Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 16 Art, Music, and Sport

CHAPTER Art , Music , and Sport Figure The Colosseum in Rome played a role similar to a professional football stadium today . Here , tens of thousands of Romans gathered to View competitions that not only entertained but also contributed to a sense of belonging and identity . credit Colosseum by , BY ) CHAPTER OUTLINE Anthropology of the Arts Anthropology of Music An Anthropological View of Sport throughout Time Anthropology , Representation , and Performance INTRODUCTION Think about the last concert or sporting event that you attended , observed on television , or watched on social media . What was the last piece of art that you saw in person , online , or on social media ?

Did you consider that your experience was likely a culmination of tens of thousands ofyears of human evolution ?

Would you consider on the sides of train cars to be art ?

Is a pickup game of football in the neighborhood sport ?

Figure depicts a famous structure connected to sport that is now more often viewed as an art Colosseum of Rome . The Colosseum served a role in ancient Roman society similar to an ( National Football League ) stadium in contemporary American culture . Here gladiators battled animals such as lions and bears for the entertainment of a crowd of tens of thousands made up of all levels of Roman society . As you read about the sociocultural diversity in art , music , and sports highlighted in this chapter , remember the central narrative of anthropology Human beings have developed biological and social features that have worked together in a wide Variety of environmental and historical conditions to produce a diversity of cultures . Art , music , and sports have been and continue to be important elements of every culture on earth ,

helping to create a sense of collective identity and helping societies to hold together . Art , music , and sports both the sociocultural diversity found around the world and have played roles in effecting cultural change . Art , music , and sports have shaped the evolution of societies , and the evolution of a societies has art , music , and sports in turn . As you read this chapter , consider your own experiences with art , music , and sport . Consider what you are familiar with and what you appreciate . also on the art , music , and sport in your society that are not particularly interested in or moved by . Where do these preferences come from ?

To what degree are they individual and to what degree do they connections to your culture and to the within it ?

Anthropology of the Arts LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to the anthropological approach to understanding art . Provide three examples of material artifacts of art . forms of prehistoric art and describe how anthropologists have interpreted those forms . Provide two examples of purposes that art serves in a society . visual anthropology and describe its role in understanding culture . the relationship between visual representation and cultural expression and memory . Provide three examples of body art and describe the cultural meaning of each . The anthropology of the arts can include various approaches to interpreting art forms , including analyses of the ic meanings represented , the mediums through which art is disseminated , and even how the art is manufactured . Art is strongly anchored in the human experience . How Do Anthropologists Approach Art ?

You might asking yourself , How does art or guide the study of anthropology ?

The simple answer is that art is created by humans . While of art vary and have historically been narrowly construed to within a Western understanding of the term ( and Perkins 2006 ) a constant element has been the application of imagination , creativity , and skill . Art is created with intent . Art is a representation of the human experience , and anthropologists approach the study of art the same way they do any other aspect of human existence . Anthropologists take a holistic approach to any given topic , that topic among the broader context of a language , environment , economy , religion , family life , governance and so on ( 2003 , 15 ) All of these details are implicitly and inextricably embedded in the products of a culture , which can not be fully understood and appreciated without some awareness of them . This is particularly important in regard to the arts , which rely so heavily on a shared cultural vocabulary . As Stuart ( 2003 ) asserts Anthropologists think that artistic production . should be looked upon , not simply as applied aesthetics , but as an activity embedded in an art world , a complex set of social relationships . It is wrong to focus on the unique art object , and ignore the complex set of human relationships which contributed to its creation . 15 ) Anthropology lends itself to examining both the how and the why of the arts . Art is studied by anthropologists through methods such as observation , interviews , focus groups , and site assessments . Anthropological study of art includes ethnographic studies as well as inquiries in physical anthropology and archaeology ( Upper Paleolithic cave paintings , Aboriginal rock paintings , Consider the work that is required to analyze an artistic creation or sporting event through these anthropological techniques . Such work could include unearthing and evaluating artifacts of ancient societies , interviewing theatrical performers , or attending a game or match . The study of art , music , and sports requires the same holistic , approach as do all other anthropological studies . What is art ?

Who it ?

What is the difference , if any , between a cultural practice and a piece of artwork ?

These are all valid questions to consider when exploring the arts with the goal of better understanding human cultures . The modern understanding of art began in the century , when the word art shifted from referring to any specialized skill ( art of gardening ) to referencing the arts ( 1990 ) Anthropologists consider that art has historical , economic , and aesthetic dimensions . Consider painters in ancient Roman times , who often had patrons of their work who supported their livelihoods . It could be said that such painters were people of lesser means however , with a patron support , they could earn a wage for expressing their talents . And in aesthetic terms , art provides a representation of what is considered beautiful within a certain cultural context . The of anthropological archaeology has approached the study of arts from its own perspectives . Archaeologists can not observe how an art object was created or used and are unable to ask its creators or consumers the types of ethnographic questions that other cultural anthropologists may rely on . Archaeologists possess specialized knowledge pertaining to the and cultural of early art . Their research on these art pieces provides other anthropologists with a starting point for analyzing older art . It also provides them with a more understanding of the functionality and purposes of early art . Material artifacts of art can include many of the things people interact with at home , work , or school . These include artifacts that are the results people representations of the world , such as the architecture of the building one lives in or a favorite coffee shop . They can also be relics from ancient times , such as weapons , tools , and cave drawings . These relics can be found in the research and reports that art historians , anthropologists and archaeologists use to analyze the symbolic and cultural meaning of art . Iconographic study is the study of the visual images , symbols , or modes of representation collectively associated with a person , cult , or movement . Art is an expressive behavior that encompasses and expresses cultural , social status and hierarchy , myth , and cosmology . FIGURE These baskets , created by the people of Central California and photographed by Edward Curtis , are one of many types of material artifacts of art that anthropologists rely upon when attempting to understand culture . credit Baskets in the Painted by Edward of Congress , Public Domain )

488 16 Art . Music . and Sport Studying Prehistoric Art Much of what anthropologists consider prehistoric art consists of artifacts and materials used to facilitate the work necessary to sustain life . It also includes cave paintings created tens of thousands of years ago . Examples of such cave paintings are the Upper Paleolithic cave art dated to to years ago , which features stenciled of animals and artifacts , though not usually humans . FIGURE These prehistoric cave drawings are located in the cave in . While cave drawings typically focus on large animals such as cave bears , horses , and bison , the drawings in the cave include both humans and animals , and provide information about the solar calendar , religious festivals and other customs . credit Prehistoric drawings in the cave , by Commons , Public Domain ) This rock art , often called cave art , served as a medium to archive the human experience , tell a story , and depict how prehistoric peoples saw the world around them . Figure above demonstrates how someone saw animals that were being , unusually for this type of art , the people doing the hunting . These drawings served as a communication tool , historical archive , and artistic representation ofa period of time and the human experience of the people who were there . Interpreting Art Visual art can be viewed as important evidence in attempting to understand a culture . Throughout time , visual art has been used to convey the human experiences of a vast range of cultures . This art provides modern anthropologists with valuable perspectives on other cultures and other times that could be hard to gain access to through other means . The image of the emperor in Figure conveys pride , wealth , and strength , characteristics that this artist connects to the China Qing dynasty , depicting the emperor as its representative . This image articulates the successes of this culture at that particular point in history . Detailed analysis of works of art can contribute to the sophistication with which anthropologists understand both individual cultures and the shifting nature of human cultures in general . Access for free at

, waits FIGURE This painting of a emperor is an expression of the wealth and strength of the Qing dynasty . credit Armoured Emperor by Author of Qing from Commons , Public Domain ) Spiritual Art Other forms art are to spiritual and sociocultural practices and beliefs . One example is the mandala , a symbolic diagram consisting of various geometric patterns that represents the universe . are a cultural practice in Tibet , India , Nepal , China , Japan , and Indonesia ( Tucci 1961 2001 ) and can be traced back to the fourth century CE . Typically square or circular in shape , they are used in and Buddhism to focus attention during meditation . One variation on the mandala is the sand mandala , a beautiful arrangement of colored sand that originated in India and is now a Tibetan Buddhist tradition . Specially trained Buddhist monks create elaborate patterns with the sand , beginning in the middle of the diagram and using concentric circles to work their way to the edge . Once constructed , the sand are then ritualistically destroyed in recognition of the Buddhist doctrine of impermanence and the transitory nature of existence . Visual Anthropology Visual anthropology is a of anthropology and form of anthropological inquiry . It includes the study of art as represented in photography and . The largely arose with the invention of the camera , as anthropologists started to document Indigenous groups of the time on . Some of the in the anthropology are Edward Curtis , whose images of Native Americans are discussed in detail in Chapter 19 Indigenous Anthropology , and Robert , whose 1922 ofthe North is frequently shown in introductory anthropology courses as an early example of documentary . While visual anthropology is often confused with ethnographic , representations are only a small part ofwhat the encompasses . Visual anthropology is the study of all visual representations produced by human cultures , including dances , plays , and collections of art , from the beginning of time . In recent times , it has become a standard practice to use visual arts to articulate one feelings , thoughts , and interpretations of things seen , heard , and witnessed . Many cultures practice visual arts and use them in a variety of scenarios . They may be used to capture a certain mood , a cultural trend , or a historical event .

As mentioned above , and photography played a major role in the development of visual anthropology as a . Film can be used to capture images of art , such as cave paintings , sculptures from Roman times , or theater . Further , itself has become an important form of art . Film provides an artistic representation of the human experience as seen by its directors , performers , editors , and all who contributed to its development . The anthropology has had a impact on how anthropologists look at art . It also has become a driving force in how anthropologists view evolution , or the evolution of human societies with respect to combinations of social ( social ) and demographic factors . The visual anthropology of art transcends generations , centuries , cultures , and other delineating categorical . Consider Figure , which depicts tourists in the French Louvre , crowding around and photographing Leonardo da Vinci famous painting the Mona Lisa . This photograph portrays the dimensions and complexity of the anthropology of art . It transcends the time of the Mona Lisa and is itself an expression of the human experience in a more recent time , including how humans relate to visual artifacts from an older time in history . Because of its age , the Mona Lisa image is in the public domain and can be copied and reproduced anywhere . The painting has become the subject of many parodies or memes . A meme is an image , video , piece of text , typically humorous in nature , that is copied and spread rapidly by internet users , often with slight variations . The production of memes of the Mona Lisa has kept the image relevant in society over a long period of time . Read more on the memes that have been created of the Mona Lisa here . Have We ped the Mona Lisa ?

I A FIGURE The Mona Lisa is centuries old and still captures the imagination . credit Mona Lisa by Bradley Commons , BY ) The Appreciation of Art Neuropsychologist Dahlia has proposed that people appreciation of aesthetics stems from their cognitive and affective processes . This simply means that people are attracted to art on the basis conditions and that their interest in art evolves through time as they have new experiences , develop appreciation for new things , and otherwise mature as humans . Appreciation of art is a biological and neurological response . People individual perspectives are innately grounded in biology and nature and neurology and nurturing . Think about someone you attractive and the attributes of theirs that you beauty in , or consider the last piece of clothing you bought because you liked how it , how it looked , or how others appreciated it . Attraction is a response based on a myriad of biological attributes that each individual person possesses and has since birth . These are anchored in laws of attraction . Humanity attraction to art is as biologically founded as attraction to other things ( et al . 2013 ) Perhaps this is why some people like various types of art from different time periods that depict the human experience .

Pottery Traced back to the Neolithic period , pottery is considered one of the oldest inventions of humankind . Pottery is an art form created by many cultures for both aesthetic and functional purposes , including storing and cooking foods , carbonization ( the formation of carbon from organic matter ) and ritualistic practices . It has long been an important artifact type in archaeology . Pottery is an example ofa practical object that also contains features of artistic beauty . One example is the Acoma pottery created by the Pueblo culture . Acoma pottery is functional and was not created purely as what we would now consider to be works of art . However , the pottery itself is a material art . Much can be learned about a culture by analyzing both the functionality of a particular piece or style and the imagery or stories depicted within its details and designs . Pottery , such as the pottery pieces found in ancient China depicted in Figure , has been crucial to understanding cultural history . The creation of pottery merges human knowledge and experiences , including artistic resources , emerging technological processes , and the needs ofa population at a given time ( Rice 2015 ) FIGURE These pottery fragments were found in a cave in southern China and have been dated to years ago . Pottery is viewed by anthropologists as both functional object and artistic expression . credit Ancient Pottery by Gary , Public Domain ) Though it serves a functional purpose , pottery throughout history has often been adorned with decoration , color , and other aesthetically attractive features . Decorated pottery is assigned a high value in many cultures , with people paying large sums of money for especially decorative pieces . Body Art Various forms of body art are a foundational form of expression in cultures all over the world . All cultures decorate and modify the human body in some way , whether temporarily or permanently . Anthropological can be used to understand body art as both a form art and a cultural tradition . Tattooing is a form of body art that has been practiced for thousands ofyears . Tattoo is a Polynesian term . Polynesian tribes and people used tattoos to establish identity , personality , and status . The , an Indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand , have traditionally used tattoos as an expression of identity and cultural . Examples of this can also be found in the Tonga and warrior cultures , in which tattoo designs and placement on the body were used to demonstrate a warrior with a particular group of elite warriors . In the century , American sailors used tattoos to represent personal interests , aspects of their identity , and group . Such tattoos might include representations of a unit mascot , places individuals have visited , or things they found beauty in .

FIGURE One American sailor tattoos another aboard a ship during World War II . Tattooing is widely practiced by cultures around the world to express both personal and group identity . credit Two sailors aboard the American battleship USS New Jersey in 1944 by Jacobs . Department of Defense . Department of the Navy . Naval Photographic Archives and Records Commons , Public Domain ) There is clear evidence of the practice of modifying the body with markings dating as far back as to years ago ( et al . 2016 , and 2013 ) Such markings are still practiced by some of these same cultures today , such as the people . a naturally man found in the Alps whose death has been dated to around 3250 , is the known tattooed human . His tattoos were of lines and crosses across his body . They are believed to have been made by creating incisions in the skin and rubbing charcoal into the incisions . Tattooing can be a way for individuals to express membership in a larger community . Not only are communities formed around having body art , but some may obtain tattoos as a mark to a certain community ( tattoos of a cross as a symbol of the Christian faith ) Tattoos in recent decades have come to serve many purposes , including memorializing loved ones , expressing aesthetic tastes , depicting personal histories , expressing emotions or feelings , and symbolizing rebellion ( Dey and Das 2017 ) A approach to the classic tattoo can be found in the art of . is the branding , burning , or etching of designs into the skin . marks often identify someone as being with or other groups . The practice is also used to represent individual growth or the growth and development ofa group or subset of a society .

Anthropology of the Arts FIGURE The patterned visible on the face of this man was formed through the intentional creation and controlled healing of wounds . This image was taken in what was then the Belgian Congo by Christian missionaries in the early twentieth century . has been used by many cultures to mark group identity . credit Man with Patterns , Congo , ca . by Digital Commons , Public Domain ) Makeup has been an expression art since prehistoric times . It is used to enhance beauty , cover up , and represent cultural ideals ofwhat beauty is and should be . It is often a sociocultural delineation of wealth and success . Piercings are used for many of the same reasons and have been found in the earliest of ancient African mummies . They may be seen as an expression of individuality or of identity and . Another example of body art is body painting . In some cultures , body painting is limited to the face , while others cover their entire bodies . The painting of the whole body is a common practice among Indigenous Australian peoples ( Figure ) The purposes of this type of body art include , but are not limited to , subcultural and announcements of social status and accomplishments . The painting can be temporary or semipermanent , achieved through various types of paints and stains . Body painting follows uniform patterns and styles in some cultures and is independently driven in others . The designs might reveal an individual position within their family , membership in a group , social position , tribal identity , and even precise ancestral history ( 1989 ) 493

FIGURE These Aboriginal Australians have adorned their torsos with traditional body paint utilizing various conventions and motifs . credit Aborigines on Palm Island , Perhaps by , Public Domain ) Henna art is another example painting . Henna paint is derived from crushed , milled , and sifted henna leaves . It is applied directly on the skin in intricate designs that leave a red or orange stain once the paint is removed . Henna body art is used in various cultures of North Africa , Southeast Asia , and the Indian subcontinent to adorn the hands and sometimes the feet women on special occasions , such as weddings and religious celebrations such as Eid ( and 2019 ) During weddings , women use henna to articulate cultural , familial , and religious affiliations . It is also used to accentuate the beauty of the bride and as a testament to the status of the family she is coming from and of the one she is marrying into . FIGURE The elaborate patterns on these women arms are created using henna paste . After giving the paste time to stain the skin , it is washed away . The arm on the left shows the paste before washing , the arm of the woman on the right shows the color once the paste is removed . credit Henna by Commons , BY ) The grooming of hair is also a culturally practice in societies throughout the world . The way one styles or displays their hair can symbolize many things , including membership in a religious sect , racial , and alignment with pop cultural trends . Hair also has been seen as an indicator of social status . From an evolutionary perspective , the quality and amount of hair one has indicates robustness and has contributed to mate selection and group . Hairstyles , hair volume , and hair coverings all have contributed to cultural identity and have been viewed as artistic representations of the lived experiences of people in myriad cultures and times . In some traditional Muslim cultures , hair is concealed by called . This representation of modesty has become an icon of Middle Eastern tradition and culture .

Hairstyles are especially in African and African cultures . Hair played a role in ancient African civilizations , used to symbolize familial background , social status , tribal belonging , marital status , and spirituality . practices , particularly practices such as getting one hair braided , are often social activities . Anthropology of Music LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to . Describe evidence of musical instruments in prehistory . Articulate the importance of sociocultural context to the understanding of music . Describe how music can form the basis of subculture and community . Evaluate the potential of music to impact processes of social change . Describe how cultural appropriation of music is related to social inequality and power . Music Music is found in settings and format , including chants , musicals , live performances , recorded performances , and spiritual rituals . In prehistoric times , music was used to communicate , to tell the stories of people and express important elements of cultures . Music articulates the human experience , focusing on what people want to remember about their history and what they desire for the future . It has been used to heal , to demonstrate power , and to archive the experiences ofpeople . music is an extension and an evolution of the music that has come before . It is a medium that represents the depths of time , culture , and history . Prehistoric musical instruments , called music artifacts in anthropology , include and percussion instruments of ancient nomadic tribes . These instruments began as rudimentary music artifacts and evolved into more sophisticated technological equipment invented and formed for the exclusive purpose of creating music . Someone who studies music from a global perspective , as a social practice , and through ethnographic work is called an . The Society for as the study of music in its social and cultural ( is complex , requiring the work of many disciplines . It requires study of many geographic areas , with a focus on the social practice of music and the human experience . is , with a close relation to cultural anthropology . It is sometimes described as a historical research approach to understanding the cultures of people through their music . One was Frances , who focused on the study of Native American music and culture .

496 16 Art . Music . and Sport FIGURE Frances was an American anthropologist and ethnographer . This image from 1916 shows her with Blackfoot chief , Mountain Chief . During this session , Mountain Chief listened to a song had recorded and interpreted it for her in Plains Indian Sign Language . credit Indian , Mountain Chief , Listening to Recording with Ethnologist Frances by National Photo of Congress , Public Domain ) Musical Instruments in Prehistory The of focuses on all aspects of music , including its genre , its message , the artist ( who created it , and the instruments they used to do so . Have you ever considered why a particular musical instrument was created ?

Who made it ?

Why did they make it ?

What did they want it to do ?

How was it used ?

How did they dream up the design ?

Emily Brown ( 2005 ) formerly of the US National Park Service , studied the development of musical instruments in Ancestral sites . Her study yielded insights into the types of instruments created . These included percussion and woodwind that were used to create music culturally centric to the people . Her study also yielded great insight into the structural hierarchy of those entrusted to manufacture instruments . Not too dissimilar to today trade and master programs found in construction , Ancestral people established a system down the construction techniques central to creating musical instruments , ensuring that the knowledge would be carried on by future generations . Brown study connected music instruments to politics , music , social status , and social experiences . The Structure and Function of Music in Different Societies Music is grounded in the human experience . It is a theatrical expression of its creator thoughts and perceptions . The structure of music has evolved along with the experiences of the humans who created it . Examples of this can be found in the early hymns of tribes . These hymns provide an artistic expression of traumatic experiences , referring to a time when the people were removed from their homelands and relocated to reservation lands by the US government . They speak of both individual and collective experiences as these peoples made the arduous journey to their new locations . The songs speak about broken promises , the journey , and the fate of their people . Access for free at

National Monument FIGURE This trading card , published by the National Parks Service , commemorates the forced journey of the people to reservation lands , commonly known as the Trail of Tears . The people have commemorated this same journey in hymns . credit Trail of Tears for the Creek People by , BY ) For enslaved people , music was a mechanism of emotional escape from situations as well as a means of communicating with those speaking different languages during the Middle Passage , the journey from Africa to locations of forced labor . One of the most iconic , or songs for survival , is Go Down Harriet Tubman , the legendary Underground Railroad conductor , said that she used this spiritual as a way to signal to those who were enslaved in the area who she wanted to help escape to freedom ( Bradford 1886 1995 ) The song ostensibly speaks about the experience of the Israelites enslaved by the Egyptians in ancient times . For enslaved Black people in America , the song spoke directly to their own longing for freedom . The chorus of Go Down Moses is as follows Go down , Moses , Way down in Egypt land . Tell 01 Pharaoh , Let my people go . Thus saith the Lord , bold Moses said , Let my people go , If not , I smite your dead , Let my people go . Listen to this song on the Library of Congress website ( Numerous populations have utilized music as a means of resistance . During the civil rights movement of the century , Black artists such as Nina Simone , Franklin , and Sam used their music as a way to challenge structural inequity . Franklin , a Black singer , songwriter , and pianist , wrote and performed music anchored in the Black church that came to represent Black American culture . She achieved national and international fame for her rich voice and heartfelt performances , and she was able to use her artistic talents to bring a message hope and resistance to her audience . Her songs spoke to both where people were and where they wanted to be .

Sam was an American singer who was given the nickname King of Soul by his fans and those in the music industry . Like many , he started out singing in church , but eventually his music and passion evolved to secular music . He is credited with having on the civil rights movement , and his music often explored themes of oppression and for a cause . The music of his band , Soul , focused on stirring the listener soul to engage in the movement for racial equality . FIGURE Sam performance and instruments are on display in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland , Ohio . The music of Sam had considerable influence on the Civil Rights movement . credit Sam by Steven , BY ) Perhaps no artist in recent times is better known for using music as a catalyst for social change than Bob Dylan . Dylan was a musical artist who spoke to many cultures and generations about injustice and the need for inclusion and change . His 1964 song The Times They Are urged politicians and voters to support the civil rights movement . He was also well known for his opposition to the Vietnam War . His music may have very well changed the course of history , given his on his fans thoughts , perspectives , and attitudes toward inclusion ( Ray 2017 )

FIGURE American musician and songwriter Bob Dylan popularized many protest songs , including The Times They Are . credit Bob Dylan by , BY 240 ) PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY . FIGURE In this image , exuberantly plays a traditional drum . credit , Length Portrait , Standing , Facing Slightly Left , Beating the , or Mama Drum by New York Sun staff of Congress , Public Domain ) Personal History was a Black American anthropologist , author , and . She was born in , Alabama , to a sharecropper turned carpenter and a former schoolteacher . All of her grandparents were born enslaved . moved to , Florida , an town , in 1892 , at the age of two . She often referenced as her home , as she had no recollection of her time in Alabama . She lived in until 1904 , when her mother passed . At the time , was a Black community with a booming economy . According to multiple accounts , was never indoctrinated into feeling racial inferiority . While she was a resident , her father was elected mayor of the town . All the shop owners and government were also Black American elites . In adulthood , often used as the setting of her stories . left due to a poor relationship with her stepmother . She enrolled in classes at Morgan College in Maryland , lying about her age of 26 to be eligible for a free high school education . She graduated in 1918 and attended Howard University , a historically Black university in Washington , before transferring to Barnard College at Columbia University . At Barnard , studied under Franz Boas as an undergraduate and graduate student . She also worked with other foundational anthropologists , including Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead . Area In addition to her time in academia , was a central in the Harlem Renaissance as a literary artist , working closely with Langston Hughes , among other writers . She was a pivotal literary artist whose work directly the trials , tribulations , and successes of Black American communities and that were often overlooked or ( Jones 2009 )

was a cultural anthropologist who was passionate about southern American and Caribbean cultural practices . She spent time in these geographical areas , immersing herself in the diverse cultures of Black people in the American South and the Caribbean . Accomplishments in the Field One of most notable anthropological works is Mules and Men ( 1935 ) based on ethnographic research she conducted in lumber camps in north Florida . One focus of this work was the power dynamics between the White men who were in charge and the Black women laborers , some of whom the men took as concubines . In addition to this work , studied Black American song traditions and their relationship to the music of enslavement and to the musical traditions of Passage Africans . Importance of Her Work not only studied human society and culture as an anthropologist but was also an active participant in the arts . She was a central in the Harlem Renaissance , which was a of Black culture centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City . Her most popular novel is Their Eyes Were Watching God ( 1937 2008 ) Her anthropological and ethnographic research focus areas were Black American and Caribbean folklore . She also worked for the Federal Writer Project , part of the Works Progress Administration , as a writer and folklorist . is now an iconic for the Association of Black Anthropologists and several Black anthropological studies journals . The Importance of Sociocultural Context in Understanding Music Patricia Campbell ( 2011 ) proposes that children perspectives on musical interests are derived from their family , community , and environment . How did you learn about music you liked ?

What did your parents listen to , and what do you listen to ?

While you may have learned about and grown to like other music as you aged , your appreciation for music is founded in the sociocultural environment that you were raised in . Imagine growing up in a family that only listened to bamboo music . Would you even know , for example , what rap music is ?

Music as a Basis for Subculture and Community The of music with identity became a common topic of inquiry in in the 19803 , perhaps prompted by the music of the that arose among groups ofpeople who did not identify with mainstream norms , values , or ideals . Among the music that emerged during that time was the punk subculture ( Moran 2010 ) Though it was often seen as no more than youthful rebellion , the punk subculture formed its own community , values , and ideals founded in a , or , ethos . This can be found in the lyrics , music , and performances groups such as the Ramones and the Clash , as well as more recent groups such as Green Day and . The lyrics tell stories of needing to break from common ideals and values in order to think and do for oneself .

FIGURE The rock band Green Day is one of many musical groups connected to in contemporary culture . credit Green Day Concert Stage ( Montreal ) Green Day Is Ever Green by , BY ) Cultural Appropriation Cultural practices important to communities are often integrated into the fabric of each person identity . Cultural appropriation is as the improper or disrespectful use of a meaningful element of a culture or identity outside of its intended cultural context by someone who is not a part of that culture or identity ( Young 2008 ) The act of cultural appropriation by dominant cultures threatens to erase remaining parts of a culture that may already be jeopardized . Cultural appropriation is tied to social inequity in that it involves a socially dominant group using the culture of a marginalized group for exploitative or capitalist gain . The cultural of the appropriated elements is lost . While the act of cultural appropriation is centuries old , there has been a renewed call from marginalized communities in recent years to understand how and why this practice is harmful . Wesley Morris ( 2019 ) wrote an article for the New York Times 1619 Project regarding the mass appropriation of Black music . Morris noted instances of appropriation by artists such as Steely Dan , and Amy Winehouse , all White American or British music superstars . Musical appropriation is the use of one musical contributions in other music that is not of the same genre , style , or culture . The power of Black music to articulate the history , struggles , and of Black people has appealed to other social groups as well , many of them drawn to the ability of this music to communicate its message with clarity and boldness . Morris also discusses how , more recently , the appropriation of Black lyrics , songs , and musical presentation styles has become a method of addressing the need for integration and integrated culture . This can be seen in Black artist Lil Nas 2019 remix of his hit song Old Town Road , for which he teamed up with White country musician Billy Ray Cyrus to perform a duet . The song itself is a blending of cultures , musical and racial , and offers a social contribution to evolving efforts at inclusion . An Anthropological View of Sport throughout Time LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe the anthropology of sports . Explain how sports are a form of performance . Identify the role that sports can play for young people . Sports are also deeply intertwined with the human experience . The anthropology of sports is a rapidly developing field that includes specialties such as physiological anthropology and human growth and development . Sports can be quite diverse picture a Roman gladiator , a European football ( soccer ) player , and an ancient or recent Olympic competitor . Another example of a sport is cricket , a

Ari Anthropological View of Sport throughout Time 503 game played by Islanders that had evolved considerably since its introduction by Christian missionaries at the turn of the century . Sports are expressions of passions and of the human experience . They have been practiced by many cultures throughout time and across the globe . This section will focus on how sports have impacted human culture and how human culture has impacted sports in turn . It will consider the historical foundation of the culture of sports and analyze the way people interact with sports today , examining how human culture and societal practices are by not only individual athletes but also social structures . The Anthropology of Sports Anthropologists understand sports as a cultural performance . The term performance can describe a plethora of actions , including any that are artful , active , or sometimes some combination of all of these . Anthropologist ( 2019 ) describes the anthropology of sports as the study of human growth and development . conceives of sports as a sort of performance , one also sees that each performance is unique to the performer . Each athlete , even the most impressive and seemingly unique , is a part of a larger performance . Consider your favorite sport or athletic competition . How long has it been in existence ?

Does it have roots in ancient times ?

Often , athletes and sports Roman gladiators to more recent English footballers , American basketball players , and Olympic considered singularly talented at their respective sports however , without the broader cultural context that has cultivated gymnastics , tennis , soccer , and basketball , these talents would have no stage on which to perform . Anthropologists who study sports do so within a larger context of sports and society . Interests of anthropologists researching sports might include archaeological research related to sports tools , cultural anthropological research pertaining to how humans interact with sports , or even anthropological research on biological maturation or physical growth ( and 2008 ) as FIGURE A Roman bronze reproduction of Discobolus , by the ancient Greek sculptor Myron . Throwing the discus , still an event in contemporary track and meets , has been traced back to the original Olympic Games in Ancient Greece . credit Myron ( Discus Thrower ) Plaster Replica with Broken Left Hand , Right , Museum , Oxford , May 2013 by , BY ) Sports artifacts such as the weapons of gladiators and tools used in old and recent Olympic sports have offered

504 16 Art . Music . and Sport contributions to the anthropology of material art . Picture your favorite sport . It likely involves a tool that is a representation of that sport . Notable examples of such tools and artifacts include the lacrosse sticks of the , hammers from the oldest Olympic competitions , and the American football uniform , which is designed for safety and decorated to represent , professionalism , and individual athletes . Sports have also offered theatrical performances since ancient times . Picture the gladiators of ancient Rome entertaining the wealthy who could afford the best seats or wealthy English footballers entertaining those who are likely less wealthy . The status reversal of sports entertainers and audiences in sports represents the dichotomous nature of social status and is just one of many examples of cultural change throughout time . The Evolution of Sports For most of documented human history , sports have been a part of the human experience for both audience and participants . Archaeological artifacts pertaining to sports , including , weapons , and artistic representations of competition , have been traced back to as early as 2000 in China . These ancient sports featured competitions that tested the strength , stamina , and techniques of performers , such as and physical . Today , many nations around the world participate in a version of the Olympic Games that were popular in the ancient Greek village of . Early events included a marathon run and wrestling . The Olympics were revived in the late century , with the modern games occurring in 1896 in Athens , Greece . Though rules and regulation may have been less stringent and in the sports of previous centuries , competition as entertainment has existed for millennia . FIGURE These professional lacrosse players are take part in a game that originated with the Indigenous people of what is now Canada . credit Tailgate Game Navy Marine Corps Memorial Stadium by Maryland , BY ) Sports can provide much more than mere entertainment to people and societies . Today , when thinking about modern sports , a person may think of professional athletes such as National Basketball Association ( NBA ) star Kobe Bryant or National Football League ( great Walter . In early competitions , the wealthy attended sporting events in which the athletes were typically not wealthy or privileged . In modern times , the commercialization of sports has largely reversed this trend , with common people attending sporting events to watch wealthy athletes compete . The business of sports has created opportunities for and cultural success for people with exceptional athletic abilities . The success of athletes such as Kobe Bryant created opportunities for other athletes , paving the way for the success of people who may not have otherwise thought it possible to experience the fame , notoriety , and success of a modern athlete ( 2020 ) Access for free at

FIGURE Ed Smith was a running back in college and the in the . As homage to his skill , he was asked to model for the Trophy , which has immortalized the now iconic stiff arm pose he took . credit A Quick Stop to See the First Ever Trophy Statue by Cole , BY ) Youth Sports Recreational sports for youth are common in various cultures . This can be especially important in marginalized communities , where youth sports are often viewed as from ( or alternatives to ) potentially dangerous activities or preventive structures that support youth development and community by focusing on positive actions that reduce adverse social behaviors . Youth sports programs are often initiatives . One such initiative is the Play 60 program , which challenges football players to engage in activities with underrepresented communities , encouraging kids of all skill levels to come together to play sports . Among Indigenous Americans , an aggressive style of basketball called reservation ball , or for short , is prominent in reservation communities . is different from traditional basketball , as the techniques used encourage relentlessly aggressive play and quick shooting . For youth on reservations , this may be one of a limited number of recreation opportunities . is documented in the Basketball or Nothing and a 2009 ESPN story about the role of in the culture of Native American children . Anthropology , Representation , and Performance LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify how cultural identities , norms , values , and social structures are represented in art , music , and sports . Describe how art , music , and sports can function as means of resistance to dominant sociocultural forms and processes . Art , music , and sports all articulate the experiences of people . One of these experiences might be resistance or rebellion . Whether it is a piece of art depicting a revolution , a rap song challenging the establishment , or a protest at a sporting event on a global stage , expression of the need for change are common in contemporary culture . This section will explore cultural identities the use of art , music , and sports as resistance and the

representations created by each specialization . Cultural Identities Think about sporting team uniforms or a clothing style worn by members ofa musical group . Each on its own may not be distinct or , but when worn by a group of athletes or musicians and their fans , they become a source of identity . Since prehistoric times , art , music , and sports have been a source of cultural identity . Arts and sports have been intertwined with several human rights movements and the push for diversity , equity , and inclusion . Music has been a means of coded language for escape . Sports have long been a platform for cultural identity and has presented opportunities for cultural evolution and resistance . The Olympics arejust one example of a sporting event that is linked deeply with national identity and nation pride . FIGURE The opening ceremonies of the Olympic games are celebrations of national identity and nation pride . credit The team of Chile at the opening ceremony of the 1912 Summer Olympics by photographer of Olympic Commons , Public Domain ) Art as Resistance Art is often used as an act of resistance . and are two forms of artistic expression that have been viewed as acts of resistance in modern times . The practice of as it is known today is reminiscent of ancient cave painting , as both are drawings , depictions , and writings on a wall . Ancient can help archaeologists understand general levels of literacy among a population ofpeople or provide linguistic anthropologists with insight into the development of language through time . While writings on walls is an ancient practice , became a popular form of cultural expression in Western countries in the . Modern is often performed in public view , as it is intended to make a statement . Today , during most political uprisings , researchers are able to easily expressing views that inform and shape the political movement . Although many appreciate the communicative and artistic qualities of , others view it as visual pollution , and continues to be met with opposition . One of the most iconic modern artists is , whose art is depicted in Figure . is the pseudonym of an English street artist who has been active for more than three decades ( 2013 ) His identity remains . His work began to appear in the early in Bristol , England , and can now be found in cities around the world , including London , New York , and Paris . Based on reports from those who have secured interviews with him , views his art as an act of rebellion . He was often in trouble as a teenager , which is when he first began exploring art . His art typically responds to social or cultural issues . One example is his series in New Orleans , Louisiana , which critiqued the government response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005 .

FIGURE This mural by artist references both the Grim Reaper and the yellow smiley ( credit Grin Reaper With Tag by Commons , Public Domain ) Music as Resistance is a form of music that has consistently served as a means of protesting injustice toward people of color . From its inception in the at neighborhood block parties , has rapidly spread worldwide to various cultures , transitioning from the margins of American culture to a central element of global pop culture . The culture of offers possibilities for rich anthropological exploration , including linguistics factors , performance , music , and lyricism . The messages expressed by often include complex social commentaries . With increased representation has come increased acceptance of as a respected art form . In 2018 , rap artist Kendrick Lamar was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for his album DAMN . and lauded by former president Barack Obama ( Hubbard 2019 ) His fourth album release , DAMN . demonstrated why some call him one of the most rappers of his time . Perhaps better known is Public Enemy , the rap group created by Chuck and Flavor . The group lyrics often cite their political beliefs and opinions about American racism and the American media . The evolution of can be observed in many countries and societies . In the , it began appearing in Japan and the Middle East . In Japan , it is thought to have begun with Hiroshi , who had an appreciation for and began to play it publicly . In the Middle East , some call it Arab rap or Arabic . Heavily by Western culture , these artistic representations demonstrate the vast and culturally diverse adoption of as art and expression . the Muslim rapper shown in Figure 1625 , is well known in Middle Eastern cultures for telling the story of Muslim people through his artistry . Rap is not a subculture but a media and method for telling a story and at times expressing the resistance of a group of people .

FIGURE Muslim rapper with fellow rap artist Loon . From its origins in American inner cities , rap has spread around the globe . credit with loon in city by Commons , Public Domain ) Even more recently , Native American has been a medium for Native Americans to tell their story and preserve the history of their peoples . Founded in American rap and culture , this new form of expression has been embraced by rappers throughout Native American communities . It has been used to tell stories , explain history , and even encourage political activism on social issues . Sports as Resistance Throughout time , sports have been a global focal point for resistance . The Olympics have repeatedly been a site of global resistance and a setting for challenging societal norms and expectations . In Figure , Black American athletes Smith and John Carlos , gold and bronze medalists respectively , are depicted raising fists during their medal ceremony as the US national anthem plays ( Smith 2011 ) This gesture became known as the 1968 Olympics Black Power salute . Smith later described his raised , black gloved as a symbol of support for all those who are and have been oppressed . Smith and Carlos made their demonstration in response to human rights violations perpetuated in the United States . Another example of resistance was seen four years later , when Jackie Robinson , the Black player in Major League Baseball , wrote in his autobiography , recalling the opening game of his World Series championship As I write this twenty years later , I can not stand and sing the anthem . I can not salute the I know that I am a black man in a white world ( Robinson 1972 1995 ,

FIGURE When Smith and John Carlos raised at their Olympic medal ceremonies in 1968 , they publicly expressed support for oppressed people and resistance to a culture viewed as perpetuating hat oppression . credit by Rae , BY ) many , a more familiar act of protest is likely player Colin kneeling during the singing of the nation anthem in 2016 following the shooting deaths ofBlack men Michael Brown , Alton Sterling , and at the hands ( Lief 2019 ) In 2016 , approximately 68 percent of all were Black ( 2017 ) continued to kneel during the anthem for the remainder of the season . His gesture was a symbol of support for the Black Lives Matter movement , which seeks to end police brutality against Black people and other forms of racially motivated violence in the United States . Initially , regarding gesture within the sports world was negative . However , following the death of George Floyd in 2020 , there has been an increased interest in understanding systemic oppression . This had ed to initiatives by organizations such as the , Black Lives Matter , and others to support inclusion and open dialogues about racism . Throughout the seasons following initial act of kneeling , it became common practice in the world sports for athletes to kneel in solidarity . This included Black and some White players . The 2016 Olympics in Rio de were a demonstration of social . Media coverage of the 2016 Rio Olympics reported on the environmental , safety , and health conditions . Athletes from more developed nations openly criticized the unsanitary and inhospitable conditions of the housing and training facilities , which included water sources , trash in commons areas , and dirty and unsanitary dormitories . While some protested silently , others used their global notoriety to publicly protest the conditions . The images and stories provided from Rio and mainstream media sources showed streets , unsanitary rooms and facilities , and irreparably damaged buildings . For Rio , the Olympics were supposed to be a pinnacle of national pride and a positive contribution to the global stage . For many who attended , the event proved to be far less than the Olympic image depicted in popular imagination . Integral Features Art , music , and sports can themselves be forms of resistance and at the same time can display evidence of historical resistance . A protest , a cultural statement , the overthrow of a can be found in , and at times have even been started by , works of art , music , and sports . From the ancient Romans to professional American football players , people have used these mediums to for their causes and to ensure that the histories of their are recorded in the archives of time . Art , music , and sports have told the stories of people since prehistoric times . Ingrained in the human experience , these mediums have been used to establish cultural and national identity . The images in art , the words of song , and the traditions of sport have had impacts on established norms and senses of

personal and group identity . These aspects of the human condition are so foundational that each has been used as a form of resistance . Art , music , and sports have each contributed to the development of people and societies in important ways , and can each reveal important aspects past and current cultures . ACTIVITY A Study of Music is one of the most expressive and diverse forms of art . For this activity , do the following Review study techniques . Conduct your own . This can be done by interacting with musicians , attending a music event virtually or in person , or interviewing audience members at a musical performance . Interview both musicians and audience members about the meaning of the music . What did they hear ?

How did it make them feel ?

What did it make them want to do ?

Record the results of your interviews . Additionally , record your own response to the music . What did you hear ?

How did it make you feel ?

What does it make you want to do ?

Collect the information and write a comparative paper on what you learned from your interviews and how they compare and contrast to your own experience and discoveries . All activities are appropriate , whether a formal or informal concert , a street performance , or gospel singing in church . You should maintain a journal to record data , observations , and analysis . Research and Literature Review Activity . Pick two ( different examples of visual art , from the same time period but different socioeconomic , to compare and contrast . Write a summary paper in which you do the following Identify people studies that have reported on anthropological relevant to the images you selected . Describe the evolution of the art form you are analyzing from an early time . Explain how the anthropological studies you cite compare with other anthropological study approaches . Address how the art studied is an evolutionary example of the human experience . Evaluate what you perceive to be the future of the art as it continues to develop and evolve in future generations . Basketball or Nothing . 2019 . Philadelphia WorkShop Content Studios . episodes . Rice , Timothy . 2014 . A Very Short Introduction . New York Oxford University Press . Stone , Ruth . 2008 . Upper Saddle River , Pearson .

Key Terms art the application of human creative skill and imagination to produce works intended to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power , typically but not exclusively in a visual form such as a painting or sculpture . body painting application of paint to the body cultural appropriation the adoption , usually without acknowledgment , of cultural identity markers from or minority communities into mainstream culture by people with a relatively privileged status . graffiti drawings , depictions , and writings on a wall typically without permission and meant for the public to see iconographic study the study of visual images , symbols , or modes of representation collectively associated with a person , cult , or movement . Summary Art , music , and sports are deeply intertwined with the human experience . Anthropology offers the space to examine art , music , and sports through a cultural lens in order to study the ways in which they exist within sociocultural . The anthropology of the arts is a of cultural anthropology that explores the arts in a broader context within and between different cultural settings . Anthropologists study art differently than other social scientist , relying on data collection through direct , personal , observations of lived experiences and interactions . Art is expressed through a variety of formats , including music , visual art , literary art , and body art . Anthropology explores the various cultural manifestations of humanity . All cultures decorate and modify the human body in some way , whether temporarily or permanently . Body art can be Critical Thinking Questions . How do people learn to create art and music in modern Western societies ?

Describe your own experiences becoming in the American style of creating art and music . Pick a favorite image , one that was created as an art object . This might be a painting , a photograph , a depiction of a sculpture , or something similar . Analyze it in an anthropological fashion . Who created it ?

Why was it created ?

Who was the audience or market for this object ?

What message ( do you perceive meme an image , video , piece of text , typically humorous in nature , that is copied and spread rapidly by internet users , often with slight variations . performance a musical , dramatic , or other form of entertainment presented before an audience . short for reservation ball , a style of basketball played in Native American reservation communities . the branding , burning , or etching of designs into the skin . of , relating to , or involving a combination of social and demographic factors . tattooing a form of body art where a mark , symbol , picture or design is placed on the skin . Tattooing has been practiced for thousands of years . spiritual , cultural , or aesthetic . This includes tattooing , body paint , and . is a of cultural anthropology that examines the music of different cultures and the people who make it , as well as the intended audience of the music . The nature of speaks to diverse approaches to studying the anthropology of music . Music as an art form expresses a wide array of perspectives and experiences . Sports are a form , and each participant performs within a broader cultural context . Anthropologists of sport are interested in studying sports within the context of society . Sports culture has resulted in cultural phenomena based on the popularity of athletes . Sports also serve as an escape for many populations with limited choices in recreational activities . when looking at it ?

How far back can you trace the history of your favorite style of music ?

In your analysis , include instrumentation , rhythms , vocalizations ( if any ) and sites of performance . What role ( do sports play in your own culture ?

Address both informal sports ( pickup games between friends ) and teams . How would global and racial inclusion in the United States differ without the contributions of art , music , and sports professionals ?

Bibliography Boyd , Valerie . 2003 . Wrapped in Rainbows The Life of . New York Scribner . Bradford , Sarah ( 1886 ) 1995 . Harriet , the Moses ofHer People . Chapel Hill University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . Brown , Emily . 2005 . Instruments of Power Musical Performance in Rituals of the Ancestral of the American , Columbia University . 3159726 ) Craig , ed . 2002 . Dictionary of the Social Sciences . salvage New York Oxford University Press . Campbell , Patricia . 2011 . Musical Sociocultural and Meanings of Children Experiences in and through Music . In A Cultural Psychology of Music Education , edited by Margaret Barrett , New York Oxford University Press . Hazel 2008 . The Politics of Fiction , Anthropology , and the Folk In Eyes were Watching God , edited by Harold Bloom , new , New York Publishing . Cardona , Nina . 2015 . Bob Dylan Was a Catalyst , but the Nashville Cats Were the Ones Who Changed Music News . Nashville Public Radio , June 19 , 2020 . The Legacy of Kobe ! Jump Shots Lives On through Los Angeles Times , January 27 , Clara Dita , and Ade . 2019 . Henna Art in Global Era From Traditional to Popular Culture . In Joint Proceedings of the In Conference on Social Science and Character Educations ( 2018 ) and International Conference on Social Studies , Moral , and Character Education ( 2018 ) edited by , Aman , and Nur , Amsterdam Atlantis Press . Sander , Ruben George , and . 2008 . Sports An Anthropological Translated by Maria Costa da . Selected Edition ) Lars , and . 2016 . The World Oldest Journal Science Reports . Dey , and Das . 2017 . Why We Tattoo ?

Exploring the Motivation and ( Will . 2013 . The Story behind Smithsonian , February . Flax , Peter . 2019 . How Rez Ball Is Transforming the Health and Fitness of a Whole Men Health , October 31 , Michael . 2017 . Census . April 19 , Hoover , Joanne . 2020 . Making Prehistoric Music Musical Instruments from Ancestral . National Park Service , last updated April , Hubbard , Henry . 2019 . Pulitzer Kenny and the Culture of Classical Music A Study of Cultural Prizes , Controversy , and a Alternative to Musical , Johns Hopkins University .

, 2019 . Anthropology and International Journal in Sociology and ( Jones , Sharon 2009 . Critical Companion to A to Her Life and Work . New York Facts on File . Johnson , Guy . 1931 . The Negro Spiritual A Problem in American Anthropologist 33 ( Paul Oskar . 1990 . Renaissance Collected Essays . Expanded ed . Princeton , Princeton University Press . Large , David Clay . 2007 . Nazi Games The Olympics ofl 936 . New York Norton . Robert . 1989 . The Political Use of Australian Aboriginal Body Painting and Its Archaeological In The Meanings of Things Material Culture and Symbolic Expression , edited by Ian Hodder , Boston . Lief , Brian . 2019 . Athletes Engaging in Activism Jackie Robinson , Muhammad Ali , Smith , and John Carlos and Their on Colin . independent study thesis , College of . Moran , Ian 2010 . Punk The Social Sciences Journal . Howard , and Morgan Perkins . 2006 . The Anthropology of Art A on Its History and Contemporary In The Anthropology A Reader , edited by Howard and Morgan Perkins , MA . Morris , Wesley . 2019 . Why Is Everyone Always Stealing Black Music ?

New York Times Magazine , August 14 , Bruno . 2005 . The Study of Issues and Concepts . New ed . University of Illinois Press . Stuart . 2003 . Anthropology of In A Handbook of Cultural Economics , edited by Ruth , MA Edward . Ray , Sanjana . 2017 . How Bob Dylan Changed the Course of History through His Music . May 24 , Rice , Prudence 2015 . A . ed . Chicago University of Chicago Press . Rice , Timothy . 2017 . on Music and Identity in In Modeling , New York Oxford University Press . Robinson , Jackie . 1972 ) 1995 . I Never Had It Made An Autobiography Robinson . As told to Alfred . Press . Natalia , and . 2013 . Bronze Age Tattoos Sympathetic Magic or Decoration ?

In Tattoos and Body in Antiquity Proceedings of the Sessions at the Annual Meetings in The and , edited by Philippe Della Casa and , Zurich Chronos . Smith , Maureen Margaret . 2011 . The Revolt of the Black Athlete Smith and John Carlos 1968 Black Power Salute Reconsidered . In Myths and Milestones in the History , edited by Stephen , New York Macmillan . Society for . About Accessed September , Tucci , Giuseppe . 1961 ) 2001 . The Practice ofthe Mandala With Special Reference to the Modern

514 16 Bibliography Psychology of the Subconscious . Translated by Alan . NY Dover . United Nations Educational , and Cultural Organization . 2021 ) What Is Intangible Cultural Heritage ?

Intangible Heritage . Accessed September , Young , James . 2008 . Cultural Appropriation and . MA . 2010 . Primitive Art . Expressions of Time New York ( blog ) Honors College , November , Dahlia , Albert , and . 2013 . An Evolutionary Approach to Art and Aesthetic Experience . Psychology , Creativity , and the Arts ( Access for free at