Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 18 Human-Animal Relationship

CHAPTER 18 mal Relationship Figure The relationships between humans and animals form a core part of all human cultures . Here , a man in Delhi sits beside his calf on a city street . credit ( veda ) by Commons , Public Domain ) CHAPTER OUTLINE Humans and Animals Animals and Subsistence Symbolism and Meaning of Animals Animal Industries and the Animal Trade INTRODUCTION Take a moment to consider your relationships with animals . Where do you interact with animals ?

Do you encounter them on your plate , in your home , on your walks or visits to zoos and aquariums , in your vaccines and medical procedures , in your body lotion , or in the clothing or shoes you wear ?

Or do you encounter them mostly in books , movies , and poems ?

scholarship is a relatively new . specialties cross individual disciplinary boundaries , drawing on perspectives and theories from multiple academic areas , most commonly anthropology , sociology , psychology , biology , and even economics . When we consider the multiple roles that animals play in human lives , it is easy to see how this topic intersects with so many disciplines the breeding and care of animals is associated with biology the use of therapy dogs in human populations , such as with prisoners or those suffering from stress disorder ( is associated with psychology and the ways in which different cultural groups think about and use animals is an

anthropological concern . As a result , scholars take an approach to preparing for and conducting their research to better understand the relationships among humans , animals , and culture . Humans and Animals LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Restate the meaning of animal . Describe the continuum . ethnography . Identify highlights in the domestication of dogs . The Continuum Nonhuman animals are part of many facets of our lives . Many people rely on animals as part of food and subsistence systems , particularly in the areas of hunting , herding , and agriculture . Some people worship deities who are all or part animal . Many people recognize animals as symbols of clans or sports teams . For example , did your school have an animal as the mascot for its sports or debate teams ?

Across cultures , people love animals as pets and companions , and , as recognized by evolutionary theory , humans are connected to animals as ancestors and relatives . Animals are integral parts of the lives of humans around the world , in which they play a variety of roles . an animal , however , can be complicated . With some exceptions , an animal is in science as a multicellular organism , either vertebrate or invertebrate , that can breathe , move , ingest and excrete food and food products , and reproduce sexually . This clearly also includes the human species . Western philosophical tradition supports this inclusion . The Greek philosopher Aristotle ( grouped animals as being blooded ( humans , mammals , birds , shelled animals , insects , sea animals ) or what he called , with mixed characteristics ( whales , who live in the sea but have live births bats , who have four legs but ) Aristotle humans as animals with the intellectual ability to reason . In 1735 , Swedish botanist Carolus introduced his binomial , which used two terms to identify every living organism a genus and a species designation . In his work ( 1735 ) divided the living world into two large kingdoms , the Regnum Animals ( animal kingdom ) and the Regnum ( plant kingdom ) Like Aristotle before him , humans as animals . Today , the approach to the study of the animal kingdom accepts that there is a continuum between all living animal species with grades of difference between species . However , even though humans are animals , people across cultures themselves as separate from animals . French anthropologist Claude ( argued that cultures universally themselves in opposition to what they view as nature , a domain they as outside or on the margins of human culture . Humans and human culture are typically seen as everything that is not nature or animal . This makes animals and nature very important concepts to human societies , because they shed light on how people think of themselves as human beings in the world . famously said of animals that they are good to think ( 1963 , 89 ) meaning that animals provide good ways for humans to think about themselves . Animals are used as symbols in all cultures , a sign of the human tendency to identify similarities and differences between ourselves and ( other ) animals . In all societies , culture plays an important role in shaping how people animals . Cultures assign various meanings to animals they are ancestral spirits or deities , companions , work animals , wild and dangerous creatures , and even objects on display in zoos or raised in factory farms for food . Think ofAmerican culture , which both loves and dotes on dogs as members of the family and raises pigs as a food commodity . In other cultures , dogs are considered a food species . Among the North American Lakota people , dog meat is considered a medicinal food ( see Meyers and Weston 2020 ) and in Vietnam , specially designated restaurants serve dog meat as a male aphrodisiac ( 2011 ) To further illustrate the blurring of boundaries between categories of animals , some species , such as the potbellied pig , are kept as family pets in the United States . How do cultures designate species as being one thing and not another ?

FIGURE Potbellied pigs are kept as pets in some countries . Here , a pet pig is ready for a walk in her neighborhood . credit Potbellied Pig ! by Eric , BY ) The study of group identity is central to anthropology . Different cultures distinguish what is animal from what is human by comparing the other with themselves . Sometimes called us Versus them , we Versus they , or even the Other , capitalized , this binary ( comparison is a human tendency observed across cultures . It is common for cultural groups to distinguish between humans and nonhuman species and also to designate some humans as other and not as fully to animals or even isolated parts of animals . In the Andes , indigenous and speakers refer to themselves as , meaning people or Those who do not speak their languages and do not live in the Andes are , by extension , nonhuman and are typically referred to as , meaning literally naked and bare , referring to their lack of social ties and community ( Zorn 1995 ) This distinction between those within the group and those without is common among Indigenous groups all over the world as well as within Western societies . Although the origin of the word frogs as an epithet ( nickname ) for the French is contested , it appears to have begun within France itself as a way of referring to people who lived in Paris and ate frog legs . By the late century , however , frogs had begun to show up in English newspapers and other written sources as a pejorative , insulting term for all French people ( 1948 ) Not to be outdone , the French have traditionally referred to the English as ( roast beefs ) a food common in English cuisine . Although these examples are relatively lighthearted , there is a dark side to imagery . In a recent book , German freelance journalist Jan ( 2020 ) examines the distorted relationships that some Nazi leaders had with animals . After coming to power in Germany in 1937 , the Nazi state enacted many laws against the Jewish people , among them a 1942 law that made it illegal for Jewish people to own pets , while Nazi leader Adolf Hitler doted on his dog and military commander Hermann Goring kept lions as pets . Preventing them from having companion animals was yet another way in which the Nazis sought to dehumanize Jewish people . relationships are important to our sense of selfhood . In this chapter , we will explore various cultures approaches to and understandings of nonhuman animals , including both living and symbolic animals , and the diverse ways in which humans interact with and think about these other beings . Ethnography In his essay Why Look at Animals ?

English art critic and poet John Berger writes , To suppose that animals entered the human imagination as meat or leather or horn is to project a century attitude backwards across the millennia . Animals first entered the imagination as messengers and promises ( 1980 1991 , Recent trends in anthropological scholarship attempt to interact with these messengers and understand the relationship that humans and animals share . The term refers to the interactions of multiple species . The relationships shared between humans and other species began with our ancestors millions of

years ago . The specialty of studies within anthropology suggests new forms of scholarship that deliberately move away from anthropocentrism , which focuses on humans as if they are the only species that matters . studies opens a window into different ways of thinking about what it means to be human . One approach within the specialty , called ethnography , pays careful attention to the interactions of humans and other species within their shared those other species be plant , animal , fungal , or microbial . are especially focused on the study of symbiosis , which is a mutually relationship between species . Researchers conducting utilize a broad , holistic approach that takes into account questions such as where and how interactions between humans and animals occur . This approach is more complex than traditional ethnography because it requires that the researcher acknowledge both the perspectives of nonhuman actors and their roles in how we see and understand ourselves . Cultural anthropologists and ecologists and Mark James ( 2010 ) conducted between two different herding populations in Russia the , who live in northeast European Russia , and the in western Siberia . The two groups live in environments that are comparable in terms of geography , average temperatures , and precipitation , and they herd the same subspecies of reindeer . Yet their herding styles are completely different . The divide their reindeer into two large groups a family group consisting of males , females , and calves , called a , and a group of castrated males used for transportation and hauling , called a . Herders accompany the two groups to two separate grazing grounds during the day and direct them back to camp at night . While foraging for food , the reindeer stay within their particular groups and do not wander away . In contrast , the allow their reindeer to freely disperse and wander during the day , only occasionally observing their general whereabouts and . Unlike the herds , which stay in their two large groups , the animals forage in smaller groups and reunite at night as a single herd when they return on their own to camp for protection . Unlike wild reindeer , who do not routinely live in and around human encampments , these groups have a symbiotic relationship with their herders . The humans get meat , some limited milk , and leather for clothing , shoes , and trade products from the reindeer , and the reindeer get protection and supplemental foods at the campsite from the herders . and research notes behaviors that the reindeer have learned from their human herders , but it also addresses social learning within the herds . In their interviews with the researchers , both and herders told stories about the difficulties they faced when introducing new , unmanageable animals into the herds . These new animals had not yet learned the herding routines of the group they were joining . Some wandered off and were lost before they could adapt to the particular herd culture . and conclude that the animals themselves pass along behavioral knowledge to each other across generations as offspring follow and learn from their mothers and other adult reindeer . This conclusion challenges the notion that animal behavior is solely genetic and instinctual . Expanding to include an understanding of what animals are doing and thinking is a primary objective of ethnography . Despite its recent emergence in anthropology as a separate specialty , the perspective has a long history . amateur anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan research on the North American beaver ( 1868 ) which includes material on beavers adaptation to and interaction with humans , remains one of the most insightful and perceptive works on the species . And the research conducted in the by British anthropologist Edward on the relationship between the people and their cattle resulted in an ethnographic account of their interdependence , both socially and economically . More recently , cultural anthropologist Darrell Posey used a ethnographic approach in his work Wasps , Warriors , and Fearless Men ( 1981 ) In this case , the relationships of interest are between humans and insects . Posey work utilizes a lens of , exploring the relationships that the people of central Brazil have with local insects and how these relationships shape their perception of themselves as human . Posey documents how warriors deliberately provoke a local species to sting them , using the secret of the venom to become more powerful

The warriors dance at the foot of the scaffolding and sing of the secret strength they received from the wasps to defeat the giant beetle . The women wail ceremonially in , emotional gasps as the warriors , ascend the platform to strike with their bare hands the massive hive . Over and over again they strike the hive to receive the stings of the wasps until they are from the venomous pain . This ceremony is one of the most important to the it is a reaffirmation of their humanity , a statement of their place in the universe , and a communion with the past . 172 ) FIGURE tribespeople continue to practice their cultural traditions while to protect their ancestral lands from Western encroachment . One of these traditions involves deliberately provoking wasps to sting them in order to enter a sacred state . credit VI no de da dos by Oliver Secretariat of Culture of the Ministry of , BY ) A Case Study of Dogs Humans interact with and relate to animal species that live in the wild as well as those that depend on them for their survival . Animals that are dependent on human beings are typically the result of domestication . Evidence suggests that early humans quickly developed a clear understanding of how selective breeding works , encouraging animals that shared preferred characteristics to mate and produce offspring . These desired traits included a calm temperament the ability to get along with , or members of ones own species usually a smaller body so that the animal could be gathered or herded in larger numbers and an attachment to or tolerance of humans . FIGURE Dogs were among the earliest domesticated animals . Here , Siberian huskies race in a event . Across cultures , dogs have been used for pulling and hauling loads . credit ,

, by Rainer , edited by Commons , Public Domain ) The dog ( Canis lupus ) is believed to have been among the earliest animal , possibly the . The origins of the domesticated dog are controversial . Most scientists agree that dogs originated from wolves , particularly from the subspecies Canis ( Indian wolf ) and Canis lupus ( Eurasian wolf ) The wide variety among dog breeds indicates that other wolf subspecies were also involved in selective breeding , making today dogs animal hybrids . Wolves have various natural instincts that make them excellent candidates for domestication . They are highly social scavengers who could easily have become accustomed to human settlements and food handouts at a young age , and they have a hierarchical social structure that includes status and submission within the pack , traits that would predispose them to conforming to human direction and domination . Dogs today vary genetically by only about percent from some of their ancestral wolf subspecies . Historically and , humans in many ways from their relationships with dogs . Dogs are naturally territorial and highly social they are both biologically and prone to be keenly aware of their physical surroundings and their group ( or pack ) The impulse to guard and protect is a genetic trait that was easily manipulated in the species as humans selectively bred animals that were particularly loyal to their families and attentive to their property . As part of the domestication process , humans selected for dogs who exhibited a response when alerted , with the result that domesticated dogs bark when concerned or excited . Among wolves , the bark is only used as an initial alert ( Yin 2002 ) Wolves do not call attention to themselves as dogs do . Hunting . Descended as it is from a wild predator , the domestic dog can be an excellent hunter and retriever . A trained dog offers considerable to humans in the hunting . Some Indigenous groups , such as the of Tierra del Fuego , Argentina , trained their dogs to dive and to for seals . The people of Canada used dogs on bear hunts . In czarist Russia , borzoi dogs were used to hunt for wolves . Herding . Dogs were key to the development of pastoralism , a subsistence system based on herding animals . Many pastoral societies utilized dogs as shepherds for domesticated herds of sheep , goats , cattle , and even fowl . Once trained to identify and protect its herd , a dog can be a defender of and guide for animals foraging away from human settlements . Trained herding dogs can shepherd their on a consistent trail without constant human surveillance . Selective breeding moderated a natural instinct in dogs referred to as , a sequence of steps utilized by dogs to focus on another animal when hunting . This moderated instinct enables dogs to guide and protect another species by keeping the animals rounded up and moving away from danger . While not utilized by every pastoral society , dogs are considered vital to most pastoral societies , even today ( see the Ethnographic Sketch at the end of the chapter ) Transportation . Historically , dogs served as beasts of burden , especially in cultures that had no larger domesticated animals such as the horse , donkey , or cow . Many Indigenous peoples used dogs to carry young children or possessions . Among North American Indigenous cultures such as the , Apache , and , dogs were traditionally used for transportation . Some of these groups developed specialized technology , such as the travois and the sledge , that allowed them to harness a dog to a platform loaded with items to be moved .

Humans and Animals 551 FIGURE women use dog travois , constructed of two shafts lashed to a platform , to carry their possessions . This photo was taken around 1910 in what is now southern , Canada . credit Women and Dog Travois by Provincial Archives of Commons , Public Domain ) Meat . In some cultures , domesticated dogs offer a dependable source of meat . Some of the earliest evidence of dog eating was found at a prehistoric rock shelter site located at Cave , Texas . At the Cave site , geneticist Raul Tito and his team domesticated dog remains in human ( fossilized feces ) dating to 9260 . From the Preclassic through the late Postclassic period ( 2000 CE ) in what is now Mexico , various Indigenous cultures , including the , Aztec , and Maya , raised and consumed dogs as a source of protein ( Thompson 2008 ) eventually developing a hairless breed of dog known today as the . This breed existed when the Spanish arrived in Mexico in the century . FIGURE The is a hairless dog first bred in Mexico . credit Milton of Culture of Mexico , BY 20 ) Although dogs are primarily pets in contemporary societies , they continue to play other important roles in a wide range of human activities . As just a few examples , dogs are used as drug detectives at airports , therapy animals for a wide range of human needs , and guides and helpers for those living with physical challenges . Dogs also continue to be used as shepherds , hunting companions , and guards .

552 18 Relationship Animals and Subsistence LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe the role empathy plays in relations . Identify some characteristics of the ways that Indigenous and nomadic relate to animals . Discuss the relationship between Rock Cree hunters and animals . in Subsistence One of the most important relationships between humans and animals is that centered on subsistence , the means by which a group of individuals makes a living . In and pastoral societies , the relationships between humans and animals are critical to human survival . Serving as meat , tools for hunting and for herding other animal species , and sources of commodities such as wool and leather , these societies animals are central to human lives . In such societies , human relationships with animals are typically characterized by animal empathy , or the sense of being attuned to the feelings or experiences of other this case , animals . Elaborate beliefs and rituals surrounding interdependence are common among and . The research of anthropologist Pat Shipman ( 2015 2017 ) suggests that human empathy and alliances with animals , especially dogs , gave humans an evolutionary advantage over animals . Relying on animals for survival prompted humans to develop not only improved hunting and tools but also a deep understanding of their prey . Humans needed to be able to discern and predict animal behaviors , including migratory patterns . By the emergence of our species , Homo sapiens , some years ago , humans had evolved to have a sophisticated empathic understanding of and relationship with animals . By the Upper Paleolithic ( humans were leaving testimonials to their empathic relationships with animals in cave paintings . One of the most outstanding early examples of animal art is the paintings found in the cave in southwestern France , depicting the animals and plants that humans encountered some years ago . These paintings were likely created over a range of years by several generations of hunters . Of the more than images of humans , animals , and abstract signs , some 900 are animals . Animals that appear in these paintings include horses , deer , aurochs ( wild cattle ) bison , felines , a bird , a bear , and a rhinoceros . One black bull measures meters ( approximately 17 feet ) in length . The animal is painted as if its legs are in motion . One of the felines appears to be urinating to mark its territory . FIGURE Paintings of various animal species appear on the walls of the cave in southwestern France . The paintings have been dated to ca . credit i by Paul , BY ) Access for free at

( closed to tourists in 1963 to protect the extraordinary artwork inside . Today , it has been named a World Heritage Site by the United Nations . This means that it is legally protected by international agreement with the goal of ensuring permanent conservation and protection . is of inestimable value for understanding our common human history . Animal Relationships among Indigenous Hunters Many cultures continue to rely on wild animals for subsistence today . This dependence requires the mastery of various cognitive skills , including knowledge and understanding of animal behaviors . In all cultures , much of the socialization of children is connected to skills required for subsistence . In societies that rely on hunting for survival , children learn to be especially attentive to their environments . It is also common in such societies for children to keep pets , often the young of wild animals that have been hunted , such as birds and small mammals . Many wild animals are capable ofbeing tamed by human handling when they are young . An animal is considered tamed when it has learned to tolerate human proximity and interaction for considerable periods of time . Bad hair day in the FIGURE Young lowland Amazonian children with a pet sloth in Peru . credit Bad Hair Day in the Amazon by Kevin , BY ) Indigenous subsist on what their environment freely provides . They do not produce food but rather collect it . Indigenous hunters typically view animals as fellow sentient and spiritual beings with whom they must maintain a relationship of mutual respect . Commonly , they practice elaborate rituals associated with hunting , both to show respect for their prey and to increase the likelihood of success in the hunt . In his study of elk and reindeer hunters in Siberia , Danish anthropologist Rane ( 2004 ) recorded many ritualistic hunting behaviors . These included taking a sauna bath several days before the hunt to diminish the hunters scent using special language ( code words ) to talk about the hunt , never mentioning death or hunting directly , in order to deceive or confuse the animal spirits and feeding a with alcohol and tobacco the night before the hunt to perfume the air and seduce the animal spirit to desire the hunter . Even so , the hunters are never about the hunt , as they believe they risk their own identities as human beings when trying to lure an animal and its spirit . The bond between hunter and hunted in Indigenous societies is often viewed as tenuous , a relationship between equals in which the balance

could shift in either direction . During the hunt itself , hunters wear wooden skis covered in elk leather so that their movements sound like the movements of an animal in snow , and they practice thinking like the elk or reindeer to lower the animals inhibitions so that they will allow the hunters to get near . The hunters even imagine themselves speaking to the animal , trying to diminish its fears . For the people , the hunt can be a dangerous interaction , and so respect is necessary at all times , even after the body of the animal has been taken . A Case Study Rock Cree Hunters The , or Rock Cree , are an Indigenous society of living in northwestern , Canada . In his ethnography Grateful Prey ( 1993 ) cultural anthropologist Robert examines the various ways in which the Rock Cree think about and interact with animals . Once a foraging society subsisting on big game hunting , and fur trapping , today the Rock Cree are primarily settled on government lands and no longer nomadic . Their relationship with animals continues to be central to their cultural identity , however , and today they hunt and trap as part of a mixed subsistence system that includes both foraging and wage labor . The Rock Cree hunting is informed by both Indigenous principles that place high value on big game animals such as bear , moose , and caribou and the current market price for animal products such as pelts . During his research , observed a fascinating tension between humans and animals at the core of Rock Cree hunting culture . Because animals are believed to be both spirit and body and capable of regenerating ( killing an animal has repercussions for the hunter . If the hunter does not treat the animal body with respect after the kill , the animal spirit will not return to the hunter The animals are endlessly regenerated , and yet they are . I am more powerful than the animal because I kill and eat it . The animal is more powerful than I because it can elude me and cause me to starve . The animal is my benefactor and friend . The animal is my victim and adversary . The animal is different from me , and yet it is like me . 1993 , 36 ) Rock Cree hunters , who may be male or female , are frequently by an animal spirit called a that appears in their dreams . Sometimes referred to as the master of animals in other Indigenous societies where it is also found , the is the head spirit of an animal species or type . Individual animals have a different and lesser spirit . The relationship that hunters have with the is complex and variable and depends on the hunters behaviors and circumstances . The may provide the hunter with useful information about where a prey animal can be found and can persuade a animal to either go near the hunter or elude them . A sorcerer can even send a to frighten dangerous animals away from a potential human victim . The Rock Cree believe that an animal can be successfully hunted only if it itself to the hunter . Through offerings of prayers , songs , and bits of food and tobacco burned in a stove or outside , the Rock Cree symbolically interact with their prey prior to the hunt . Once the animal is slain , the hunter makes sure that no parts of its body are wasted . To waste any part of an animal would be disrespectful and would imperil the hunter future success . The Rock Cree have detailed procedures for butchering , cooking , and eating animals and for disposing of the bones by hanging them in trees where they can not be violated by other predators . They believe that once the people have with the animal and left its bones hanging , the animal will recover its bones and regenerate back into the environment . Sometimes , hunters or trappers say they recognize an animal and that it is the same one that was killed before ( 1993 , 119 ) This study of the Rock Cree illustrates the intense and complex relationships that can exist between humans and wild animals . Many of these same kinds of relationships between hunters and animals also exist among the people and other hunting populations . Indigenous have a fundamentally different view of their relationships with animals and of their own place in the world than do or people living in industrial societies . This traditional wisdom and interconnected way of being in the environment is a valuable part of our shared human cultural heritage .

Animal Relationships among Nomadic and Transhumant Like , also have empathic relationships with animals , but the nature of those relationships is different . Pastoralism , which is subsistence based on herding animals , can be either nomadic or transhumant . Nomadic pastoralism is herding based on the availability of resources and involves unpredictable movements , as herders decide from day to day where they will go next . Transhumant have patterned movements from one location to another . The and herders in Russia , discussed earlier in the chapter in the section on ethnography , practice nomadic pastoralism . While the relationship between nomadic and their animals is based on respect and empathy , just as with , nomadic are more involved in the daily lives of the animals they rely on . Typically , the animals are herded into human campsites each night , and often their movements are monitored during the day . The animals are not physically dependent on humans , but the two groups are involved with each other , as herders offer supplemental food to the reindeer to reinforce their connection to the human campsites for the night . Both and nomadic rely on their animals for meat and leather , but nomadic might also harvest milk and use the animals as transport , two practices that require the animals to be more accustomed to human handling . The pastoral herd is more dependable as a food source than the wild animals of gatherers , but it is also more labor intensive and time consuming , requiring humans to manage the animals according to a daily routine . FIGURE A Sami reindeer herder in Sweden . such as the Sami rely on their animals for meat and leather , as well as sometimes making use of their milk and using them to transport heavy materials . credit A Day at Work by Mats Commons , BY ) Nomadic pastoralism is not as widely practiced as transhumant pastoralism , which evolved around the time of the rise of agriculture in Europe , Asia , and Africa . Transhumant do not typically raise crops or forage for wild plants , and they are dependent on trade with agricultural societies for vegetable products . Interestingly , while there are cultures that practice strict vegetarianism and do not consume any meat products , such as the Hindu and cultures in India , humans can not live solely on meat . Arctic hunters who had no access to vegetation in the winter ate the stomach contents of grazing animals , such as caribou , to access vegetable matter . Transhumant typically have a tenuous and competitive relationship with agriculturalist societies , as may not always have sufficient surplus for trade in years when there have been droughts or warfare , for example . At times , the relationships between sedentary and more mobile and dependent break down into involving threats , destruction , and even warfare . Transhumant pastoralism is usually built around a seasonal migration between a family two households in different geographical areas . It normally takes days or weeks to move people and herds between the households , so often have mobile residences , such as or tents , to use during travel . As we

in nomadic pastoral societies , transhumant rely on their animals for various trade commodities such as meat , leather , wool and wool goods ( ropes and blankets ) and juvenile offspring . The most common domestic herd animals of transhumant are cattle , sheep , goats , llamas and alpacas ) and yaks . Symbolism and Meaning of Animals LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify totemism . Identify the roles of animals in the oral traditions of many human cultures . Describe the various ways animals are used in religious practices . When we think of animals , we usually picture them as pets , food , or wildlife , but animals play a central role in the symbolism of human lives as well . Humans relate to animals not only as tangible beings but also as images and symbols that carry personal meaning and communicate cultural norms . While we can animal symbols almost everywhere in human cultures , they play a particularly role in group identity . Totemism Totemism is a belief system in which a subcultural group acknowledges kinship with a spirit being , typically a plant or animal , that serves as the group emblem or herald . Relationships with their totems mirror the social relationships they have with each other as within their society . Totemic groups , often referred to as clans , view themselves as descendants of nonhuman ancestors and maintain special relationships of respect with other species in the natural world . Totemism is an example of a metaphorical relationship between humans and the natural world , one that links humans , animals , plants , and even weather events into a web of life . Many Indigenous groups practice totemism and have ancestral alliances with certain animals and plants , demonstrated by the ways in which they talk about them in their myths and depict them in their artwork . Totemic cultures frequently practice shamanism as a way to communicate with animal and plant species . FIGURE The totem pole , a cultural practice of some North American Indigenous groups , exhibits the clan

identity , with a focus on the connections that the clan has with ancestors , animals , and plants . This reproduction of a First Nations totem pole is on display in Stanley Park , Vancouver , Canada . credit 2014 27 Cher and Downtown Vancouver 065 by Blake , BY ) The totem , an animal or plant believed to be spiritually connected to a group of people , is a symbol of identity for the subgroup . The , a North American Indigenous tribe located along the midwestern border between Canada and the United States , was historically divided into various ( clans ) most of which had local animals as their totems . Examples of their totem animals include a loon , a crane , a , a bird , a bear , a marten , and a deer . All members of the same totemic clan with one another as descendants and relatives . The totemic that children received at birth ( from their fathers affiliations ) connected individuals not otherwise linked by close social or biological relationships , creating a spiritual kinship within the clan through the common totem . Clans were often associated with occupations and work assignments within the larger tribe . Clans also determined marriage rules members of the same clan could not marry one another , as it was considered to be incest . While the today have fewer clans , and thus fewer animal totems , than when their population was higher , and the importance of clans and totems has lessened , they continue to value the identities that their ancestors constructed through the natural world . The totem pole is a form of monumental architecture displaying the totems and historical events in a clan or family ancestral history . It functions as a signpost that the occupants of an area to those passing through and proclaims the pride that a people have in their ancestry . Extended families are grouped together in a clan . The totem pole serves to proclaim the clan membership that an extended family has had throughout its history . The story of the creation of the Indigenous group and the major events that occurred in the life of that family , its clan , and its tribe are all depicted on the totem pole . Many , though not all , Indigenous groups in North America make totem poles . These poles are historical landmarks of cultural identity . Although Western societies do not construct physical totem poles , they do utilize some of the same symbolism in sports mascots and family heraldry . Sports teams use different types of symbolism , but animal symbols are common . Often , teams choose animals that are local to their immediate environment or that connect with certain characteristics and behaviors with which the group wishes to identify . Some teams with animal mascots are the Detroit Lions , the Tampa Bay Rays , and the Boston Bruins . What animal mascots do you know ?

Animals in Oral Tradition Animals play an important role in nearly all oral traditions and religions . Across cultures , including Western cultures in Europe and the United States , animals appear as protagonists in myths and stories . The animal characters in nursery rhymes , fairy tales , fables , and teach adults and children lessons and morals and model personal characteristics , some peculiar to a culture and others more universal . For example , the story of Chicken Little , also known in the UK as Henny Penny , is one that many US children learn at an early age . It was collected in print in the early century , but it has older roots as a European folktale . In this tale , Chicken Little goes out for a walk on a windy day , and an acorn falls on her head . She sky must be falling ! She runs around the farm warning all the animals about the calamity that she believes is happening The sky is falling ! The sky is falling ! The moral of the story is to have courage and not believe everything you hear . The Queen Bee is an interesting European reflection on animals , recorded from oral tradition by the Grimm brothers in 1812 . In this story , three princes , all brothers , leave their castle home to seek their fortunes and travel around the world . Two of the brothers move about haphazardly , paying no attention to the animals around them , but the youngest son , with the insulting name of Simpleton , is more considerate to the animals they encounter . When the older brothers try to destroy an anthill , kill ducks , and chase bees out of their hive , Simpleton intervenes to protect the animals and stop his brothers from causing harm . Eventually , the three princes arrive at another castle , in which everything living has been turned to stone except for one very old man . The old man tells the princes that if they can perform three tasks , all of which depend on the help of animals , they will be able to wake up the castle and earn the hand ofa princess . The animals , remembering how they were treated , agree to help only young Simpleton , who thereby gains the keys of the kingdom . The

moral is that even the smallest animals serve a mighty purpose . Many of the animal stories that are still told in Western societies were either collected by the Grimm brothers in the early ( or taken from Fables , a collection of stories supposedly told by , an enslaved Greek storyteller , around 500 . These stories have made their way into children storybooks and animated an animated version of Chicken Little . Indigenous societies across cultures have their own sets of animal stories that provide instruction and wisdom . Some of the most common animal symbols among Native American cultures are the coyote , the raven , the bear , and the spider . Coyote and Raven often appear in stories as tricksters , animal spirits or deities who are lively and clever and get into trouble through thoughtless or unconventional actions . In the story of Coyote and Bluebird from the people of the southeastern United States , Coyote envies Bluebird plumage and asks for the secret to the beautiful blue color of the bird feathers . Bluebird tells Coyote that these pretty blue feathers came from bathing in blue water . Coyote does the same and comes out with a blue coat . In his vanity , he tries to outrun his shadow so that he can see his beautiful blue body in the light , and he crashes into a stump , landing in the dirt , which coats his blue fur and paints him a dirty color that he still has today . The moral of this tale is that vanity does not serve an individual well . In West Africa , many myths focus on a supernatural named , the spider . is a culture hero who teaches lessons of bravery and morality . Culture heroes are typically associated with supernatural feats and are particular to each cultural group , exhibiting traits , actions , and discoveries that are in that culture . In one story cycle brought by enslaved Africans to the Caribbean area during the time of the Atlantic slave trade , goes and his basket with many different sizes of . On his way home , he crosses paths with Tiger , who demands to know what is carrying in the basket . Scared , lies and says he has nothing . Tiger takes the basket and sees the . In a series of interactions , succeeds in outsmarting Tiger by agreeing to clean his fur . Tiger shakes down his long hair , and then uses it to tie Tiger to the trunk of a tree , picks up his basket of , and continues home . The moral of the story ?

Use your wit to . Or , perhaps , Don the best ofyou . Animals in Religion Animals play a role in most religions . Common functions include as objects of ritual and as tokens symbolizing gifts , payments , or even messages between the human world and the divine . As just one example , think of the use of a dove in the Noah and the ark myth ( Genesis ) The dove is the animal to bring back a piece of greenery , evidence that the had receded . With this promise , Noah begins preparations to leave the ark and start over . This use of animals as messengers and forms of sacred communication is seen across cultures . In prehistoric Peru , wild guinea pigs were and buried either alone or with humans . They appear in archaeological deposits in Peru as early as 9000 ( and Wing 1997 ) and they continue to appear as after their domestication around 4500 and through the Inca period that ended in the century . Some of the animals are whole and intact , and desiccated , while others have been burned and their charred bones stored as ritual offerings inside elaborate ceramic jars . Guinea pigs were and still are a dependable source of meat in the Andes , where they traditionally live inside kitchens , nesting around the warmth of the cooking area . They are also used medicinally , their fat rubbed on areas of sickness to draw out pain and infection , and employed as divination tools . During divination rituals today , some healers will rub a living guinea pig on a patient body to draw out some of the illness and then cut the animal open to read it , looking for a sign of some type of abnormality in the guinea pigs organs that would mirror the location of the illness in the human patient . At Lo , an ancient Inca site south of Lima , Peru ( ca . CE ) archaeologists have excavated multiple guinea pig , some of which show characteristic signs of having been used for divination and healing prior to burial . In India , where is the predominant religion , it is common to see cows walking along city streets , undisturbed and roaming freely . Many Hindus practice vegetarianism , but even those who eat meat do not usually eat beef . Cattle are sacred in . In the , the Hindu sacred texts , the cow is associated with Aditi , the mother of all gods . In a very famous study , The Cultural Ecology of India Sacred Cattle ( 1966 )

eeping 559 cultural anthropologist Marvin explores the economic rationale associated with cattle , arguing that cattle are considered sacred because they are more useful when allowed to live out their natural lifespans than when slaughtered at a young age for meat alone . In India , cattle provide dung that can be dried and used as fuel , traction for plowing , some limited milk production , and reproductive capacity . When cattle die of old age , beef and leather are then harvested by those in the lowest socioeconomic class . Keeping cattle alive as long as possible thus provides for a greater range of material assets than raising them for food . This economic rationale , however true it may be , does not negate the cultural and religious importance of cattle to Indian people . Understanding animals symbolic roles is critical to understanding human belief systems . FIGURE A white elephant enjoys the rain in an elephant sanctuary in , Thailand . In Buddhism , the elephant symbolizes mental strength and endurance ( Diamond 2011 ) Buddhists in Burma , and Thailand believe that the white elephant represents one of the of the Buddha . credit Elephant in the Rain by Marc , BY 20 ) Buddhism is a religion that reveres all life and sees humans and animals as intertwined , each capable of being reincarnated into the other , reborn into a new cycle of life inhabiting a new body of the same or another species . Because Buddhists believe in karma , a spiritual principle of cause and effect in which an individual words , actions , and deeds in one life affect their conditions in the next life cycle , the relationship between humans and other animals should ideally be based on respect and sympathy . All forms of life are working toward enlightenment , a state of awakening and having a complete knowledge of the life process . Animals are important in human belief systems . English art critic and poet John Berger ( 1980 1991 ) writes about the gaze between humans and other animals , saying that animals remind humans that we are not here on Earth alone , that we are all companion species . Many religious systems the awareness that life is not the exclusive domain of the human species and that our world is a shared community . For more on animals and belief systems , see the Ethnographic Sketch at the end of the chapter . LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to the pet as a cultural artifact . Trace the historical development of pets in Western societies . Provide examples of pets in Indigenous societies . Identify major behavioral and morphological characteristics of pets . Describe the economic impact of pet keeping in Western societies .

One of the most familiar and intimate roles that animals play in the lives of contemporary Western people is that of pets . Pets are animals that are either domesticated or tamed with whom humans have developed a social bond . Pets are part of many human cultures . Pets as Cultural Artifacts Although pets are actual beings ( many ofus can think of the face of one or more pets we live or have lived with ) pets in general can be understood as a cultural artifact . This means that the ways in which pets are treated and what is expected of them vary a great deal from one culture to another . Most pets live in or around human households , are considered the possessions of their human owners , and have limited ability to make freewill decisions . Chinese geographer and early scholar in studies Tuan ( 1984 ) has studied the ways in which humans have dominated the living environment and their pets , with approaches varying between extremes and affection , love and abuse , cruelty and kindness . He argues that pets in Western societies are defined by emotion and nostalgia , an approach likely related to increasing distance between people and the natural world . Even within a culture that treats certain animals in a sentimental way , relationships with other animals can still be characterized by cruelty and dominance . Tuan writes , Animals are slaughtered for food and clothing without a twinge of conscience . A few specimens and species , however , catch the fancy of people in a playful mood and are made into pampered pets or fervently supported causes ( 1984 , 162 ) What we would recognize as modern pet keeping in the Western approach characterized by keeping animals for no other purpose than to be companions for during the late and early centuries . Prior to that time , animals cared for by humans had functions or tasks within the household . As communities and towns became increasingly urban and people lost interaction with wild animals , the relationship between people and animals shifted in various ways . Many families were smaller and had more time to care for a pet . Animals had fewer assigned duties and responsibilities and were more available as companions . Improvements in medical and veterinary sciences lowered the risk of , or diseases transmitted between animals and humans , although zoonotic infections continue to threaten human populations ( consider , for example ) Lastly , a growing middle class with more could afford the luxury of keeping pets . Modern pet keeping is marked by a relationship of demonstrative affection between people and their animals as well as by the economic development of pet industries , such as pet food companies , veterinary services , and even cremation and burial services . Pet Keeping in Indigenous Societies There is extensive evidence of pet keeping in Indigenous societies . In many societies , children keep numerous pets , most often birds , small rodents , and monkeys . These animals , often taken directly from the forest or wilderness area when they are still young , are considered valuable companions for children . Caring for the animals is thought to teach children to understand animals movements and personalities and help them develop a sense of stewardship for the natural world . Animal ethicist James ( 1988 ) has found pet keeping throughout Indigenous societies in North and South America . The in the region of Venezuela keep birds , monkeys , sloths , rodents , ducks , dogs , and chickens as pets . The of central Brazil have a particular affection for birds and treat them as members of the family . The Colombia keep pet rodents , birds ( especially parrots and macaws ) mammals ) and even . And North American Indigenous groups are known to have tamed raccoons , moose , bison , wolves , bears , and especially dogs .

FIGURE A with their dog in Mato Grosso do Sul , Brazil , in 2004 . Pets are part of many human cultures . credit Ti Guarani ( 23 ) by Ana , BY ) While many Native Americans are very affectionate with their dogs , their style of keeping these dogs as pets differs a great deal from what most American are familiar with . In a 2020 article titled What Rez Dogs Mean to the Lakota , Lakota tribal members Richard Meyers and Ernest Weston explain In our culture , people traditionally do own animals the way other cultures have pets the animals are left wild , and may choose to go to a home to offer protection , companionship , or even to become a part ofa community . People feed the dogs and care for them , but the dogs remain living outside and are free to be their own beings . This relationship differs from one where the human is the master or owner of an animal who is considered property . Instead , the dog and people provide service to one another in a mutual relationship of reciprocity and respect . The roles in human societies are very complex and depend on cultural traditions and ways of relating to animals , both wild and domesticated . It is important to note that pets play different roles across different cultures and can not be easily defined . The Making of Pets In Western societies , domesticated animals have increasingly been subjected to extreme genetic manipulation in order to manufacture ever more novel and attractive pet animals . In Europe , the earliest kennel clubs , designed to develop and maintain breeds and record pedigrees , began as dog show societies in England in 1859 and were later established as governing bodies and institutions , starting in 1873 . Although dog breeds now come from all over the world and continue to be recent addition to the list of breeds recognized by the American Kennel Club ( is the terrier , recognized in January majority of modern pet breeds were developed in Victorian England , where pet keeping and was adopted by all social classes . Sometimes , this selective breeding of pets is detrimental to the health of the animal breed . In the English bulldog , for example , 86 percent of litters must be delivered by section because the pups large heads and mothers narrow have made live , natural births very challenging ( Evans and Adams 2010 ) In addition , as dog breeders create more and more specialized pets , the gene pool becomes narrowed and less diverse , producing animals that are more prone to conditions such as cancer , hip dysplasia , deafness , hereditary epilepsy , and allergies . In pedigreed cats , which are subject to the same selective pressures in breeding , there are both heart and kidney problems that are thought to be accelerated by selective breeding . One of the most commonly sought set of characteristics by people selectively breeding animals for pets is the appearance of a state . the tendency for an animal to maintain both physical and behavioral juvenile characteristics into adulthood , has been highly sought after in many domesticated

animals . Some of the most commonly physical traits are larger and eyes , a smaller snout ( or nose ) a more globular ( or rounded ) skull , and fewer and smaller teeth ( which leaves many dogs with crowded teeth and dental problems ) Social involves a cluster of traits relating to a strong and submissive attachment to humans and increased attentiveness to human behavior The overall size of animals is also a consideration when breeding pets . Consider the range of miniature animals we have selected for today miniature horses , mules , and pigs pygmy goats and hedgehogs and others . Of all animals kept as pets , dogs have been the most manipulated in size . Today , there is a proliferation of teacup breeds that can be carried in the owner pocket or purse . Small dogs offer many advantages to humans living in urban environments and small apartments , but there are few advantages for the dogs themselves . Most teacup versions are created by breeding the smallest animals in a litter . There are many health risks that accompany this process of extreme miniaturization , such as collapsing , digestive problems , heart defects , liver , slipping kneecaps , and a host of dental challenges . Pet keeping has deep roots in human societies and has changed over time . Interestingly , it has also been documented among some animals . Nonhuman animals have been known to form friendships and alliances and to take care other both in the wild and in captivity . One interesting example is the gorilla , called Koko , who was trained to understand spoken English and communicate using a form of American Sign Language that her keeper called Gorilla Sign Language . Koko became interested in cats and signed that she wanted a kitten for Christmas in 1983 . Her keepers at first provided her with a stuffed cat , but Koko insisted that she wanted a living one . On her birthday the following July , her keepers allowed her to choose a rescue kitten , which she named All Ball because he had no tail and was very fluffy . The relationship between Koko and her kitten , documented in many articles and videos , was a nurturing one in which Koko treated All Ball like her baby and her pet . Pet keeping says a great deal about the human need to reach across species for companionship , dominance , and affection . Perhaps , though , this is not solely a human need . Animal Industries and the Animal Trade LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe the evolution of zoos . Recognize the of . the use value of animals in biomedical research today . In the past two centuries , Western societies have increasingly taken the approach of treating animals as a raw material or resource for human use , a thing instead ofa being . When we consider the relationships that many Indigenous societies have with animals , we can better realize how different the Western idea of animals is . Approaching the world and nature primarily as consumers rather than , Western cultures face increasing environmental , and challenges in all areas of life . Zoos Zoos have long been part of human societies . The earliest evidence ofa zoo has been found in , the capital Egypt during the Predynastic period , today called . Here , archaeologists have unearthed the remains ofa collection of wild and domesticated animals from about years ago that included baboons , hippos , gazelles , crocodiles , a leopard , and cats and dogs . Some of the animals had injuries likely caused by being tied or enclosed in some way . Many of them were buried in the same way that humans were buried , and some were found inside human burials ( 2015 ) Another famous historical zoo was that of the Aztec king . When the Spaniards arrived in the Aztec capital of in 1519 , they were surprised by the vast collection of animals housed in enclosures and rooms within the king palace complex , bears , eagles , deer , fowl , and little dogs . According to the Spanish chroniclers , the zoo had some 300 keepers to care for the animals . Similar to early pet keeping , zoos were typically associated with wealth and status . Modern zoos emerged in the late century during the period known as the Enlightenment , characterized

by the development of science and the expansion of colonial empires . European zoos were with wildlife from new colonies and foreign lands and were considered places to see strange and exotic animals . The modern zoos opened in Paris in 1793 , London in 1828 , and Philadelphia in 1874 . These were all very popular public institutions that exhibited animals for entertainment and observation . The zoos were laid out like public parks , with small animal enclosures that allowed people to get up close to see . There have been many changes in zoos over the last 50 years . With the signing of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna ( CITES ) in 1973 and the passage of the Endangered Species Act in the United States the same year , wild animal imports to US zoos declined sharply . This coincided with the development of breeding and conservation programs at zoos , some of which involve breeding rare and endangered species to be released back into the wild as part of a sustainable population . One species for which breeding efforts are currently underway is the giant panda . Animals are commonly moved from one zoo site to another and shared for breeding purposes in an effort to fortify the breed . Animals that are endangered may be part ofa zoo preservation program . In some cases , critically endangered animals are cared for by zoos when they are young and vulnerable to predators and then reintroduced into the wild . The website of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums ( features a long list of animals whose populations have been preserved through the efforts of zoos , including the ferret , the California condor , the Ohio River basin freshwater mussel , the golden lion tamarin , and the Oregon spotted frog . Zoos also sponsor research programs with goals such as creating sustainable populations in the wild , conserving wildlife habitats , improving animal health , or even collecting endangered species genetic material ( DNA ) 2012 , 106 ) What should be the role of zoos in contemporary Western societies ?

Should the zoo be closer to a theme park or a museum ?

Should the goal of a zoo be animal conservation or human recreation ?

These questions guide us as we continue to rethink the mission of zoos today .

PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Barbara . King . FIGURE Anthropologist Barbara King with Cynthia Goat at the Farm Sanctuary in Watkins Glen , New York ( credit Charles ) Personal History Born in New Jersey , King earned her BA from College ( Rutgers University ) and her MA and from the University of Oklahoma , where she specialized in biological anthropology . Her doctoral research in National Park , Kenya , focused on foraging and social behaviors among yellow baboons . From 1988 to 2015 , she served as professor of anthropology at the College of William Mary in , Virginia , where she received numerous awards for outstanding teaching and mentorship . She is now a professor , although she continues to have an active role in academia , research , publishing , and mentorship . Area King research and contributions to the are notable for their relevance across anthropological and disciplines , among them linguistic and communication systems in primates , social relationships between species , the primate origins of religious thought , and the social and emotional lives animal species , including those being factory farmed . Her anthropological focus is often on the between humans and other animals and the ethics of relationships . She has published seven books and numerous scholarly articles . Accomplishments in the Field Given the scope of much of King research , she has had considerable impact on many areas of academia . In 2002 , King was awarded a Fellowship for exceptional capacity for productive scholarship and creativity . Two of her works , Evolving God A Provocative View on the Origins ( 2007 , and Grieve ( 2013 , University of Chicago Press ) have received prizes and awards as outstanding contributions to the field . King is also an active public anthropologist , bridging gaps between academic research and the public . A contributor to the National Public Radio blog Cosmos and Culture from 2011 to 2018 and a science

Animal Industries and the or writer since her retirement in 2015 , King , through interviews , articles , and blogs , communicates the importance of science for public good and social change . Her research on animal grief , Grieve , was highlighted in her 2019 TED Talk , Grief and Love in the Animal Kingdom ( barbara . King also regularly reviews books for various media outlets , including , the Washington Post , and the Times Literary Supplement , and publishes in Sapiens , an online anthropology magazine devoted to public outreach . She is a Twitter addict ( Importance of Their Work In her public role , King seeks to educate and incentivize people to make positive change for human and animal lives . In her newest book , Animals Best Friends Putting Compassion to Work for Animals in Captivity and in the Wild ( University of Chicago Press , 2021 ) King issues a call to cultivate compassionate action toward all the animals sharing their lives with us . She challenges us to widen our lens on the world around us and become animals best friends , whether they are in our homes , in the wild , in a lab , in a zoo , or destined to be thought of as food . When we still ourselves and genuinely see the , possibilities for helping animals bloom all around may rescue rather than squish a spider in our home resist an urge to crowd wild animals in order to snap advocate for models in laboratory science refuse to support roadside zoos or programs and increase our eating ( Snipes , personal communication , 2021 ) For more on King recent work , see her interview with nature writer Brandon ( on Earth Day 2021 . Another way in which contemporary Western societies are attempting to address the damage caused by a view of the natural world , including the animals living in it , is through . This is tourism designed to be sustainable and to help preserve the and fauna of endangered natural environments . Often , the focus is on visiting threatened environments and observing wildlife in its natural habitat . Such tourism can earn money to aid in the conservation of these areas , provide employment for local residents , and raise awareness of the importance of biological , as well as cultural , diversity . Ideally , care is taken to ensure that tourists visiting natural areas do not disturb or damage the environment however , there are no global standards for , and some sites are more successful at protecting sensitive environments than others . The term is sometimes applied to sites that promote the natural environment as an attraction while engaging in exploitative and environmentally destructive behavior . FIGURE The giant tortoise is found only in the Islands . It is being preserved today through and conservation efforts . credit Pinta Island Giant Tortoise by Arturo de , Public Domain ) An example of effective and increasingly responsible is provided by the Islands . The

island chain was made famous by English naturalist Charles Darwin , who used his observations of the diversity of the ecosystems animals to develop the theory of natural selection . Located 563 miles west of the coast of Ecuador , the were listed by as a World Heritage Site in 1978 . Prior to that , the islands were only partially protected . Some of the Islands were designated as wildlife sanctuaries in 1934 , and the island archipelago became an Ecuadorian national park in 1959 . Around that time , a few wealthy tourists began to travel to the islands to view their extraordinary biodiversity . By the , tourism had become very popular and a tourist industry had developed , with hotels , restaurants , and transportation . Today , the National Park Service , which manages 97 percent of the island lands ( the other percent are contained settlements where local people live ) has strict policies limiting the daily number of visitors . Local people serve as employees in the park and teach the value of conservation to tourists . It is the hope of the National Park Service and the local people that this island ecosystem and its living as the giant tortoise , the penguin , the booby , the cormorant , and the waved be preserved for future generations . Animals and the Medical Industry In 2015 , there were estimated to be some 192 million animals being used in biomedical laboratories across 179 countries worldwide ( Taylor and Alvarez 2019 ) These animals are used for medical experiments , drug testing , product testing , and psychological research . The most commonly used animals in US labs are mice , rats , and birds , though a range of other rabbits , guinea pigs , hamsters , farm animals such as pigs and sheep , cats , dogs , and nonhuman used as well ( Humane Society of the United States 2021 ) These animals come from various sources , including breeding programs within the biomedical labs themselves . Although biologists , chemists , animal , psychiatrists , and psychologists tend to be more frequently involved in medical research with animals , and linguistic have a history of working with animals in laboratory settings . Sue carried out cognitive studies of two bonobos , and , from birth . was interested in understanding how bonobos , which are closely related to humans , learn communication . She developed a language program using , or symbols representing words , printed on a keyboard . Although lacking the vocal apparatus ofa human , and demonstrated advanced cognitive linguistic skills by responding to human speech and generating language by pressing . In one study comparing language competence with that of a old human child , scored significantly higher 74 percent accuracy , compared to 65 percent accuracy for the human ( et al . 1993 ) Studies such as this one shed light not only on animals abilities but also on the that exist between humans and animals . There are two primary regulations in the United States that pertain to biomedical research animals the Animal Welfare Act ( AWA ) and the Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals ( Policy ) The AWA is a law passed by Congress in 1966 that originally covered the transport , sale , and handling of some animals and advocated for more humane animal practices in laboratories . The act has been amended several times ( 1970 , 1976 , 1985 , 1990 , 1991 , 2002 , 2007 , 2008 , 2014 ) including to add a requirement that researchers register their use of animals and also consider a database of alternatives if the procedure can cause any distress or pain . The act cover animals such as dogs , cats , rabbits , and nonhuman primates , but it does not cover those animals most commonly used in laboratory experiments rats , mice , and birds . The Policy applies to all research facilities that perform animal research and receive any type of federal funding though not law , its creation was mandated by the Health Research Extension Act , passed by Congress in 1985 . This policy states that each institution conducting such research must have an institutional animal care and use committee ( that reviews all proposed animal research experiments . This committee must include at least members , one must be a veterinarian and another a person not with the institution . When reviewing research proposals , the is expected to evaluate whether ( basic standards are met , the use of animals is , the research is not duplicated , and ( pain and discomfort for the animals are minimized . The United Kingdom and the European Union have similar measures to regulate and oversee animal laboratory research . Animal research has been critical to many advances in medicine , including the development of the

Animal Industries and the Animal Trade human vaccine to successfully eradicate smallpox , the polio vaccine , and treatments for , disease , hepatitis , and malaria . Animals have played a crucial role in the development of many new drugs and therapies , and a amount of research conducted on animals also veterinary medicine and other animals as well . However , the use of living animals for experiments and testing raises many ethical issues and has inspired a great deal of and controversy . Animals in Our Lives Humans share their lives with animals in many ways , and how we think about ourselves as human beings rests primarily on the distinctions we see between ourselves and other species . English art critic and poet John Berger writes , With their parallel lives , animals offer man a companionship which is different from any offered by human exchange . Different because it is a companionship offered to the loneliness of man as a species ( 1980 1991 , Across cultures and across time , humans have looked toward animals as fellow participants in their lives . They actively participate in the ways we ourselves . They feed us and accompany us . They work for us and protect us . They also serve as symbols and messengers that help us better understand our world . Our lives are intertwined in multiple ways . What is an animal ?

What is the value of nonhuman animals in our lives ?

How do our attitudes about animals who we are as human beings ?

Anthropologists and other researchers increasingly see the value of bringing animals into their research because animals are critical to understanding what it means to be human . ETHNOGRAPHIC SKETCHES Animal Familiarity Experience of Marjorie Snipes , chapter author , FIGURE A young female goat and her kid . credit Nursing Kid by , BY ) During in northwestern Argentina , I lived with a community of herders who tended goats and sheep , interviewing every day and taking copious notes . After six months of research , I took a break from the to return to the United States to welcome my new niece . When I returned to the site , I had an accidental breakthrough . However , let me back up . In this community , herders believe that their are gifts from ( Mother Earth ) and women are the primary caretakers and shepherds for the animals . After I had lived in the community for about six weeks , one of the families gave me a small kid , or young goat , which I named . I suspected that this gift was a test to see if I was planning to be part of the community . I took care of every day , even though she remained a functioning member of another family herd . 567

Goats normally reproduce toward the end of their year , and was pregnant when I left for my week absence from the . While I was gone , she gave birth to a male that the family named , after a Catholic saint . When I arrived back at the household where I was staying , late in the day , Dona was eager for me to meet the newest member of my herd . We entered the corral , and the young kid came running up to me with no fear . When I commented about the familiarity , as young animals tend to be skittish around new people , responded , But he knows you , And so I learned about the ( little book ) that they believe is located in the stomach area of each of their herd animals . The contains information about an animal life who loves it , where it belongs , and when it will die . It is the shepherds duty to discern the contents of the book through the animal behavior , as she can not openly read it . Animals who get lost frequently or have trouble bonding with the herd will be traded , as families believe such animals do not belong to them . And when it is time to select an animal for slaughter , the shepherd chooses an animal whose behavior indicates that the time is appropriate . While the signs vary according to the animals disposition , it is normally a change of demeanor that the shepherd interprets as acquiescence . During slaughter , a woman typically holds the animal while a man cuts the throat . In all slaughters that I attended , the goat or sheep was killed peacefully , and butchering occurred quickly one . The animal was a large ewe , and she was initially compliant with being handled , but at the moment that her throat was cut , her back feet scrambled and she tried to rise up . Everyone around me became very still and began to lower their voices , saying that it was not the right time for the ewe , that there had been a mistake . The shepherd had made a The ewe was not butchered . She lay there for about an hour while the family discussed where to take her for burial . She was buried far away from the corral and household . ACTIVITY Animal Observation Ethnography increasingly utilizes methods aimed at incorporating a multitude of diverse voices . The purpose of this is not diversity for diversity sake but to more accurately and understand the various interactions that may occur within any field encounter . In this activity , you will experiment with ethnography . Choose a wild animal ( pigeon , duck , squirrel , insect , etc . and observe it ( with no interaction ) for at least 15 minutes . During the observation , make consistent notes every 30 seconds to one minute , writing down the animal behavior incrementally and how it interacts with its environment . Note also whether the animal seems to notice your presence or interact with you . Following the observation session , write up a ethnographic account , using the data you have collected to inform you of the possible intentions and thoughts of the animal as well as your own thoughts and reactions . Your should be 500 to 750 words and should end with a paragraph on the experience of trying to write from an perspective ( based on human observation ) Turn in the original timed notes along with the paper . Suggested Films Cave Dreams . 2010 . Directed by Werner . Creative Differences . Eduardo the Healer . 1978 . Directed by Richard . Serious Business Company . People ofthe Sea . 2009 . Directed by Kate . Ocean Media Center .

Key Terms animal a multicellular organism , either vertebrate or invertebrate , that can breathe , move , ingest , excrete , and sexually reproduce . animal empathy a human sense of understanding and sensing the feelings of other animals . anthropocentrism the belief that the human perspective is the most important one also called human . members of the same species . culture hero an idealized animal or human associated with supernatural feats . A culture hero is particular to their cultural group , exhibiting traits , actions , and discoveries that are to that group of people domestication the selective breeding ofa species by humans to create animals better suited to human life . an international conservation movement to preserve the and fauna of endangered natural environments through conscientious tourism . karma a Buddhist spiritual principle of cause and effect in which an individual words , actions , and deeds in one life affect their conditions in the next life cycle ethnography the study of the interactions between humans and other species within their shared environment . nature a domain by cultures as outside or on the margins of human culture . a tendency for an animal to maintain both physical and social juvenile characteristics into adulthood . nomadic pastoralism herding that is based on the availability of environmental resources involves Summary Animals play essential roles in many areas of human life . While it may be to an animal , and sometimes controversial to speak the truth that human are animals , too , the continuum between us and them is incontrovertible . In describing animals , anthropologist Claude Strauss said that they are good to think of ( 1963 , 89 ) because they show up in our cultures . scholars often use a research approach known as ethnography as a way of understanding the symbiosis between humans and animals . Of all animal species , the dog has played the most transformative role in human cultures historically . unpredictable movements , as herders decide from day to day where they will go next . pastoral societies societies in which primary subsistence is based on herding groups of animals . pets animals , whether domesticated or tamed , with whom humans have a social bond . interaction involving multiple species . reincarnation rebirth into a new cycle of life , inhabiting a new body of the same or another species . symbiosis a mutually relationship between species . tame a behavioral condition in which humans encourage wild animals to tolerate human proximity and interaction . totem an animal or plant believed to be spiritually connected to a group of people . totemism a belief and system in which a group of humans claims a spiritual kinship with a plant or animal that serves as the group emblem . transhumant pastoralism herding in a regular , patterned movement from one location to another . trickster an animal spirit deity who is very lively and clever and gets into trouble through thoughtless or unconventional actions . plural form of zoonosis , singular diseases transmitted from animals to humans , usually involving a wild animal host . Many mutate and become more virulent in their human hosts ( measles , HIV , An early domesticate , dogs have served as guards , hunters , herders , transport , food , and ( most commonly ) companions in many different societies . Many human subsistence systems depend on animals hunting , herding , and factory farming are the primary ways in which humans access meat . Indigenous hunters practice empathy and appreciation as ways of connecting as predators to prey , and many have a symbiotic relationship with their herd animals , migrating periodically to provide pasture for their herds . Animals are also symbols . totemic societies , animal species and relationships are used as ways of ordering human society human groups have

relationships of respect with their totemic emblem and identify with some of the qualities of the animal . Animals also play important roles in oral tradition and religious systems as teachers , messengers , and tokens . Many religious systems the awareness that life is not the exclusive domain of the human species and that our world is a shared community . Animals are also pets and cultural artifacts . Domesticated animals have been genetically to meet the needs of human societies . This includes selectively breeding for , a tendency for an animal to maintain both physical and behavioral juvenile characteristics . While many Indigenous societies practice pet keeping as companionship and sometimes also as a way to teach young children about animal behaviors , in Critical Thinking Questions . What various roles do animals play in human lives ?

What roles have dogs had in human societies across time ?

How does the relationship between people and animals vary across subsistence practices ?

What types of relationships do Indigenous hunters have with wild animal prey ?

How do different cultures use animal Bibliography modern Western societies , pet keeping has become an industry . There are also animal trades in Western societies , from zoos , aquariums , and circuses to wild animal reserves where generates funds to preserve wild animal habitats . Often , these industries have both negative and positive attributes . In the medical industry , animals have long served as human for research . Increasingly today , there are laws and regulations to improve the plight of animals in medical labs , but this continues to be a challenge , and the improvements are rarely adequate . Still , the contributions that animals have made to human health and welfare have been substantial , whether in labs , on farms , in forests , or in our homes . Animals have always mattered to human beings . symbolism ?

In what ways are pets a cultural artifact ?

How do modern societies participate in the animal trade ?

Some Western societies have made advances in protecting animals used in the medical industry . Do you believe these advances are , or should societies continue to push for reform ?

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