities . of mixed Indigenous heritage who can pass as White have often done so , thus abandoning their ancestry . Many took advantage of opportunities to move to cities and as White people , enjoying the pay and social that went along with and social identities . This path was by many Native people in the United States beginning in the later century . The exodus to the cities reached a peak in the and 19605 following the United States termination of the status of 109 tribes . Termination refers to a US federal policy adopted in 1953 that voided the treaty agreements between

the federal government and Native peoples . The US government then repossessed and sold reservation property in a process called liquidation . Terminated tribal peoples were released from reservation with no money or resources . They were no longer federally recognized Native peoples and had no rights to ask for federal services or assistance . Most of the tribes that underwent termination were restored beginning in the . Many of those who underwent termination moved to urban environments in search of work , resulting on populations of urban Indian communities . During World War II , the Shipyards in Portland employed a number of Native people man of them women ( who left regional reservations for work . The twentieth century trend peoples moving to cities creating has resulted in populations of urban Today , the majority of Native people in the United States live in urban environments . This movement has created tensions within Indigenous communities . The phrase urban Indian has taken on negative connotations within some Indigenous . Some reservation Indians accuse urban Natives of willingly giving up their status , land , and culture . While some urban Natives struggle with feeling disconnected from their tribal identities , many maintain a connection with reservation communities by visiting on weekends and holidays and participating in special events such as tribal government meetings . Urban Native communities typically include groups to Native people , such as educational and based organizations and business associations . Many of these groups include people from various tribes who work together to plan community spiritual activities such as powwows , support urban Indigenous food systems , or serve on committees . Tribal nations often have in urban communities that offer services to their citizens and serve as a site of sovereign activities of the tribe . learning groups are now quite common in urban centers , especially at universities and tribal . Universities in many ways form cultural centers for urban Indigenous people , offering Native centers , employing Indigenous scholars , and funding cultural activities and events . There are several tribal in Portland , Oregon , which has one of the largest concentrations of off reservation Native people in the United States , with an estimated people of Native descent . On the west side of town is the of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde . This hosts weekly cultural education programs called , which are free to tribal community members , along with classes in wood carving , drawing , storytelling , and the Wawa language . Other services offered to tribal members living in the Portland metro area include jobs programs , food , and a large boardroom equipped for hosting formal meetings . Also in Portland are the of the Confederated Tribes of Indians ( the Native American Youth and Family Center education organization , the Native American Chamber ce ( and the Columbia River Intertribal Fish Commission ( Portland is the site of community organizations such as the Bow and Arrow Culture Club , which hosts annual cultural gatherings and the large intertribal Delta Park Powwow . The radio station ( consistently features Native programming . The Native population of Portland is a broad mixture of enrolled tribal people and unenrolled descendant people from throughout the United States . There are also large numbers of Indigenous peoples from other countries , with concentrations of and Islander peoples . In addition , the Hawaiian community has deep roots in the region due to the inclusion of Hawaiian labor in the fur trade of the Northwest . Challenges In the century , some tribes grew or even wealthy by harvesting or extracting the natural resources on their reservations . The land of the Osage Nation of Oklahoma was found to contain vast reserves of underground oil . Members of the nation who had oil under their allotments became wealthy , so much so that some were among the wealthiest people on the planet during the height of the oil boom . But soon after acquiring this wealth , White neighbors began marrying into the tribe . Tribal members began being murdered , and authorities were slow to launch any investigations . Eventually , White relatives ended up owning much of the Osage lands . The story of the Osage murders is documented in several books , including Killers ofthe

Flower Moon by David , which was made into a motion picture directed by Martin Scorsese . FIGURE An oil in the town of , on the Osage Reservation . Although the discovery of oil on their lands initially brought some members of the Osage Nation considerable wealth , it also made them the target of unscrupulous White neighbors . Many Osage were murdered , with their White relatives coming into possession of their land and the petroleum beneath it . credit Oklahoma Historical Commons , Public Domain ) In a similar story , the tribe of Oregon established a very successful logging operation on their reservation in the early century . The reservation included a million acres of pine . The people established and sold the timber off the reservation , becoming quite wealthy . They even built an on the reservation . But their prosperity did not last . The federal government had been serving as the bank administrator of the money and managing their . It became apparent that some money had gone missing and that the land was being poorly managed by federal agents . The tribe successfully sued the government for mismanagement , but they only received a percentage of the money they were owed . In the , tribal began to be discussed with the people . Some people initially liked the idea of termination because it would free them from control by the federal government . They were initially told they would receive their reservation land , but the government later told them the land would be sold . Termination began in 1954 . In 1961 , the remaining unsold reservation lands were turned into the National Forest . members were forced to leave their homelands and employment in regional cities . The result of termination was that the lost their land and many rights as Native people . Their population was dispersed , making it to keep the culture alive . By the , most of the tribal languages were extinct , and many people had lost connections with their tribal past . In the , some of the tribal elders , many who had remained in the vicinity of the original reservation , began activating for restoration . The tribe was restored in 1983 ( Lewis 2009 ) An extreme example of the disenfranchisement of Native people is the movement of Indigenous peoples who were part of the Okie migration of the 19305 . The Okie migration was to the movement of people out of Oklahoma during the Dust Bowl crisis , in which agriculture yields collapsed due to drought and poor land management practices . Topsoil blew away in large clouds , and thousands lost their land and theirjobs . These thousands included a large percentage of Native people . Those who could no longer earn a living farming the degraded land moved west in search ofwork in Arizona , California , Oregon , and other western states . These migrants led lives , working at and moving constantly in search of seasonal work . One result of this movement westward was a shift of Native populations to the West and a related collapse of tribal populations in Oklahoma . Among the artifacts of the Okie migration are photographs taken by federal workers who visited the migrant encampments . Likely the most famous of these images is the one now known as Migrant Mother , taken in 1936 by photographer Lange . The subject of Lange photo has been as Florence Thompson , a Cherokee woman .

580 19 Indigenous Anthropology FIGURE Migrant Mother , one of the most famous photographs taken by Lange , features a Cherokee woman , Florence Thompson . Like many people during this period , she and her family moved from place to place following farm work during the Dust Bowl crisis of the 19305 . credit Destitute Pea Pickers in California . Mother of Seven Children . Age . California by of Congress , Public Domain ) By the , most Indigenous people in the United States were still very poor . In this period , a number of laws were passed to help Native people . These laws gave tribes the rights to control their cultures , educate their people , and administer their own foster care . These rights were to act on , however , without resources . In the , tribes began seeking new ways of making money to take care of their citizens . In 1988 , Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act . This law allowed Native peoples to establish casinos on their reservations . The caveat is that tribes must compact with the state they reside in to secure the right to operate a casino . Many Indigenous people have criticized this stipulation , stating that needing to ask permission places them at a lower level of sovereignty than the states . According to the federal own laws , tribal reservations are federal trust lands with sovereignty on par of that of the states . Still , most tribes have compacted with the states they reside within , agreeing as part of the compact to cede a percentage of casino to the state to aid with funding for services such as education and road maintenance . Tribal casino have made it possible for many tribes to establish fully operational governments that offer services and programs for their members in areas such as health care , housing , education , and jobs . There have been challenges to tribes rights to establish casinos , the most notable occurring in California during Arnold tenure as governor . Governor refused for years to meet with Native representatives to discuss a statewide casino compact , even after voters overwhelmingly approved tribal casinos twice . The tribes felt that Nevada casino operators , who could lose revenue from the competition , were the California government . The tribes won a lawsuit in 1999 , and many tribes subsequently signed with the state . There have been continued lawsuits against California stating that the require too large a portion of casino . Still , tribes in California now have the right to establish casinos , and the income is greatly improving services to tribal members . Access for free at

, FIGURE Casino Resort and Spa in , California , operated by the Band of Mission Indians , is one of hundreds of tribal casinos across the United States . Many have incorporated cultural elements into their design , such as woven net design . credit Casino Resort Spa Is an Indian Gaming Casino , of the Band of Mission Indians , Located in , California by Carol of Congress , Public Domain ) Perspectives Indigenous peoples have undergone some centuries of colonization . During this time , the societal structures of the colonial states have emphasized the perspectives of peoples , broadly as White people . Histories have been written to White people , to support their colonizing cultures and to legitimize their takeover territories from Indigenous peoples . Minority perspectives , including Indigenous perspectives , have not been emphasized and have even been sometimes intentionally repressed . Indigenous peoples have struggled with in their sovereign relations with state systems and in legal proceedings over their sovereign rights . Many Indigenous peoples still struggle to prove that they are part of a legitimate nation . erasure of Native culture and history has caused losses of and changes to tribal cultures and languages . Beginning the later century , both Indigenous and scholars have noted that history has long been presented in a way that is biased toward a White perspective . This bias has been critiqued as a form of systemic racism . In most academic institutions , until relatively recently , most if not all professors were White . There were few opportunities for Indigenous people to establish positions of over the presentation and study of Indigenous history and culture . Native studies programs began to be developed at various universities in the United States in the 19705 , a movement that coincided with greater opportunities for Indigenous scholars to conduct research on their own peoples . Indigenous people are now actively working to write their own histories and describe their cultures and philosophies from Indigenous perspectives . Indigenous scholarship has made great strides , but there is still a hesitancy in academia to allow Indigenous people to establish positions of authority or introduce Indigenous ways of thinking . Among the academic disciplines , anthropology in particular has made strong progress in recognizing the value and validity of Indigenous perspectives . An interesting example of recent changes in approaches to Indigenous perspectives is the ongoing debate over oral histories . For much of the and centuries , Indigenous myth texts were collected from tribes and studied by anthropologists , linguists , and . Studies of this material typically utilized a linguistic or philosophical framework . The texts were understood , much like Greek mythology , as supernatural stories with a special focus on the godlike animals appearing in them , such as Coyote , Raven , and Blue Jay . Also of interest to early scholars of such texts were their performative aspects and the metaphorical commentary they offered about human existence . A debate emerged between some scholars such as Dell , who noted that the texts were most valuable as original texts or direct ethnographic translations , and others such as Claude , who concluded that there was no original text and every version was plagiarized from a previous storyteller . In this authenticity debate , the texts were treated as literature , with little recognition of the

historical events appearing in many of the stories ( 1989 ) This inability to see the historical value of these texts a bias toward written material and against knowledge presented via oral tradition . Read about how translations of oral histories are analyzed and updated in the online . VIDEO David Lewis , the author of this chapter , discusses the loss of many native languages and reads translations of A Prophecy ( Many of these assumptions about myth texts have changed in the past 70 years . One study of Crater Lake in Oregon , conducted by geologists in the , determined that the lake was on the site ofwhat once had been a large volcano , Mount , known as Moy by the Indigenous people of the area . When the volcano exploded , the top of the mountain fell inside the cone and formed a caldera , which in time with water , resulting in Crater Lake . This event happened some years ago . This established geological event is in Indigenous oral traditions . A tribal oral history tells the story of two mountains , Moy and ( Mount in California ) having a . The oral history clearly a double volcanic event , with Moy and erupting at the same time , but Moy erupted with a larger explosion and therefore lost the . Geological evidence of the explosion spoken of in this myth indicates that oral history does indeed actual history . Similar oral histories of thousands of Indigenous peoples are now acknowledged to many natural events , especially those that changed the earth in some manner . Oral histories of tsunamis , Ice Age , volcanic eruptions , catastrophic , and other events are now acknowledged in the stories of many peoples . New understandings of the legitimacy of Indigenous oral histories are leading to increased research into numerous areas of Indigenous knowledge systems . FIGURE Crater Lake , Oregon , and the remains of Mount . Wizard Island in the center is the original top of , having fallen into the volcanic cone some years ago . A record of these geological events is evident in the oral traditions of Indigenous peoples native to this area . credit Crater Lake National Park , United States by Amy , Public Domain ) i ETHNOGRAPHIC SKETCHES Traditional Ecological Knowledge Written by David Lewis . The of the Valley were native to the interior lands of western Oregon . The

River and its tributaries drained the Valley and joined with the Columbia River in the vicinity of Portland . The river served as a highway of trade and travel about the valley and to the trading center at Falls . The had salmon runs , but not the concentration of salmon sites seen on the Columbia River . They did have expansive prairies and oak savannas that supported a rich . Hunting of deer and elk was always a part of their lives , but they followed a lifestyle of camping at sites through the summers . Root camps would be established in midsummer near a . They would dig for a week , then cook the in pit ovens while in the camp . The bulbs would coo for three to four days in the underground ovens , changing to a brown color . The cooked bulbs became sweet and were highly desired by the . Cooked would be stored in cool underground storage spaces or hung in plank houses for wintertime use . The would store many types of roots and grains in tlis manner and would also prepare dried salmon and meat for winter storage . In the fall , acorns and hazelnuts could be gathered , and in marshy lakes or the slough , could be gathered in great quantities . or Indian potato , would be stored or traded to other peoples for other foods and trade items . The , a northern Valley tribe of , especially had much at Wa Lake as well as large amounts of oak savanna on the plains . Almost all foods were gathered prepared in the encampments and then brought back to the villages later . Acorns would be gathered , shelled , and left to rest in cool creeks to let the tannins leach out , then dried and ground into a meal . From this , the would create a mush cooked in woven baskets . Hazelnuts would be shelled and dried on hot roc in the sun , then eaten on the spot or saved for later . Hazel switches would be harvested from the bushes to make strong baskets . At other times of the year , some would travel into the mountains to pick berries or gather weaving materials for making baskets . Baskets , hats , and large woven mats made from for sitting or lying on would be used by the maker or traded for other items . Most weaving materials would have to be dried for a year before being rehydrated and woven into a useful basket . The were very community oriented . or neighboring tribal peoples were starving , they would help them and feed them . Trade could happen at any time of the year , but in the winters , might approach neighboring tribes to trade for additional food or wealth items they desired . Dried and smoked salmon could be acquired from the and , who would prepare plenty when the salmon ran . From the Coos , they acquired seashells . The had exceptionally good baskets , and the Chinook had canoes and prepared salmon as well as items from throughout the trading sphere of the Columbia River . The specialized in and root digging and were dependent on other tribes for quantities of other products . Colonization and Anthropology LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Articulate the contributions of Vine to the critique of anthropology and the growth of Native studies and Native scholarship . the practice of and explain how it has affected and continues to affect Indigenous people in the United States . Evaluate the historic issues related to anthropologists serving as cultural experts . Relate how anthropology has aided colonialism and propose some ways these practices may be reversed . Anthropology has been criticized by numerous anthropologists and other scholars as participating in the colonization societies . While settlers took land and resources from tribes and forced them to relocate to reservations , anthropologists gathered knowledge from Indigenous peoples for their own purposes . Another critique has focused on the right claimed by some anthropologists to speak for Indigenous peoples . Books written by early anthropologists have been viewed as Native peoples , claiming a place of greater legitimacy than the perspectives of Native people themselves . Some anthropologists in the late and early centuries collected images of Indigenous people posed and dressed to a stereotypical conception of Indians . Edward Curtis was one such anthropologist and photographer . Although his photos are rendered beautifully , they his own conceptions rather than the realities of life for Native peoples at

the time the photographs were taken . Curtis and many of his contemporaries are now critiqued for their personal perspectives over the stark realities of Native peoples impoverished on reservations . FIGURE This photograph of three Sioux chiefs , taken by Edward Curtis circa 1905 , does not reflect actual cultural practices . At this time , these men were living on a Sioux reservation and would have dressed much like other Americans . Curtis posed these men on and in traditional regalia to please an American audience eager to see stereotypical images . Credit Sioux by Edward of Congress , public domain ) Critique These criticisms of anthropology gained strength in the 19605 , with several Native scholars questioning in particular the higher value assigned to scholarship than to the voices of Native peoples . These critiques caused many scholars to reassess the nature of anthropological research . Vine was a Sioux scholar who gained fame in the 19605 . openly challenged the legitimacy of anthropology as a discipline , criticizing ant for from their research projects , whether through selling books or achieving tenure at their universities , while those they studied rarely received any . developed his evaluation over a long career consisting of decades of scholarship . One focus of his scholarship was the biased nature of supposedly objective research , which he called an entrenched state religion ( 1997 , 211 ) also accused Western academics of relying on notions peoples that were biased by stereotypes and assumptions . In many ways , inspired the growth of Native studies programs . His critical arguments resonated with tribal communities and were , and still are , an inspiration to generations of Indigenous scholars . His critiques have resonated with the discipline as a who as well , resulting in adjustments and changes to anthropological methods and practices . There are now many more Indigenous and minority scholars in anthropology than ever before , in part aided by critique . scholar Linda Smith describes the mission of these scholars in this way Telling our stories from the past , reclaiming the past , giving testimony to the injustices of the past are all strategies which are commonly employed by Indigenous peoples struggling forjustice . The need to tell our stories remains the powerful imperative ofa powerful form of resistance ( 2021 , 38 ) Indigenous specialties have been developed in most areas of anthropology , including Indigenous anthropology and Indigenous archaeology . criticisms have also been in the creation of the of public anthropology , public archaeology , and applied anthropology , all of which seek to establish a closer relationship with research subjects and apply research to address current problems . The of Indigenous Peoples , discussed earlier in this text , refers to viewing those from different cultures or backgrounds as other , or inherently and importantly different from oneself or one own type ofpeople . Indigenous peoples

have been particularly affected by a tendency to be viewed as other by White society . As Linda Smith writes , A critical aspect of the struggle for has involved questions relating to our history as Indigenous peoples and a critique of how we , as the Other , have been represented or excluded from various accounts ( 2021 , 31 ) The otherness that Smith refers to tendencies both to not think about Indigenous peoples at all and to deliberately deny Indigenous cultures an equal share of the history of their land . Indigenous histories and are viewed as something other than White histories and and are largely ignored . happens in every conceivable context and affects almost all aspects of social existence , including social mobility , civil rights , getting ajob , and applying for grants and funding . strongly into sometimes subconscious determinations as to whether a person is the right type of person for a position or role . is a form of discrimination and racism . has played a large role in recent discussions of policing in the United States . is in the ongoing issue of missing and murdered Indigenous women . Many police agencies are not investigating missing Indigenous women because they are the the women are singled out by predators because they are clearly Indigenous . Cultural Experts ond Authority Anthropologists have noted the value of tribal cultural experts to their research projects . A cultural expert is immersed in the culture of their Indigenous community and has insight into the intricacies of their community . Cultural experts have been used by anthropologists since the beginnings of anthropology . However , when reporting information provided by cultural experts , anthropologists have too often taken a position of authority that somewhat these same cultural experts . Those learning about an Indigenous society will typically turn to the published ethnographic literature on the subject . This literature will most likely present an outsider understanding of that society , frozen in a time frame and based on a single research project . This gives the readers a warped understanding of the culture they are interested in , only completely valid within the time frame of the study . Cultural experts , on the other hand , adapt and modify their insights and knowledge as they age . It is now common for researchers to seek out cultural experts to provide contemporary understandings of a culture and society . In addition , many researchers will now form collaborations with cultural experts that assign ownership and authorship to the cultural expert or the culture they are researching . Within this approach , the anthropologist becomes the compiler or editor of any publications , or perhaps the lead author of a team of authors . Many Indigenous scholars now conduct their own research , taking the roles of lead authors and editors of studies . Tribes are also taking control of research projects , contracting with anthropologists who agree to conduct the work with tribal input and review . Indigenous Societies os Colonial Societies Indigenous societies are in many ways colonial societies . Most Indigenous people are of mixed heritage , and Indigenous cultures have changed in ways that make them more similar to the surrounding White communities . As just one example , many Indigenous peoples have adopted Christianity as their primary religion . But in most Indigenous communities , there is space for Indigenous traditions and spirituality as well . Sometimes , White and Indigenous cultures exist parallel to one another . Such hybrid societies are often criticized by Indigenous and people as no longer being Native or Indigenous , but this criticism an understanding ofwhat it means to be Indigenous that is frozen in time . Many people envision Native cultures as they existed in the century as being the true cultures , while the cultures of Native people living in urban suburbs with automobiles and houses are viewed as tainted or inauthentic . Culture is not a static thing it is dynamic , constantly changing to the context of the present . Native peoples continue to maintain a cultural core that is Indigenous while they adopt the technology and trappings of contemporary society . Anthropology In the , a movement began to anthropology . This movement seeks to address anthropology role in collecting and taking ownership of Native knowledge and culture and to speak out against anthropological analyses and products that support colonialism . One aspect of anthropological practice that has been particularly criticized is a tendency to treat Native people purely as research subjects ,

without acknowledging their agency or their rights , such as the right to protect their buried ancestors or control their knowledge , stories , and even place names . As part of the movement , scholars began developing research protocols to address these criticisms . The Indigenous perspective has begun to be recognized as valuable , and people from diverse backgrounds have been welcomed into the discipline . In the , the Southwest Oregon Research Project ( was established to collect and return to those to whom it pertained knowledge collected by anthropologists and other researchers . The project began under the leadership of George of the Coquille Indian Tribe of Oregon . worked with Smithsonian Institution and University of Oregon administrations to copy and collect documents pertaining to some 60 western Oregon tribes and return the resultant collection to the university archives . The project eventually hosted three trips to Washington , to collect more than pages of anthropological and federal documents from the National Anthropological Archives and the National Archives and Records Administration . The collections were then organized and hosted in the University of Oregon Special Collections . In 1995 and 2001 , copies of these documents were given to some 17 tribes in Oregon and the surrounding region . This project served in a very real sense to the anthropology of the past by returning Indigenous knowledge to tribal peoples . Peoples receiving the collections have been free to access the knowledge collected from their ancestors over a time period , from the to 1950 , and build on this knowledge with further projects to restore tribal culture . In one instance ofa successful restoration , techniques for creating the traditional canoes of the Chinook were studied in an effort to restore both the production and use of these canoes in the Northwest region . Scholars made use ofa collection of created by anthropologist Philip Drucker , which described traditional methods of construction and traditional designs . Since the , there has been a marked resurgence in traditional canoe construction on the Northwest Coast . Tribal nations along the Northwest Coast now undertake an annual canoe journey that involves hundreds of communities and thousands of tribal members . These developments have been aided by the preservation and return of cultural knowledge . FIGURE A Chinook canoe built using traditional construction techniques , circa 1825 . The surface of these canoes was typically charred to prevent decay . credit Image from Page 286 of The American Museum Journal ( 1918 ) by American Museum of Natural Archive Book , Public Domain )

Colonization and Anthropology FIGURE A crew from the Grande Ronde Tribe launch a Chinook canoe from the beach at the Tribal Community Center . In recent decades , there has been a revival in traditional canoe construction on the Northwest Coast . credit Canoe Crew Preparing for Launch by John Clemens , US Geological , Public Domain ) Some tribal scholars have raised concerns that many ethnographic and anthropological notes are untrustworthy sources because they are the products of biased research practices and may anthropologists efforts to previously conceived ideas about tribal peoples . The critics rightly note that some anthropologists may have altered their to stereotypical notions . Tribal peoples have thus been wary of relying solely on notes to reconstruct cultural practices , taking care to compare the notes of anthropologists with elder knowledge to devise valid restoration projects for culture and language . The existence of notes themselves is somewhat controversial among Native communities . Some Indigenous people have criticized the act of writing down Indigenous stories , which were normally oral . This same criticism calls into question the legitimacy of all notes collected from peoples who rely on oral histories . Some Indigenous scholars thus refuse to use any ethnographic notes , viewing them as biased documents . However , another perspective is that many of these notes were collected from tribal cultural experts who willingly participated in the collection of their stories and knowledge . Many of these cultural experts were elders in their communities who wanted to save their culture and language , not passive participants unaware of the outcomes of their work with anthropologists . From this perspective , these elders knew what they were doing and were aware that they may hold the last remaining knowledge of certain cultural practices or languages therefore , their work and contributions need to be respected by all scholars today . PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Beatrice Medicine ( and Lakota ) Personal History David Lewis I had an opportunity to . Beatrice Medicine when she visited the University of Oregon in the . Medicine gave numerous presentations work . The most impactful presentation was her study of Scandinavian who were recreating Native American traditions in Europe and Russia . She told stories of how the Lakota with these and decided to help them practice the culture correctly . What they had been practicing emulated Native cultures as stereotyped in Hollywood , including a US cavalry 587

charge and a drumbeat . This was , and the Lakota decided that if the really wanted to culture , they should help them do it correctly Medicine and other Lakota culture bearers then took on the responsibility of going to Europe to meet some of these groups and teach them the correct culture . Additionally , Medicine told stories of how anthropologists who came to reservations in the century were sometimes fooled by Native collaborators . She noted that some of the stories collected were made up on the spot by men who realized that they would be paid for more stories . So , they created stories of history and even for the anthropologists , earned a few extra dollars , and later made fun of the anthropologists for not the culture . Some of these stories were published in anthropologists language texts and are now part of the legacy of the discipline . Much of the legacy histories involves tribal mistrust of the products of an , considered to be inaccurate and feeling supported in part by this story But Medicine discerning of the reason behind the creation of new stories provides additional con texts that then partly refute the distrust of anthropologists once the intentions of the Native collaborators are known . The stories themselves are not worthless to who study them today , and they teach scholars about tribal peoples ingen and humor Medicine storytelling was very powerful . She did not follow the typical narrative that ted anthropology as a handmaiden , instead she , as an anthropologist , could help people understand others and apply anthropology to work out problems in the world . Medicine series of talks at the University of Oregon was inspiring to Native scholars and provided examples of how we could use anthropology to help our peoples when we returned to our Native communities , as many will . Area Beatrice Medicine was a scholar , anthropologist , and educator known for her work in the of Indigenous languages and cultures , applied anthropology , gender studies , and Native history . She was born on the Standing Rock Reservation in North Dakota and spent years teaching , traveling , and working in anthropology throughout the world before returning to Standing Rock to retire . In her years she helped build an elementary school at the reservation . Accomplishments in the Field Medicine was able to shift seamlessly and effectively between her roles as a Native person and an anthropologist . She had a lot of faith that anthropology could understand and recover from the effects of our colonial histories . Medicine worked to promote applied anthropology as a way for the discipline to contribute in positive ways to Native societies . She inspired many young Native scholars and anthropologists to use anthropology to help Native peoples . As one of the few Native and women anthropologists of her time , she faced and overcame many challenges posed by the paternalistic White men in the discipline . Importance of Her Work For her work , Medicine earned numerous awards , including a Distinguished Service Award from the American Anthropological Association ( 1991 ) the Award from the Society for Applied Anthropology ( 1996 ) and the George and Louise Spindler Award for education in anthropology from the American Anthropological Association ( 2005 ) The Applied Anthropology Association established a travel award in her name , and her life work was featured in a 2015 panel at the American Anthropological Association annual meeting . Medicine most book is Learning to Be an Anthropologist and Remaining Native , published by the University of Illinois Press in 2001 . For more information , see the Indigenous Goddess Gang Matriarch Monday post Beatrice Medicine (

Indigenous Agency and Rights LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain the of Indigenous peoples being declared domestic dependent nations in the United States . Discuss Indigenous rights to natural resources and the degree to which Native nations have been successful in rights . Describe some traditional techniques used by Indigenous peoples to create cultural objects as well as efforts to restore this knowledge . Articulate two features of Indigenous philosophies and and explain how researchers access Indigenous philosophies and . Describe political responses to federal government policies pertaining to Indigenous peoples in the United States . Articulate Indigenous critiques of the use of Indigenous names and images as mascots for sports teams . Treaties and Removal In the century , the United States federal government shifted its approach toward purchasing tribal lands rather than conquering Indigenous nations . Many Native societies had already suffered greatly due to White settlement and were ready to sign treaties that would guarantee them protection on federal Indian reservations . Population loss caused by epidemic disease also played a role in many tribes decisions to sign treaties with the federal government . Those who signed treaties received payment for lands , money for schools , and support in establishing Western farming practices in addition to land allotments on a reservation where federal authorities were to guarantee their safety . As White settlement expanded into the western United States , Indigenous peoples both on and off federal reservations were subject to waves of removal from their lands . Areas set aside for reservations that had once seemed undesirably remote for White settlement became increasingly desirable as the White population grew . In the , tribal peoples living on reservations east of the Mississippi River were forced to move to what is now Oklahoma , then called Indian Territory . The tribes were promised that they would be able to keep their new reservation lands in perpetuity . However , when political currents changed , largely due to the pressures of European immigrants moving westward who desired land for settlement , the land formerly designated Indian Territory was opened to White settlement , and reservations diminished . The most famous Native removal was the Cherokee Trail of Tears in 1838 . After President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 , the US Army forced an estimated Cherokee then living in the southeast United States to walk to Indian Territory . An estimated of these people died on the trail . The Cherokee Trail of Tears was not the only removal . Each time the United States expanded its borders into Indian Territory , tribes were forced to move to smaller reservations with less desirable , lands . The were removed from Florida to Oklahoma in 1831 , and the Creek were removed in 1836 , leading to an estimated of their people dying . Twenty years later , the United States assumed sole title to the lands of the Oregon Territory and removed Native people from some 60 different tribes onto two reservations , the Coast and Grand Ronde Reservations . During the western Oregon Trails of Tears , members of tribes then living on the temporary Table Rock and Reservations were forced to walk more than 300 miles in the dead to the Coast and Grand Ronde Reservations , with many dying from exposure . Once at the Coast and Grand Ronde Reservations , the tribes were made to live with many other tribes from different language families and to join as one tribe on the reservations .

590 19 . Indigenous Anthropology FIGURE The cover page of a treaty with certain bands of the ( and tribes and the Grave Creek band of the tribe , negotiated in 1854 and in 1855 , credit Small Brown Cover Sheet 1854 . Treaty with Certain Bands of the Tribes of and and the Grave Creek Bands of . Dated , November 18 , 1854 . April 10 , 1855 ' by US National Archives and Records Administration , Public Domain ) In all parts of the United States , life on the reservations was very challenging . Native peoples had to build their own houses and establish means of producing food and other necessities with limited resources . Federal aid , although guaranteed in the treaties , was slow to arrive and sometimes lost in transit or simply missing . For the 20 years of the Grand Ronde Reservation , residents lived in poverty with inconsistent food and health care and poorly planned schools . On Oregon reservations , the tribal peoples did not receive their treaty rights of individual plots of farmland until at least 1873 . While the government had guaranteed food , by 1860 , it was clear that federal could not be counted on for regular food shipments . Thousands of Native people died at early ages in the two decades due to malnutrition and newly introduced diseases . Similar stories can be told for all tribes in the United States . Problems were also caused by untrained , and corrupt government who stole food , money , and supplies . Domestic Dependent Nations The legal status of Native nations was greatly by several paternalistic rulings by the US Supreme Court in the . Three rulings known as the Marshall court trilogy ( Johnson In tosh , 1823 Cherokee Nation Georgia , 1831 Worcester Georgia , 1832 ) determined that tribal peoples were domestic sovereign nations within the United States and dependent on the federal government to guarantee their sovereignty . These rulings meant that all reservations were federal lands , not part of the states , with the federal government as the administrator . Native rights , therefore , must be given through federal authorities or named in treaties with the federal government . This state of dependency has caused much consternation among Native peoples ever since . As domestic dependent nations , many aspects of tribal management of money , land , education , health care , and other been administered by the federal government . Beyond the question of the appropriateness of this arrangement , there have been innumerable documented cases of Native peoples not receiving the services or funds they were promised . Between 1910 and the , Native peoples hundreds of civil cases against the federal government for mismanagement of service , land , and money . By the Access for free at

Indigenous Agency and Rights 591 , there were so many cases that the federal government established a special jurisdictional court , the Indian Claims Commission , to deal with the volume of lawsuits . Under the Indian Claims Commission , many cases were consolidated to make the process more . Originally planned to exist for 10 years , the court was extended into the , as hundreds of cases had been and it was taking decades to decide many of them . The tribe , for example , seven Indian Claims lawsuits for mismanagement of the money they earned through logging operations . The cases were combined and decided in the , with some payouts from their lawsuits extending into the . The Indian Claims Commission ended in 1978 , having cleared 546 dockets and named 342 awards totaling . One example of a successful Indian Claims case ( number ) involved California tribal members of groups called the Mission Indians and other tribes from Northern California . These tribes had signed 18 treaties with the federal government in 1851 . The treaties were never , and as such , the tribes were never paid for their lands . After the treaties were found hidden in the vast record collections of the National Archives in 1905 , the California tribes began working on a case for payment for the lands , for which they suit in 1928 . The case was not decided until 1942 , with the court declaring that the Indians of California consist of wandering bands , tribes , and small groups , who had been roving over the same territory during the period under the Spanish and Mexican ownership , before the 1848 treaty between Mexico and the United States whereby California was acquired by the United States ( Indians of California ex rel . Webb United States , 98 . 583 , 1942 ) This decision meant that the tribes were determined not to have a case for the return of lands and could only ask for cash payments . A second case was decided in 1964 . Payments from both cases did not come until 1969 , when the court gave the tribes 47 cents per acre for the 64 million acres of California lands they had once occupied , a total of million . Court awards were subject to political maneuvering and arbitration within the House of Representatives over how much the tribes would actually receive . In the case of , the award amount was based on the value of the lands in 1851 , which had skyrocketed in value over the more than a century that had passed . Many tribal members were very upset by the paltry sum awarded for the wealthy lands of California . Water , Fishing , and Agency FIGURE A person in Trinity River in Northern California in the early . Fishing rights became a particular source of conflict between Indigenous and White people in the northwestern United States in the 19605 . credit across Trinity by Edward Curtis , Smithsonian , Public Domain ) From the to the , an issue of particular concern to the tribes of the northwestern part of the United States was rights . The wars were a series of political and legal battles over whether Indigenous peoples had the right to in their usual and accustomed places , as promised in numerous treaties .

Following the ( States Oregon , 1969 ) and ( United States Washington , 1974 ) court decisions , the tribes of Washington State , including those that had been terminated and not yet restored , maintained their rights to in their usual and accustomed their right to half the catch in the state of Washington . These decisions tribal sovereignty rights promised in treaties but had the negative consequence of causing delays in the restoration of other tribes from termination . Many sport organizations feared that an increase in restored tribes would impact for . Both the and Grand Ronde tribes experienced delays related to fears about in their federal restorations in the and . Ultimately , both tribes were forced to give up and hunting rights to become federally restored . Ironically , neither the Grand Ronde nor the have or hunting rights in their treaties . Both tribes concluded that restoration of the tribal governments was more important than holding out for and hunting rights . FIGURE Two Native men at Falls on the Columbia River , circa 1950 . Some tribes were forced to give up the right to in their traditional locations in return for the restoration of their tribal status . credit Men Fishing at Falls on the Columbia River by Gerald Special Collections , Public Domain ) The tribe of Oregon was terminated in the , along with tribes in California , including the and , all traditionally relied on from the River . In the and , these tribes were restored by the US federal government with their rights intact . The tribe of Oregon is the only tribe on the river with a treaty that guaranteed rights . During the termination period , the federal government had built numerous dams and water reclamation projects on the river and given away water resources to farmers and ranchers in the area . Dams such as the Dam had destroyed many salmon runs , and the water giveaways had taken out of the river , making the river warmer and less environmentally friendly to . When local tribes were restored , they began demanding rights to the river again . These rights were decided in a series of court decisions determining that the tribe water rights preceded those of farmers and municipalities , meaning that their rights to needed to be upheld . Numerous projects are underway to eliminate the dams on the River and return it to its original state .

FIGURE A woman in a traditional canoe harvesting wokas , the seeds of the yellow pond lily , circa 1923 . credit The Wokas by Edward of Congress , Public Domain ) Tribes with rights in their treaties are now encroaching on the territories of tribes without such rights , leading to legal and political maneuvering between tribes . In Oregon , the Grand Ronde tribe was forced to purchase land at a key location , Falls , and had to sidestep federal permissions , working with the state to gain ceremonial rights . Ultimately , the intertribal are caused by tribal adherence to federal bureaucratic processes that rely on legal or political channels to resolve problem rather than traditional tribal methods that bring people to the table to form agreements under traditional protocols . Culture and Language Native languages are the most threatened part of the cultures of Native peoples . Many tribes now have only a handful of people who speak the tribe language . Of the estimated languages once spoken worldwide , at least half have now gone extinct with no speakers , and there are Indigenous languages spoken worldwide that are today endangered . One assessment of the 115 Indigenous languages currently spoken in the United State rates two as healthy , 34 as in danger , and 79 likely to go extinct within a generation ( 2019 ) The rate and severity of language loss is connected to the remaining population of the tribe , whether the tribe has a functioning cultural center , and whether the language continues to be spoken in the households of tribal members . In large part , tribal people of the United States are becoming speakers ( Crawford 1995 ) Language recovery and revitalization have become a focus of many Indigenous peoples . Many tribal members consider knowledge of their language to be the true determinant of tribal identity . Complex understandings of philosophies and are embedded in language . In addition , tribes believe that their ancestors spirits visit members of the tribe to speak with and advise them , and if a person does not know the language , they will not be able to understand them . Tribes are now working to restore , preserve , stabilize , and teach their languages to the next generations to preserve their knowledge and cultural identities . The University of California , Berkeley , developed a program that is helping many Indigenous groups develop more language speakers by partnering speakers with young tribal members . Even with this type of training , it can take years to learn to speak the language . Another approach is the language immersion program , inspired by Hawaiian and educational models . The immersion model places students in immersive classrooms for a period of several years , in which only the Native language is spoken . Evening classes are also offered for adult learners . In addition to efforts to restore Native languages , many tribes and urban tribal organizations offer cultural education classes to teach traditional skills . Art and craft classes are quite popular . Classes offered by Native

instructors teach traditional techniques for making bows and arrows , weaving baskets , drawing in traditional styles , beading , and making moccasins , among others . History is another area that is receiving some attention . As just one example , the Cherokee Nation has instituted a history program for tribal members and tribal government staff so that all people working with and for the tribe have a shared understanding of history . Finally , Native events and celebrations typically draw substantial crowds . Many tribes and organizations host events such as powwows and tribal dances annually . These events are free to attend and present many different styles of dance and drum music , along with the opportunity to shop for Native arts and crafts . Powwows are usually events , in part the origin of these events in intertribal boarding schools . Tribal cultures and languages are a deep part of Native identity . There was a time in the United States when Native people were heavily exposed to assimilation pressures . During this time , many Native people stopped identifying as Native and did not teach their language or culture to their children or grandchildren . Acceptance of Native peoples has now shifted in most regions of the United States , and Indigenous peoples do not experience as much overt racism as they have in the past , although there are still some areas in the United on the borders of tribal overt racism against Indigenous peoples persists ( Ashley 2015 ) Many of the descendants of once tribes are now actively seeking to reassociate themselves with their tribal cultures , recognizing this part of their heritage as a central part of their identity . Traditional Material Culture The traditional material cultures of Indigenous peoples showcase an impressive array of styles and skills . Native art was heavily collected by individuals and museums in the century , when there were fears that Indigenous cultures were disappearing . Native art remains popular today . While many Indigenous artists continue to work in traditional styles , some are also incorporating contemporary styles and techniques . Native material cultures embed much cultural philosophy . As anthropologist and museum director Nancy says , To anthropologists , Native Nation arts are windows to understanding other cultures and societies . They can be specimens used to support evolutionary theories or explain the maker cultural concepts of show universal concepts and cultural differences , shared meanings , and modes of communication ( 1990 , 12 ) FIGURE baskets . Traditional techniques and stylistic motifs in Native material culture reveal a great deal about a people cultural beliefs . credit Image from Page 123 of How to Make Indian and Other Baskets ( 1903 ) by George Wharton Archive Book , Public Domain ) Artistic styles such as petroglyphs , in which images are carved into stone , and pictographs , or drawings , can

Indigenous Agency and Rights 595 be appreciated as both historic and spiritual statements . The petroglyph site in Cave , near Sweet Home , Oregon , has hundreds of carvings . The most easily recognizable are the bear paws on the wall of the cave . There are also numerous lines , zigzags , and holes carved out of the cave wall . Forest Service archaeologist Tony noted that people had long thought that the place was used to gain bear power for Native shamans . However , when one steps back , it is apparent that the decorated area of the wall is bordered by a large relief of a salmon , with one hole as its eye and the carved lines creating gills . The cave is now understood as a site where Indigenous , and other tribes in the to gain power when in the nearby South Fork River , where salmon were known to spawn . Cultural sites such as Cave are in danger of being destroyed by too much attention from archaeologists and the public . For more than a century , Cave has been visited by thousands of tourists who have touched the walls , dug in the ground in search of artifacts , taken rubbings of the carvings , and sometimes even carved their initials or painted over petroglyphs to make them stand out more . All these activities degrade the site . Early archaeologists did much the same , digging into the ground and moving many yards of dirt , which has caused rainfall to pool at the walls of the cave . The pooling moisture accelerates the growth of mosses and other plants , which also degrade the walls of the cave . Digging also destroys the archaeological context of the site . It is important to note that in many countries , including the United States , it is illegal to dig up and remove archaeological materials . Those who continue to dig up materials for private collection or for sale are conducting illegal activities . Many of the sites illegally dug are cemetery sites , containing the remains of people and cultural artifacts that are related to descendant tribal populations today . FIGURE Cave petroglyphs . Note that the bear paws have been painted to make them more distinct , but this partially destroys the context of the petroglyphs . Additional petroglyphs are all over this portion of the wall . credit Commons , Public Domain ) Weaving arts are another aspect of material culture for many Indigenous peoples . Basketry techniques were and still are used to construct vessels used for regular household and activities . Indigenous groups developed various techniques for weaving , such as right twist , left twist , overlay , and false embroidery . These techniques result in decorative styles unique to individual tribes . Weaving techniques make use of many natural materials . Large objects such as mats were typically made with cattail and tule , while baskets could be made from a wide variety of materials , hazel branches , cedar bark , bear grass , spruce roots , willow , and maidenhair fern . Some materials were chosen for their stability and durability , others for their , and still others for their color and luster . Dyeing weaving materials created complex color variations . Baskets were even used for cooking . The technique for boiling water in a basket is similar across many cultures the basket would be tightly woven , normally with a double weave , and then with water . The of the basket and the tight weave created a watertight exterior additionally , some traditions coated the with grease or pitch . Hot rocks , heated in a , would be placed in the basket

to make the contained liquid boil . In this manner , food could be cooked without destroying the basket . FIGURE ( left ) A basket maker working in 1916 . right ) Classes basket weaving help to keep the art alive . credit left , Basketmaker at Work , Arizona by Archives and Records Commons , Public Domain right , Jim Commons , Public Domain ) Many tribes now offer classes to teach people the basic techniques and styles particular to their tribal heritage . The Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde offer classes in carving , weaving arts , beading , regalia making , drum making , and other arts associated with the 27 tribes that make up the confederation . Arts and crafts are with education about Native philosophy , spirituality , and language . Some people attend classes for years to master the art style they enjoy , and tribal members may apprentice with master artisans to learn more advanced techniques . Many artisans are creating works of art that are inspired by deep feelings of Native identity , using their art to themselves and their people within the of both the present and the past . Several artists have become professionals and are producing work for galleries , exhibits , exterior monuments , and contracted sales . The artists employ traditional arts as well as contemporary sculptures and artistic traditions such as painting , drawing , and illustration . Many traditional artworks , such as cedar statues , are now rendered in metal , stone , or even glass so that they are more durable and can survive the rigors of contemporary tourism . Indigenous Philosophy and A shared element of Indigenous philosophy across various cultures is the conception of humans existing in relationship to the world around them . Native peoples believe they are deeply connected to the natural world animals are viewed as relatives , and plants , rocks , and mountains are all understood to have animistic spirits . Rivers , lakes , and even the seasons themselves are also understood as having spirits . Many Native American peoples believe that animals were once their brothers and sisters . It is believed that from the actions of some of the godlike animals , such as Coyote , Beaver , and Raven , much of the world was made . Many Native peoples gain shamanic powers by forming close relationships with certain animals . These powers might include the ability to heal , to poison , to call salmon , to call weather , to , or to communicate with animals . Typically , these abilities are gained through ceremonies designed to familiarize people with their spirit helpers at a young age . Ceremonies differ , but a common format involves a youth going off by themselves into a special natural as a forest , hilltop , or mountain fasting and meditating until they hear their helper spirit . In this manner , many Native peoples are connected to spiritual powers the most powerful may become a shaman or spiritual leader of their tribe . Details of these types of ceremonies are kept secret within each tribe . One reason for this secrecy is a concern that people might attempt the same ceremonies without guidance and perhaps hurt themselves or the world around them in the process . Native philosophy is understood to be embodied in the elders of the tribes . By living a full life within their particular cultural context , tribal elders gain wisdom about their people and culture . Many maintain tribal languages , too . Elders are honored and supported by younger members of their societies , who in turn learn about tribal traditions and philosophies from the elders . Elders come to their position partly through age , but normally they are recognized by their tribes when they exhibit great wisdom . Certain elders may have greater status than others depending on how well versed they are in their traditions and how respected they are by the

community . Native philosophy can also be gleaned through the study of oral histories . Many oral histories relate to subjects such as how the world was formed , how humans relate to animals , and how to acquire food , offering moral and ethical lessons . Oral histories may also be records of historic events , such as when the tribe was removed to a reservation , when many people died from disease , when a tsunami forced the people to escape to a mountain , when the land was changed by geological activity , or when there was a war . Oral histories are often full of metaphors and symbols of powerful spiritual forces that caused the event . One example is the story told by the people Coyote and ( Beaver ) fought on the Columbia River and created the Columbia Gorge . This oral history Native explanations of a series of events that occurred when rushing carved out the Columbia Gorge in Oregon . The occurred from to years ago during the large Ice Age . The , perhaps as many as 90 of them , are noted by geologists to have been caused by the breaking of glacial ice dams behind which was Lake . During in the warming period , the ice dams burst , and millions of hectares ofwater from the glacial lake down the Columbia to carve out the Columbia River Gorge . The dams would refreeze and burst again , perhaps hundreds of times , to scour the lands east of the Columbia of topsoil and carve out the gorge . The topsoil would be deposited in the Valley ( Allen , Burns , and Burns 2009 ) It is remarkable that Native peoples maintained oral histories documenting this event for at least years . The oral history of and Coyote is only one such story of this event . All tribes in the region have a story that mentions a of this magnitude . FIGURE Columbia River Gorge . A story told by the people relates how the gorge was created when Coyote and ( Beaver ) fought on the Columbia River . credit Commons , Public Domain ) Indigenous are embedded in ceremonies as well . The Nation of Northern California practices , their world renewal ceremony , also called the Feather Dance , on the winter and summer . This ceremony lasts as long as 10 days and is meant to showcase the wealth of the tribe . Dancers , both men and women , wear regalia and dance continuously for the 10 days of the ceremony . Each day , they increase the number of necklaces they wear and the wealth displayed in their regalia . When the dancers become wealthier , it is a metaphor for the growth of food , understood as the wealth of the land , that begins in the spring of each year . Dancers move in a semicircle , men on one side and women on the other , as a leader sings Native ceremonial songs and stamps out a beat on the earthen with a tall Stamper stick . Dancers take turns coming out and dancing , individually or in twos , threes , or larger groups , understood to be displaying their ceremonial power in hunting , or gathering . An audience of tribal people is normally situated around the benches of the dance house , men on one side and women on the other . The dances are meant to renew the earth to ensure strong returns of seasonal runs , good hunting opportunities , and rich yields of acorns or berries . The ceremony honors the land , the animals , and the plants

that sustain the people . This ceremony establishes a spiritual relationship in which people are not separate from nature but a part of it , with the responsibility to act as stewards of its great wealth . FIGURE Dee ni Feather Dancers perform during a ceremony at the University of Oregon in 2001 . The Feather Dance is understood to affirm a spiritual relationship between people and nature , with humans acknowledging the responsibility to act as stewards of its great wealth . credit David Lewis , Public Domain ) Most Indigenous cultures have ceremonies similar to this , centered on events such as the salmon catch , the hunt , or the first gathering of any important food . First salmon ceremonies for the peoples of the Rogue River Valley in Oregon involve a young man taking the bones of the salmon caught that year down to the bottom of the Rogue River . These ceremonies are an important way for Native peoples to acknowledge and recommit themselves to a responsibility to steward the natural world in order to sustain its health and vibrancy so that the people who rely on it may thrive into the future . Indigenous Critique Rights , Activism , Appropriation , and Stereotypes In the contemporary era , the publications of academics have had a great deal of on how tribes have been treated by the federal government and other groups . A 1997 essay , titled Anthropology and the Making of Tradition , included the authors opinion that the Coast tribe were descendants of Mexican people , and not Native people of North America at all ( Haley and 1997 ) The essay relied in part on rumors that were later refuted as unproven by archaeologist Jon ( 1998 ) These claims , even disproven , aided other Native peoples in accusing the Coast of not being Native , resulting in many social and political problems for the community . Scholarly publications such as these can affect the ability of tribal nations in the United States to gain federal recognition status because all applicants for federal recognition must establish continuous culture and governance . Public and scholarly opinions can have a huge effect on whether tribes get recognized and are able to restore their culture and sovereignty after centuries of colonization . Responses to the effects of colonialism have sometimes been overtly political . In the , the American Indian Movement ( AIM ) took actions to bolster tribal sovereignty throughout the United States . AIM was involved with several highly public activities , including an occupation at Mount Rushmore in 1971 in protest over the illegal taking of Sioux lands and the carving faces in a mountain sacred to the Sioux . AIM also participated in the occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973 , the site ofa historic battleground , in protest over the failure to impeach Sioux president Richard Wilson the resulting standoff with federal law enforcement lasted 71 days . Public awareness of the federal government oppression of Native peoples grew when a large military force was deployed during a second occupation of Wounded Knee , an event called Wounded Knee . AIM work was part of a larger civil rights movement that involved Black , and women activists as well as the growing War movement . This larger movement created political shifts in the United States that Native communities ( 2013 )

A ' i ( India We , FIGURE The Trail of Broken Treaties Protest of 1972 , part of the American Indian Movement for greater political rights and tribal sovereignty . credit by Barnes Protest , BY ) Beginning in the , several laws were passed by Congress to empower tribes . These included policies pertaining to education ( Indian Education Act , 1972 ) child foster care ( Indian Child Welfare Act , 1978 ) college education ( Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities Assistance Act , 1978 ) freedom of religion ( American Indian Religious Freedom Act , 1978 ) and rights to archaeological sites and remains ( Archaeological Resources Protection Act , 1979 , and Native American Graves and Repatriation Act , 1990 ) This period also saw the end of the national policy of termination and a turn toward allowing tribes that had been terminated to be restored , with becoming standard federal policy . Stereotypes Native peoples have also become vocal in confronting stereotypes about them . The Western stereotypes of Native peoples in North American depicted them in primitivist terms as noble savages , living in harmony with nature , with no notions of laws , time , or money . Implicit in this view was the idea that Indigenous peoples were not fully civilized and did not deserve the same rights as White , Christian people . Their land could thus be taken away . This stereotype has been described by writer Albert as a series of they were not fully human , they were not civilized enough to have systems , they were not literate , their languages and modes of thought were inadequate ( Smith 2021 , 31 ) Throughout the history of the United States , these stereotypes have been used to progressively take more and more away from Native peoples . When reservations were established , they were said to be permanent homes , but as White settlers began to see these lands as attractive places , the notion was again raised that Native peoples were not using the land appropriately .

FIGURE Chief Joseph of the tribe ( pictured with a stoic noble savage look . The stereotype of Indigenous people as noble savages has been used as justification for taking their land away from them . credit by Edward of Congress , Public Domain ) Additional stereotypes originated with early anthropological research . Notions that Native peoples could not digest alcohol , were lazy and would not work , were not intelligent enough to become civilized , or were dying off as a population because they did not have a civilized culture have all been perpetuated by scholars who embraced social evolutionary theories about human societies . The idea that societies and civilizations existed in competition with one another , and that Native peoples were not competitive because they were savages or barbarians , was inspired by Lewis Henry Morgan proposal of a hierarchy of civilizations . These ideas have been heavily refuted , but the stereotypes persist and continue to affect Native peoples in prejudicial ways . Recently , the issue of Indian mascots has received a lot of attention . In the early century , private and professional sports teams and franchises begin to name their athletic teams after Native groups or some characteristic words referring to Native peoples . Common names include the Warriors , Chiefs , Indians , Reds , Redskins , and Braves . Some of these names may have been chosen to honor the strength and resilience of people who had survived centuries of war with colonizing peoples . Regardless of the original intention , as time went on , fans of many of these teams developed practices that disparaged Indigenous peoples . Many mascots were cartoonish or savage caricatures . These mascots may have been the only exposure many American people had to Native peoples , at a time when there was no valid education about Native peoples offered in public schools . The challenge to the use of such mascots was led by Charlene , a student at the University , against the university mascot , Chief , in the . criticized various aspects of the chief presentation , including the headdress , regalia , and dance style , the latter of which was the invention of students who took the role of mascot each year . The campaign against this mascot continued for some 20 years , with many fans and alumni of the university countering that the mascot was meant to honor the people . The mascot was dropped by the university in 2007 . Much opposition to mascots is connected not to the use of the itself but to the behavior of fans . Practices such as dressing in red paint , wearing of fake feathers and fake headdresses , and using arm motions such as the tomahawk chop to show team spirit have offended Native groups . Names might also carry

meanings not fully understood by fans . Controversy around the Washington Redskins name and mascot lasted for some 30 years . Many fans weren aware that the term redskins was used in states such as California and Oregon to refer to Native scalps collected by White American militia members . These scalps , or redskins , could be returned to the state government for a bounty . At certain periods in history , hundreds of Native people were killed , and whole villages sometimes destroyed , by militia seeking redskins to collect these bounties . In 2020 , the Washington Redskins dropped the name , becoming known as the Washington Football Team until a replacement name was chosen . Similarly , in 2019 , the Cleveland Indians its Chief Wahoo mascot , and in 2021 , the team changed its name to the Cleveland Guardians . In some cases , tribal nations have collaborated with universities to develop more respectful mascot images . The University has collaborated with the Ute tribe in designing its mascot image featuring a feather , and Florida State University has worked with the tribe to develop its horse rider and spear imagery . There remains a political divide in the debate about mascots , with some Native activists believing there should be no Indian mascots , while others think that sovereign tribal nations , as sovereign governments , should be able to decide how their people are characterized by organized athletic organizations . Applied and Public Anthropology and Indigenous Peoples LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain how tribal cultures are using anthropology to secure rights to sites of cultural . Describe how anthropologists and Native scholars aid Indigenous peoples using anthropology . Discuss how Indigenous peoples create networks to help one another . Applied anthropology , which applies anthropological research and methods to contemporary problems , addresses much of the critique of anthropology offered by Vine and others . Many Indigenous peoples have become active participants in applied anthropological research , both seeking out and collaborating with anthropologists to work on projects that they themselves have defined . Many tribes now take a directive approach with researchers , offering contracts and funding for anthropologists who will work on issues that the tribes think are important . As tribes develop their reservation infrastructure , many have established archaeology programs to protect their rights to sites of importance . Many have asked scientists to create GIS ( geographic information system ) products , which feature layers depicting various resources and characteristics on a map , to manage their lands and help them effectively consult with states , the federal government , and private agencies . The layering of information in the GIS can create deeply immersive maps and models that include information about types of vegetation , the environmental history of lands , changes to lands , and any other information than can be captured and mapped . Layered information can be activated or removed from a map to meet aims . Tribes can now reference both the information available through scholarly studies and information about their lands and peoples from their own internal studies , which they do not typically share outside of the tribe . In many ways , tribes are now more knowledgeable about the archaeology of their territory than most institutions and are making plans to protect and preserve cultural sites and resources . Public anthropologists aim to engage with communities and involve the general public in their work as much as possible . In doing so , they empower communities to address their own problems . Many public anthropologists publish their research in readily accessible formats , such as newspapers and popular magazines . The Internet offers many ways for public anthropologists to reach a broader audience . Blogs and make it possible for anthropologists to make information broadly available in order to the greatest number ofpeople . The author of this chapter , David Lewis , describes his own efforts to make anthropological research more readily available a blog , the Journal ( which began in 2014 . At that time , I was engaged in a of studies of the tribal peoples of western Oregon . Years of research had given me much to write about . The blog offered a means that information quickly and without charge to a broad group of colleagues and the public who desired information about Native peoples . Many of

my readers are educators seeking con tent for high school or college classes they are teaching about Native peoples . This blog began ata time when Native groups and the state of Oregon were curricula for public schools , and it has become an essential curriculum tool for educators in the region . Educators have written back about the lack of resources and the great aid the blog has offered in their need about the tribes . The blog has to more than 450 essays about tribal peoples throughout western Oregon and beyond . essays are easily read in about 10 minutes and are laden . There are than subscribers to this blog . The essays have inspired additional research on Native peoples history and has lent Native con textual details to local studies of the histories of Oregon . ACTIVITY Research Activity Native American Peoples Conduct research into Edward Curtis photographs of Native North American peoples . The majority of his images are online in the Library of Congress Edward Curtis Collection ( After picking at least one image , research the circumstances under which Curtis took the photograph . Curtis himself offers clues to his subject and location , sometimes even identifying his subjects by name . Then , research the tribe the subject ( was or were a part of , including where the tribe was living at the time the photo was taken and their socioeconomic situation . Expect to conduct research to locate the correct historic sources . Finally , compare the culture portrayed in the photo and noted by Curtis information with your research . Note differences and ways in which Curtis may have altered the context . One reference for research is the video Edward Curtis Photographing the North American Indian , available from the Smithsonian Institution . Present your research in a formal report of pages , including full references and the image being researched . Suggested Readings , Thomas , and Larry , 1997 . Indians Vine , and the Critique ofAn . Tucson University of Arizona Press . Vine , 1969 ) 1988 . Custer Died for Your Sins An Indian Manifesto . Norman University of Oklahoma Press . Vine , 1970 ) 2007 . We Talk , You Listen New Tribes , New Turf Lincoln University of Nebraska Press . Vine , 1995 ) 1997 . Red Earth , White Lies Native Americans and the Myth Fact . Golden , CO Fulcrum . Vine , 1999 . Spirit Reason The Vine , Reader Edited by Barbara , Kristen , and Sam . Golden , CO Fulcrum . Vine , 2003 . God Is Red A Native View . ed . Golden , CO Fulcrum . Harrison , Faye , ed . 2011 . An Moving Further toward an Anthropology for Liberation . ed . Arlington , VA American Anthropological Association . wa . 1986 . the Mind The Politics of Language in African Literature . Said , Edward 1978 . Orientalism . New York Pantheon Books .

Smith , Linda . 2021 . Research and Indigenous Peoples . ed . London Zed Books .

Key Terms American Indian Movement a social and political organization with many local chapters around the United States of activist Native people focused on confronting the federal and state governments over racist policies and actions . AIM was most active in the and animistic relating to a spiritual belief that everything in the world has its own living spirit . assimilation the process of changing the culture of a person or group of people to some other culture , through socialization or education . basketry an art form of many Indigenous peoples , created from woven plant matter . Each tribe has its own traditions and styles , with some tribes using many styles . blood quantum a term first applied by the US federal government to determine which people had rights to services and land at reservations . The term has become a characteristic to who is eligible for citizenship in a tribe , with membership open only to those who have a minimum blood quantum genealogical ancestry . boarding schools educational institutions established by federal authorities to educate and assimilate Indigenous children through an immersive environment . Indian Claims a series of more than 700 lawsuits brought by tribal nations in the century against the US federal government to demand repayment for failures in the administration of a variety of responsibilities . Indian mascots of a Native person or group used to represent athletic teams , often portraying savage or cartoonish stereotypes . The practice is considered highly racist toward Native peoples . Indians a commonly used term for Native Americans applied by Christopher Columbus , who mistakenly thought the Indigenous peoples he encountered were people of India . Indigenous peoples the original populations of a land and those who carry culture and experiences from an Indigenous culture . Indigenous peoples may also be referred to as Native peoples , tribal peoples , tribes , First Nations peoples , Aboriginal peoples , or American Indians or Native Americans . the Indigenous peoples of New Zealand . Marshall court trilogy three Supreme Court ( 1823 ) Cherokee Nation Georgia ( 1831 ) and Worcester Georgia ( 1832 ) determined that tribal nations are domestic sovereign nations within the United States and dependent on the federal government to guarantee their sovereignty . mestizo Latin American term for a person of mixed heritage , normally Indigenous and Spanish or Indigenous and another White ethnicity . Canadian term for a person of partial Indigenous heritage . A person has different rights from a First Nations person . Native studies an educational discipline that originated from the critiques of studies of tribal communities by scholars . Native studies programs seek to center Indigenous knowledge and experience in studies of Indigenous peoples and societies . noble savages a romanticist term used to suggest that Native peoples were uncivilized and primitive , living in harmony with nature . oral histories spoken , rather than written , narratives of past events . oral tradition cultural knowledge that is passed on through oral , rather than written , form . petroglyphs images carved into stone and sometimes painted . pictographs drawings on the wall of a cave or rock shelter or on animal hide . public anthropologists anthropologists who work to make their research , analysis , and products available to the public through publication and presentation of their work in public , easily accessible places . reservations lands given to Indigenous tribes as supposedly permanent places for their communities to live and practice their culture , usually through treaty or executive order . termination a US federal policy adopted in 1953 that involved voiding the treaty agreements between the federal government and Native peoples , enabling the government to repossess and sell property that had been part of reservations in a process called liquidation . Terminated tribal peoples are no longer federally recognized Native peoples and have no rights to ask for federal services or assistance . Between 1954 and the 19705 , 109 tribes underwent termination . Most were federally restored between the and the . Trade and Intercourse Acts federal laws that administer trade between states and across federal borders . The law affects the ability of

Native nations to establish industries and sell products or services beyond their borders . treaties agreements between sovereign entities , in this context Native nations and the United States . urban Indian a Native person who lives in an Summary This chapter addresses many issues involving Native peoples that are a result of the colonization of Indigenous ales , the effects of a long history of governmental administration , and the manipulation of Native history and cultures in public spheres . Indigenous ales in the United States today have lived through a ong period of cultural collapse and are subject to extreme competition for land , rights , and resources . his chapter focuses primarily on the Indigenous ales of Oregon within the United States . The issues faced by these people are similar to those faced by Indigenous peoples around the world , including a history of colonization , removal from lands to reservations , signing away land and rights in treaties , and forced education in boarding schools . of tribal sovereignty , disenfranchisement from lands and resources , and assimilation have Critical Thinking Questions . How would you characterize the impact of colonialism on Indigenous peoples ?

Considering this chapter and overlapping subjects in previous chapters , what changes have been made within the discipline of anthropology in the and centuries ?

What role have casinos played in tribal economic development ?

How have Indigenous critiques and Indigenous perspectives changed and developed anthropology ?

Should Native American human remains and funerary objects be collected for Bibliography urban environment sometimes a negative title used by those living on reservations to refer to Native people who are assumed to have willingly given up their culture , land , and Native identities . affected Native peoples . In addition , Indigenous peoples of the United States face problems adjusting to contemporary society . The general lack of education about Indigenous peoples has caused a lack of knowledge about Native history and culture in society . Within this culture , mascots and stereotypes are challenging to Native peoples , who face racism in society . Contemporary tribal nations struggle to restore cultures and governance systems . Native peoples must adjust to the of modern society while they seek to maintain tribal identities and memberships in tribal nations . Scholarly studies of Native peoples are also addressed , as the studies and perceptions of anthropologists have affected how tribes are perceived today . research or returned to tribes ?

Explain your answer . Why are language recovery and language reclamation important to maintain Indigenous cultures ?

Explain your answer using details from the text . Address Indian mascots or stereotypes you have encountered in your experience . In what ways might they be viewed as dishonoring Native peoples ?

What roles are tribal communities taking with regard to applied anthropology ?

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Reservation Border , Northern Arizona University . Bryan McKinley Jones , and . 2007 . The Lives and Work of Beatrice Medicine and Vine Anthropology Education ( Crawford , James . 1995 . Endangered Native American Languages What Is to Be Done , and Why ?

Bilingual Research Journal 19 ( Linda , Ray , Sylvia , John Pryor , and Serge Tran . 2011 . Completing College Assessing Graduation Rates at Year Institutions . Los Angeles Higher Education Research Institute , University of California , Los Angeles . Vine , 1969 ) 1988 . Custer Died for Your Sins An Indian Manifesto . Norman University of Oklahoma Press . Vine , 1995 ) 1997 . Red Earth , White Lies Native Americans and the Myth Fact . Golden , CO Fulcrum . Vine , 1997 . Indians , and Planetary In Indians Vine , and the Critique , edited by Thomas and Larry , University of Arizona Press . Katherine . 2017 . Blood Will Tell Native Americans and Assimilation Policy . Lincoln University of Nebraska Press . Jon . 1998 . The Making of Tradition Replies to Haley and Current ( Haley , Brian , and Larry . 1997 . Anthropology and the Making of Current ( Susan . 1989 . Native American Texts and the Problem of Authenticity . American ( Leanne . 2001 ) 2013 . The Language Learning In The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice , edited by Leanne and Ken Hale , Brill . Bruce 2013 . Encyclopedia ofthe American Indian Movement . Santa Barbara , CA Greenwood . Lewis , David Gene . 2002 . Native Experience and Perspectives from Correspondence in the In Changing Landscapes Sustaining Traditions Proceedings of the and Annual Coquille Cultural Preservation Conferences , edited by Donald Ivy and Scott , North Bend , OR Coquille Indian Tribe . Lewis , David Gene . 2009 . Termination of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon Politics , Community , University of Oregon . 1968 . The Sociocultural Setting of Indian American Journal ( Medicine , Beatrice . 2007 . Drinking and the Lakota Sioux . Press . Albert . 2003 ) 2010 . The Colonizer and the Colonized . Translated by Howard , with an introduction by Nadine . New York . Miller , Robert . 2012 . Reservation Capitalism Economic Indian Country Santa Barbara , CA . Rebecca . 2019 . The US Has Spent More Money Erasing Native Languages Than Saving High Country News , November ,

19 Bibliography 607 , Kimberly Alice . 2005 . An Exploratory Study of Tribal Enrollment , Blood Quantum and Identity among the Confederated and Tribe of Western Montana . Rutgers University . 3180991 ) Nancy . 1990 . The Challenge of Native American Art and Material Culture . Museum ( Smith , Linda . 2005 . Imperialism , History , Writing , and In An Anthology of Cultural Theory and Criticism , edited by and Nair , New Brunswick , Rutgers University Press . Smith , Linda . 2021 . Research and Indigenous Peoples . ed . London Zed Books . Thornton , Russell . 1997 . Tribal Membership Requirements and the Demography of Old and New Native Americans . Population Research and Policy (