Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 14 Anthropology of Food

CHAPTER 14 Anthropology of Food , Figure A fruit and vegetable vendor in Saigon , Vietnam . How many of these foods do you recognize ?

credit Vietnam Sept 2012 3432 Market , Sa Dec , Viet Nam by , BY 20 ) CHAPTER OUTLINE Food as a Material Artifact A Approach to Food Food and Cultural Identity The Globalization of Food INTRODUCTION The study of food has a long history in anthropology and weaves together various of the discipline . Among other things , food connects to nutrition and health , rituals and behaviors regarding production and consumption , and worldwide trade networks and the related diffusion of plants , animals , and artifacts . Distinguishing between what is and what is not food is a major concern within and across most human cultures . Food varies not only from one society to another but also across genders , classes , family groups , and seasons . As both a source of sustenance for the body and a means of establishing or advertising one social status , food plays a major role in personal and cultural identity . In globalized Western culture , people regularly eat foods that originated in other as sushi , gyros , tacos , spaghetti , and crepes , to name just a practices such as avoiding certain foods ( food prohibitions ) and even eating one

family members or enemies ( forms of cannibalism ) are food traditions that are likely less familiar . Culturally appropriate preparation and consumption of food requires a vast array of knowledge , artifacts , and rituals . In Figure , an Indigenous woman in Mexico is making tortillas , using a grinder and grindstone to transform corn into , which she then mixes with water to create a batter . Preparing in this traditional manner typically requires the cook to navigate various stages of food preparation , including choosing the best dried grains , nuts , spices , or herbs assessing when a has reached the desired consistency and physically being able to use the grindstone . The food utensils that the woman is using are not only tools but also symbols associated with the women who own and use them . Within families , these utensils may be passed down through generations . In some cultures , it is common for Indigenous women to inherit the of their mothers and grandmothers . FIGURE A woman in Puerto , Mexico , makes tortillas . In the foreground are the metate ( the large , flat stone ) and the mano ( the smaller , oblong stone ) she used to grind dried corn into create the batter forthis traditional food . credit Grinding Corn for Tortillas by Terri , BY ) Food as a Material Artifact LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe archaeological evidence of food . Identify some of the earliest stone tools associated with food preparation . Explain ways that archaeologists identify early human foods . Explain the relationship between archaeology and research . Discuss the relationship between food and cultural heritage . Food Artifacts The study of early human diets is important in understanding the evolution of the human species . The size and shape of our skulls and teeth are directly linked with culture and diet . As foods became softer over time ( primarily due to the use of and cooking ) and meat became more common in the human diet , the size of human dentition decreased . Along with this reduction in the size of teeth , cooked foods , especially meats , made increased calories and nutrition available and also prompted brain growth . The most direct evidence of meat eating among early humans is butcher marks found on bone , estimated to be from as early as million years ago ( Wild 2019 2013 ) The earliest evidence of humans cooking a carbohydrate source is charred tubers recently by archaeologist Cynthia ( Wild 2019 ) at Cave , in the River site in South Africa , and dated to . Excavations at the archaeological site in Jordan have uncovered the earliest evidence of charred breadcrumbs , indicating that humans were baking

bread as early as ( Richter and 2018 ) From meat to potatoes to bread , humans and their diets have adapted to changing ways of life . In the archaeological record , food evidence takes many forms . It may be a hearth or pottery container with food or drink residue , butchered animal bones , fossilized fecal material ) tools used in food processing , baskets or pottery used for storing food , or even garbage dumps or shell ( large collections of discarded shells . In historical sites , there may even be preserved food remains , such as corn kernels or alcoholic beverages still enclosed in containers . Studying food helps anthropologists better understand many aspects of human existence and culture , including the rhythms and activities of daily life , food exchange and preparation , feasting , ritual activities , population density , length of settlement at a site , division of labor , seasonal activities , diet and health , cultural traditions and preferences , and even social status within a group . Food is connected with almost all human activities . Early Archaeological Sites and Food Utensils By the emergence of Homo habilis around million years ago , early human settlements were typically littered with the debris of stone tools that were most likely used in food production . There is evidence of tools that were used for hunting , skinning , crushing , slicing , and grinding . These earliest tools were chipped and from pieces of stone to create objects that had both an edge and a point . As tools evolved and became more specialized , they became increasingly focused on aspects of food procurement and production . Unfortunately , relatively little study has been done on tool production and its relationship to food preparation . Historically , utensils and food preparation have received little attention in scholarly research , likely because daily food preparation is part of domestic work , frequently associated with women , and often occurring as a private household activity . As archaeologists have somewhat recently turned their attention to the evolution of food production tools , they have begun to note interesting regional cultural patterns . Recent studies of grinding tools in the Near East , where cereal production emerged , have called attention to untapped potential in the understanding of food production ( and Rowan 2004 , 115 ) Archaeologist and her colleague Rowan have studied the evolution of grinding stones in the Near East from the Upper Paleolithic period ( into the Iron Age ( Using a diverse collection of evidence , including excavated artifacts and archaeological sites , tomb paintings , written sources , and even ethnographic studies , they have formed a better understanding of the role of stone grinding tools in ancient Near Eastern food production . The earliest stone grinding tools were of two basic types an earlier form consisting of mortars , deep concave surfaces , paired with , small hand grinders ( see Figure and a later form that featured hand stones and grinding slabs ( see Figure Using residue studies , the chemical analysis of small amounts of materials left intact on surfaces , and Rowan determined that both types of grinding tools were used for not only nuts and cereals but also meat , bark , minerals , salt , and herbs . In some cases , they have been able to determine the origins of the grinding materials , which include locally sourced stone and basalt , a rugged igneous rock that resists the type of degradation that would leave small of debris in the meal . and Rowan study of grinding tools revealed a great deal about life in the Near East . By the emergence of the Neolithic Period around , some stone tools were beginning to be decorated with distinct geometric patterns and fashioned with feet , developments in art and adornment that likely indicate emerging differences in social status between families . Dental and skeletal studies shed further light on the use of these tools . Dental decay accelerated during the Neolithic Period , suggesting increased consumption of carbohydrates such as cereal grains , which convert to sugar during the digestive process . Additionally , skeletal wear patterns ( compressed toes , which distort the alignment of the foot ) are evident on the remains ofwomen and young girls , most likely indicating that females were doing extensive daily work grinding cereals .

434 14 Anthropology of Food FIGURE Mortars and were some of the earliest stone grinding tools . credit Commons , Public Domain ) Ancient and Food Reconstructions Anthropologists are interested in , a term used to describe a society collection , production , and consumption of food . There is a particular interest in understanding how culinary traditions shape identity . It is not uncommon for archaeologists and cultural anthropologists to attempt to reconstruct food practices of the cultures they are studying , utilizing different types of clues . While written accounts , artwork , and visible food remnants help tell the story ofa culture , anthropologists also use residue studies of traces of food and drink in pottery , baskets , and gourds and stable isotope analysis of human bones and teeth , in which they measure isotopes ( radioactive elements found naturally in food ) to determine the diet of an individual and the environment in which they lived . These clues to ancient can reveal a great deal about daily life . Archaeologist Lisa Duffy has studied ancient Maya cuisine using residue from pottery and grinding stones . Residues include many kinds of trace materials left behind on the artifacts , such as charred remains on the sides of a cooking pot or microscopic plant or animal remains on the surface ofa vessel . So far , residues have been successfully recovered from seven ancient Maya sites across and Belize , some dating from as early as 600 . Some of the chemicals that have been indicate use of chili pepper , cacao , chocolate , and tobacco , among other herbs and spices . While chocolate compounds have been found on culinary artifacts from many different social strata , most other residues are associated with certain social classes . Through studies such as this , help scientists better understand the social differences and lifestyles of early cultures . CLUES FOR CACAO USE ' DO TO 1550 FIGURE The Maya used chocolate as an important ingredient in their diets and grew cacao as a domesticated Access for free at

crop . To make chocolate , seeds from cacao trees are fermented , dried , roasted , and ground into a paste . The grinding slab pictured here was traditionally used for the grinding stage in chocolate production . credit ( left ) Making Chocolate Mayan Style Maya Chocolate Farm San Felipe Belize 2653 by , BY ( right ) History of Chocolate , 1150 to 1550 AD , Maya by Gary Lee , BY ) can also be explored by reconstituting foods in order to better understand their chemical and sensual characteristics . In one experiment , physicist Seamus and his colleagues , archaeologist Serena Love and microbiologist Richard Bowman , developed a technique to extract hibernating yeast microbes left behind on porous Egyptian ceramics . These yeast microbes were dated to years ago . The step in their experiment was to sequence the yeast genome ( map each of its genetic markers ) through which they determined that it was not genetically the same as modern yeast and that it was as old as they had originally thought . The researchers then fed the yeast einkorn , made from a kind of wheat that would have existed at the time the yeast was originally active . As reported , The yeast woke up right away It was kind of remarkable ( Love , and Bowman 2019 ) The resulting bread was grained and well risen , with a pungent odor of brown sugar . Using experimental techniques such as these , archaeologists are able to tap into smells , tastes , and textures that were part of ancient and may no longer exist in our cuisine today . Food as Cultural Heritage Sometimes , anthropologists it useful to distinguish between the terms , as discussed in Chapter , The Concept of Culture , can be as beliefs , behaviors , and artifacts that a group uses to adapt to its cultural heritage , which comprises traditions passed down for generations and used as a way of identifying a group of people . In state societies peopled by diverse cultural groups , it is common for food to be used to distinguish one group from another . Those people eat those things , and my people eat these things . Later in this chapter , we will examine how national identities are shaped by food , but ethnic groups also themselves by differences in food choices and food preparation . Within American culture , there are a number of familiar connections between certain groups and certain foods the Northwest Coast Indigenous peoples and salmon Jewish residents of New York City and bagels people of German ancestry in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , and brats residents of San Francisco Chinatown and steamed pork name just a few . While archaeologists are at work using various techniques to better understand the of ancient cultures , some contemporary peoples are focused on reviving their own culinary . Reviving and restoring seeds , recipes , and even early cooking techniques are part of learning more about earlier populations , diverse , and traditional and perhaps . For some people , this rediscovery is also a way of asserting or reclaiming their cultural identity . Cherokee Ramps Early studies of the of the Eastern Band of Cherokee mention the prevalence of ramps , wild leeks that are similar to wild onions and grow in the Appalachian region of the United States . Ramps ( are eaten from the time they begin to sprout in March almost until they bloom in April or May . The bulb is eaten raw or is chopped up and fried with eggs . Some parboil the entire plant , and in recent years , ramps have been canned or by some Cherokee families . White 1975 , Used as a supplementary food by the Cherokee for generations and eventually adopted by European settlers in the , ramps today continue to serve as a link to cultural identity . In his ethnographic research on the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation , anthropologist Max White ( 1975 ) explained that the Cherokee view plants as having agency , the ability to make choices about where to grow and whether to intervene to help people . The Cherokee cultivate relationships of respect with the native around them as part of an enduring relationship with their environment .

436 14 Anthropology of Food . FIGURE Ramps , wild leeks that are similar to wild onions , have long been an important part of Cherokee . They are now increasingly in demand for urban cuisine as well . credit Patch of Ramps by Wendell , BY 20 ) Ramps , long valued as one of the edible green plants to ripen in the spring , are prized by many people for their and reported medicinal value for treating common colds , and circulatory disease ( Rivers , Oliver , and 2014 , Cherokee citizen and anthropologist Courtney Lewis ( 2012 ) has studied the recent legal and ethical issues surrounding the collection of ramps in the Boundary , Cherokee land in North Carolina . Because the Great Smoky Mountains National Park ( borders the western part of the Boundary , there had been a longstanding informal agreement allowing Cherokee citizens to collect traditional foods within the park as long as their collection did not endanger any species . Up until 2009 , the relationship between the National Park Service ( and the Eastern Band of Cherokee had been primarily amicable . However , in 2007 , the had decided to prohibit all harvesting of ramps within the , based on an earlier study by an botanist that warned that unregulated foraging could endanger some plant species . They began issuing citations in 2009 , and on March 22 of that year , the arrested a Cherokee family that was harvesting ramps , supposedly within park boundaries . During the trial , there were many inconsistencies in the testimony and misunderstandings between the various parties , with the court often Western knowledge over Indigenous knowledge ( Lewis 2012 , 110 ) Cherokee scholars and elders pointed out that ramp production is cyclical , consisting of high production years followed by recovery cycles that Indigenous harvesting techniques , which take just the stems and leaves instead of the roots , are different from those of harvesters and allow for sustainable growth and that many of the less productive ramp areas were not within traditional Cherokee foraging zones . Many of the zones in which ramps were deemed most threatened were outside of the traditional foraging areas and were most likely being harvested by people meeting the demand for ramps in nearby upscale restaurants . In addition , given the increasing levels of air pollution and ongoing climate change , many wild plants in the Great Smoky Mountains are facing threats from sources other than local foraging . Although the trial ended with the Cherokee family charged for trespassing on federal lands , the legalities of ramp collection continue to be debated today . While the controversies surrounding ramp collection have not completely subsided , there is increasing recognition of the importance of Indigenous and cultural identity . Today , around 50 percent of national parks , including the Great Smoky Mountains National Park , allow some form of foraging within their boundaries ( 2019 ) regulated by all sorts of rules , guidelines , and informal agreements with local and Indigenous populations . The Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation monitors ramps as part of its natural resource management in the Boundary and continues to negotiate for foraging rights on ancestral lands that the Cherokee deem to have belonged to them for thousands of years , now cut off by the national park . For Access for free at

many Cherokee families , foraging sites and trails are family secrets that have been passed down for many generations . In 2019 , the entered into a new agreement with the Eastern Band of Cherokee to allow its citizens to gather , a plant located within park boundaries ( Chavez 2019 ) Today , Cherokee still gather ramps within park boundaries in designated areas , but those gathering for needs are required to have a gathering permit issued by the . There are many examples of foods and dishes that are considered important to preserving ancestral identities . In 2006 , the educational and cultural group of the United Nations , convened a working group to establish lists of cultural and a of Good practices as a way to recognize and preserve the cultural traditions of humanity . Several special foods and cooking traditions are included on the lists as examples of endangered cultural heritage , such as sourdough bread from , a pilaf made with vegetables , rice , and meat ) from , and the cultivation of the date palm in , Jordan , Kuwait , and other areas of the Middle East . It is not uncommon for a family to have special recipes and meals that they serve on holiday occasions as a way of remembering their past and on traditions to new generations . Does your family follow any food traditions as a way of remembering your ancestors ?

Take a moment to consider the different roles that food plays in your own family . A Approach to Food LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify a approach . Describe Three Sisters cropping as an Indigenous adaptation . Identify the various types of evidence that anthropologists use to reconstruct ancient . Describe how contemporary dietary approaches connect with ancient . Food and the Approach Many anthropologists take a approach to their study of food , looking at how food plays both a cultural and a biological role in human lives . Food provides physical nourishment ofour bodies and also a means of understanding who we are . How people procure and prepare foods and which foods are deemed appropriate for which occasions are important parts of cultural identity . Food is thus an area that weaves together the biological and cognitive aspects of our observation captured by the familiar phrase you are what you Although the approach continues to focus on food and identity , it also includes an emphasis on the nutritional science of food . The approach can be applied to the study of food in many ways , from research into subsistence practices and traditional ways of raising crops to analysis of how groups assign meaning to the food of other cultures . As popular cultural artifacts , knowledge and practices are shared from culture to culture as groups seek additional health and food variety . Subsistence and Adaptation Cereals ( including corn , wheat , barley , and rice ) and legumes ( various types of beans ) are the most common crops grown by subsistence farmers because they are versatile and economical and have a wide range of health . In addition to carbohydrates , protein , vitamins , minerals , and , they provide a substantial number of calories . In other words , cereals are a good investment of labor and have health . Indigenous peoples around the world have long been aware of the potential in these foods . By the time Europeans arrived in the Americas , Indigenous peoples of North and Central America had been selectively breeding domesticated plants for thousands of years . Over many generations , the Indigenous peoples of the Americas had developed a detailed understanding of the health and the risks associated with certain plants and the ways in which plants could be grown together to sustain higher yields . The Three Sisters is one traditional cropping system that grows plants near one

some combination of corn , beans , and that each aids and supports the others growth . This approach of placing plants of different types together in such a way as to the growth is known as . While variations on the Three Sisters are found throughout Indigenous groups in North and Central America , the use of the practice has been particularly well studied . The people ( also known as the or Six Nations ) of what is now the northern part of New York State practiced Three Sisters cultivation with maize , beans , and pumpkins , which are a form of squash . Seeds from each of these crops were planted together in small mounds in an unplowed . Each mound contained several maize seeds in the middle , with bean and pumpkin seeds placed around the perimeter . Note the difference from the agriculture practiced on conventional American farms today . Each of the plants in the mound offers a to the others . The vigorous pumpkin vines , with their large leaves , quickly form a canopy that shades out weeds , preserves moisture in the soil , and prevents erosion . The bean plants , with the help , are able to nitrogen in the soil , making it available as a fertilizer to the plants growing around them . And the maize plants , which require lots of nitrogen for healthy growth , provide for the climbing beans ( Gish Hill 2020 ) In a 1910 study culture , Arthur Parker , archaeologist and historian , noted that these crops were planted together in part because the people believed they were guarded by three inseparable spirits and would not thrive apart ( quoted in . Pleasant 2016 , 88 ) In the belief system , these three crops were believed to have been given to the people as gifts from the deities . The physical and spiritual sustenance provided by each food reminded the people of their cultural heritage each time they were consumed ( Carnegie Museum of Natural History 2018 ) Although these foods were foundational to their diets , the added to the diversity of their cuisine through seasonal foraging plants and animals . Jane . Pleasant ( 2016 ) a horticulturist and specialist in Indigenous cropping systems , has studied the caloric yield ( the total calories provided by the harvest ) of crops planted using the Three Sisters technique . She has found that when planted together , the three crops yield as much as two to four times the amount of total calories and protein than they would if the plants were cultivated alone . Corn plants in particular show a increase in protein when combined with the other sisters ( 92 ) FIGURE A Three Sisters garden usually includes corn , beans , and squash planted together in a small mound . The plants nourish and protect each other as they grow . Here , gardeners display a bountiful harvest from their Three Sisters garden . credit by Sterling , BY ) Today , sustainable farming techniques are increasingly valued by people concerned about the ecological costs of conventional farming . Sustainable farming techniques , many of them grounded in traditional practices , offer ways to produce higher food yields , reduce fertilizer costs , build healthier soils , and avoid genetically plants , which have had their DNA deliberately altered in a laboratory setting . Iowa State University currently sponsors a Three Sisters gardening project ( which works collaboratively with Native American communities to raise awareness of the techniques , nutritional , and cultural values of traditional methods . The project makes a point with heirloom

seed varieties , which are seeds that are not genetically , are open pollinated ( meaning that the seeds can be saved for generations and will continue to breed true ) and have been in existence for at least 50 years . One of their goals is to return the seeds to their home communities ( Gish Hill 2020 ) There are many to using heirloom seeds , including better , better adaptation to local environmental conditions , the ability to save seeds to be grown in subsequent years , and increased genetic diversity , which contributes to sustainability . Increasingly , there is increased interest in new foods and cuisine worldwide . Many of these rediscovered foods originate in the histories of Indigenous cultures . Using oral tradition , historical documents , and even genetic analyses , both Western and peoples are increasingly seeking to revive culinary heritage Many Indigenous people are now on a path of rediscovery , preservation , and reinvention of these staple foods . The Three Sisters are experiencing a culinary resurgence after decades of lost knowledge due to forced relocation , cultural oppression , and genocide . Numerous tribes have found renewed health and spiritual bonds through efforts to sustain , cultivate , and cook with the Three Sisters . Murphy 2018 ) Food , Fads , Diets , and Health In the century , the Greek historian wrote about the , a cultural group living in what is now southern Ethiopia who were supposed to have found a mythical fountain in which people could bathe and become young again . had heard that the lived to be 120 years old and consumed only boiled and milk . Trying to explain the myths he had heard , he surmised that diet and special waters must have been the cause of their longevity . While this was not likely the time that someone claimed a secret elixir or remedy for physical aging and illness , it is one of the earliest recorded dietary myths . Many more would follow . In 1558 , Venetian patron of the arts authored a best seller titled della Vita , variously translated into English as Sure and Certain Methods of Healthful Life and Discourses on a Sober and Temperate Life , among other titles . In this text , he makes the following claims about human health This sobriety is reduced to two things , quality , and quantity . The , namely quality , consists in nothing , but not eating food , or drinking wines , prejudicial to the stomach . The second , which is quantity , consists in not eating or drinking more than the stomach can easily digest which quantity and quality every man should be a of by the time he is forty , or , or sixty and , whoever observes these two rules , may be said to live a regular and sober life . This is of so much virtue and , that the humours of such a man body become most homogeneous , harmonious , and perfect and , when thus improved , are no longer liable to be corrupted or disturbed by any other disorders whatsoever . 1779 , under A Compendium of a Sober Life ) History offers a long line , tonic peddlers , and even some thoughtful people hawking medicinal potions and diets reputed to solve every imaginable health problem . Many contained ingredients that are now widely recognized as harmful . In the late century , a concerned consumer could try Winslow Soothing Syrup for teething children , which contained morphine and alcohol Cocaine Toothache Drops or a wine called Vin , which was used in Europe for depression , malaria , and loss of appetite ( Mitchell 2019 ) New religious or philosophical movements were often associated with new diets intended to improve both physical and moral health . In the United States , the Graham diet enjoyed a period of popularity in the century . The diet revolved around the consumption of graham , a made of the berry , including the bran covering . It was developed in the by Sylvester Graham , an evangelical minister touted by Ralph Waldo Emerson as the prophet of bran bread ( 2012 ) Advertised as a remedy for sexual desire and gluttony , Graham diet included various elements that constitute sound dietary advice even today eat only two meals a day , and eat in moderation use no spices , meat , alcohol , or tobacco and consume lots of fruits , vegetables , and whole grains , including lots . This diet became wildly popular in the , with religious groups such as the Shakers , the Christian Scientists , and the Seventh Day supporting aspects of this diet . Today , Sylvester Graham contribution to the American diet is still evident in the graham cracker .

When the World Health Organization ( WHO ) was established in 1948 , it fundamentally changed the way people think about health and diet . Compiling comparative data on health and lifestyle from around the world , the WHO engendered a greater awareness of health disparities between populations and a rising interest in the link between health and lifestyle . Noting that both chronic disease rates and average life spans varied greatly among cultural and national groups , people began to make connections between diet and health . Perhaps there was something to be learned from societies in which people enjoyed longer lives and had lower rates of chronic illnesses such as heart disease and diabetes . And so began a proliferation of healthy diets . Two of the most noteworthy today are the Mediterranean diet and the paleo diet . FIGURE The Mediterranean diet relies on fruits , vegetables , and olive oil , with very limited amounts of meat or saturated fats . This Mediterranean Salad is light and nutritious . credit Mediterranean Salad by Commons , BY ) The Mediterranean diet is based on dietary traditions in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea . It was presented formally as a healthier way of eating by physiologist and nutritionist Keys at a WHO meeting in Geneva , Switzerland , in 1955 . Keys described the particular culinary practices found in the Mediterranean region and noted their related health . These practices include high consumption of fruits , vegetables , and olive oil and low consumption of meats and saturated fats . Today , the Mediterranean diet is still recommended for improving cardiovascular health and blood cholesterol levels . In a recent study of women ( Ahmad et al . 2018 ) data showed that the risk of developing cardiovascular disease was 25 percent lower over 12 years among those following the Mediterranean diet ( The Nutrition Source 2018 ) Near Eastern archaeologist Oded ( 2004 ) has researched the origins and history of the Mediterranean diet . Textual sources , especially biblical texts , and an array of archaeological artifacts from across the region describe traditional in the Middle East very similar to those still prevalent diet consisting primarily of cereal grains , herbs , fruit , bread , oil , and , with occasional meat . Archaeological artifacts also point to a great deal of dietary continuity in this part of the world . Food processing and subsistence tools such as grinding stones , churns , nets , and storage jars with food residues of substances such as grain , yeast , and wine with preserved food remains in ancient garbage and animal fossils ofa variety of freshwater and saltwater all indicate the long historical trajectory of and cultural preference for these foods . This culinary tradition continues today throughout the Mediterranean area , including the Middle East , North Africa , and southern Europe ( notably Italy and Greece )

FIGURE The paleo diet is based on contemporary ideas of how our hunting and gathering ancestors might have eaten . It includes lean meats , fruits , vegetables , and nuts . Here , the meat are lying on a bed of vegetables . credit by Michael , BY ) Another very popular diet today , based partially on cultural and nutritional studies , is the paleo diet , sometimes called the Paleolithic diet , the caveman diet , or the Stone Age diet . This diet was developed in the by gastroenterologist Walter , who argued that our bodies ( and our digestive systems ) have been designed for a way of life . The paleo diet is made up of foods that are traditionally associated with this , vegetables , lean meats , nuts , and seeds . The Mayo Clinic , one of the US medical research centers , describes the paleo diet in this way The aim of a paleo diet is to return to a way of eating that more like what early humans ate . The diet reasoning is that the human body is genetically mismatched to the modern diet that emerged with farming idea known as the discordance hypothesis . Mayo Clinic Staff 2020 , under Purpose ) Biological anthropologists have done research on the of people across different geographical areas . A great deal can be determined about what these early people likely ate using various means . Among these means are ( the study of the fossilized remains of animals ) human anatomy and physiological studies , ethnographic studies of contemporary hunters and gatherers , and analysis of artifacts , fossilized feces ) and human skeletal and dental remains . Although there seems to have been a great deal in the types , fruits , meats , and that were eaten in various cultures , in general , Paleolithic diets and lifestyles were marked by low levels of fat consumption high levels of food diversity , including some raw foods and high levels of physical activity . Not all the paleo diets in circulation today follow these same guidelines . While anthropological research indicates that the actual Paleolithic diet likely consisted of 65 percent foods and 35 percent foods , many contemporary paleo recipes and prescriptions do not follow this formula strictly ( Chang and 2016 ) In their research on the paleo diet , biological anthropologist Melanie Chang and Paleolithic archaeologist April encourage anthropologists to become more involved in current conversations about Paleolithic lifestyles and what they might suggest about a healthy human diet . There is , perhaps , still more we can learn about the real paleo diet . Regardless of our contemporary diet practices , we can learn a lot from our ancestors . Their , lifestyles , and traditional knowledge offer windows into both the evolution of our bodies and ways of eating that promote health and longevity . The information offered by anthropology study of different cultures and historical periods can supplement our own knowledge base as we seek ways to improve our lives today .

PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY George Personal History Born in Detroit , Michigan , de ) earned his BA in anthropology from the University of Michigan and his MA and from the University of Colorado Boulder . During his career , he taught at the University of Utah , the University of Massachusetts , the University , and finally at Emory University , where he was a distinguished professor of anthropology . Area took a approach to understanding ancient human diseases , examining skeletal remains to reconstruct how human behavior intersected with disease and nutrition in early populations . His areas of focus were wide ranging and included nutritional anthropology , disease in human evolution , race and racism , skeletal biology , and medical anthropology . He was a pioneer of paleopathology , the study of ancient human disease . His research also extended into contemporary and nutrition . His book Consuming Passions ( 1980 ) which he with Peter , was one of the anthropology texts devoted wholly to the study of food . also had an abiding interest in cooking and was a master loved entertaining his friends . Accomplishments in the Field and Importance of His Work contributions to anthropology bridge the of biological , archaeological , and cultural anthropology . He was also an accomplished professor who taught and mentored students throughout his career and even after retirement . He received numerous awards for research and service , including the Viking Fund Medal for distinguished research in physical anthropology , awarded by the Foundation for Anthropological Research in 2005 . In 2008 , he was awarded the Franz Boas Award for Exemplary Service to Anthropology by the American Anthropological Association . This annual award recognizes extraordinary achievements that have served the anthropological profession and the community beyond by applying anthropological knowledge to improve lives . In 2009 , was awarded the Charles Darwin Lifetime Achievement Award in the of biological anthropology . His research and mentorship advanced the biological and cultural study of our species . Food and Cultural Identity LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe the relationship between food and cultural identity . Contrast food prescriptions with food . Illustrate the connection between food and gender . Food and Cultural Identity Food travels across cultures perhaps more often and with more ease than any other tradition . Sometimes food carries with it related culinary practices ( such as the use of chopsticks ) and sometimes foods mix with existing culinary traditions to form new syncretic cuisines ( such as food , which evolved from a combination of Mexican and US Southwest food traditions ) Like culture itself , foods are shared within and move between communities , adapting to changing circumstances and settings . Although it is adaptable , food is also tightly linked to people cultural identities , or the ways they and distinguish themselves from other groups of people . As part of these cultural identities , the term cuisine is used to refer to specific cultural traditions of cooking , preparing , and consuming food . While urban areas tend to shift and adapt cuisine more frequently than rural areas , those aspects of cuisine most tightly linked to identity tend to change slowly in all settings .

FIGURE Japanese rice plays an important role in Japanese identity . Here , rice is served with a beef curry . credit Commons , Public Domain ) In her research on Japanese food and identity , cultural anthropologist , and Japanese scholar ( 1993 , 1995 ) explores the sociocultural construction of rice as a dominant metaphor for the Japanese people . Using evidence from decrees , taxation documents , myths , rituals , woodblock prints , and poetry , traces the long history of rice cultivation in Japan . Introduced from China , rice agriculture began during the Yamato period ( CE ) While the Chinese preferred rice , the Japanese cultivated rice , which they considered the only pure form of rice . During this period , a series of myths connecting rice to Japanese deities emerged in and historical of Japanese efforts to distinguish themselves from the Chinese , who also relied on rice as an important source of calories . Over the years , rice developed into a staple crop that Japanese landowners used as a form of tax payment , indicating strong connections between Japanese land , Japanese rice , and the Japanese landowning elite . By the early modern period ( as Japan became increasingly urban and eventually industrialized , agricultural life declined . People moved off the land and into cities , and rice began to take on new meanings . Symptomatic of a cultural identity strongly rooted in national history , rice became an increasingly sacred symbol of Japanese cultural memory with a long history that consistently tied being Japanese to eating domestic Japanese rice . As Japan opened to interactions with Western nations , the Japanese continued to use rice as a metaphor for national identity while the Japanese referred to themselves as , they referred to Western peoples as For years , Japan has had a ban on importing any rice , even California export rice , which is primarily the Japanese variety and available at a lower price . In 1993 , Japan suffered a growing season that was colder and wetter than normal and had a rice harvest . US rice exporters were able to negotiate a trade deal allowing some limited rice exports to Japan . Yet most of this rice remained in warehouses , untouched . Japanese people complained that it was full of impurities and did not taste good . Today , on average , Japanese people consume only about 160 grams of rice daily , half of what they consumed 40 years ago ( Coleman 2017 ) Yet their cultural and symbolic connection with domestic Japanese rice remains strong . Japanese rice is still referred to as , the main dish ( 1993 , 16 ) symbolic centerpiece , even though it is now more frequently a small side dish in a more diverse cuisine . notes that rice plays a particularly important role in the Japanese sense of community Not only during ritual occasions , but also in the lives of the Japanese , rice and rice products play a crucial role in commensal activities . Cooked white rice is offered daily to the family ancestral alcove . Also , rice is the only food shared at meals , served by the female head of the household , while other dishes are placed in individual containers . Rice stands for we , whatever social group one belongs to , as in a common expression , to eat from the same pan , which connotes a strong sense of fellowship arising from sharing meals . 1995 , 229 )

Although the meaning of rice has shifted during different historical a comparison between Japanese and Chinese rice to a way to distinguish Japanese from eating Westerners , then to a measure of the quality of what is grown in Japanese versus less desirable imported Japanese continue to hold a cultural identity closely connected with rice . Being Japanese means eating Japanese rice still today . The relationship between food and cultural identity is readily apparent in Western societies . Most grocery stores have aisles containing goods labeled as international foods or ethnic foods , and large urban areas often include neighborhoods featuring a conglomeration of restaurants serving diverse cuisines . In Washington , the neighborhood of Adams Morgan is famous for its ethnic restaurants . Walking down the street , one might smell the mouthwatering aroma of , a sour , fermented from Ethiopia , or bun hu ?

spicy lemongrass beef soup from Vietnam . Think about your own town and nearby urban areas . Where do you go to try new foods and dishes from other cultures ?

Food Prescriptions and Prescriptions As with all cultural institutions , there are various rules and customs surrounding food and eating . Many of these can be as either fond prescriptions , foods that one should eat and are considered culturally appropriate , or food prescriptions , foods that are prohibited and not considered proper . These food regulations are social norms that connect production and consumption with the maintenance of cultural identity through food . In the previous section , you read about the importance ofJapanese rice as a symbol of Japanese identity . For many Japanese people , rice is a food prescription , something that they feel they should eat . Food prescriptions are common across cultures and , especially in regard to special holidays . There are many examples turkey on Thanksgiving in the United States , corned beef on Day in Ireland , special breads , and candy on Dia de los in Mexico , saffron bread and ginger biscuits on Lucia Day in Sweden , or mutton curry and rice on Eid in Muslim countries . Food prescriptions are also common in the celebration of commemorative events , such as the cakes eaten at birthday parties and weddings , or the enchiladas and tamales prepared for a quinceanera celebrating a young Latin American woman birthday . Most of these occasions involve feasts , which are elaborate meals shared among a large group ofpeople and featuring symbolically meaningful foods . One interesting example is the food eaten to mark the Dragon Boat Festival ( Dragon Boat Festival , also called ) held in China on the day of the month of the Chinese lunar year . There are various origin stories for the Dragon Boat Festival . In one of them , the festival commemorates a beloved Chinese poet and government minister named Qu Yuan ( ca . who fell out of imperial favor and died by suicide , drowning himself . According to the story , people threw sticky rice dumplings into the river where he had drowned himself in order to distract the so that they could retrieve his body and give him a proper burial . The most important Dragon Boat food is , a sticky rice dumpling with different , but the feast also traditionally includes eel , sticky rice cakes , boiled eggs , a wheat ball covered in sesame seeds ) pancakes with , and wine .

FIGURE , a sticky rice dumpling , wrapped in bamboo leaves , prepared for the Dragon Boat Festival . Festival foods are typically associated with ritual events . credit Dragon Boat Festival by Evan , BY ) Food , also called food taboos , are also common across cultures and contribute to establishing and maintaining a group identity . Often , these rules and regulations about what not to eat originate in religious beliefs . Two examples are the vegetarianism practiced by many Hindus , which is grounded in the spiritual principle of ahimsa ( nonviolence in relation to all living things ) and , a Jewish principle that forbids mixing meat and dairy foods or eating pork or . Sometimes food are active for limited periods of time . For many Christians , especially Catholics , the 40 days of Lent , a period of religious commemorating the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert , are a time when people give up certain foods or drinks to make a symbolic . For many Catholics , this means fasting ( withholding a measure of food ) throughout the period totally abstaining from meat on the special days of Ash Wednesday and Good Friday For members of the Latin Catholic Church , the norms on fasting are obligatory from age 18 until age 59 . When fasting , a person is permitted to eat one full meal , as well as two smaller meals that together are not equal to a full meal . The norms concerning abstinence from meat are binding upon members of the Latin Catholic Church from age 14 onwards . United States Conference of Catholic Bishops ) Muslims observe , a commemoration of the prophet Muhammad receiving the revelations of the , by fasting every day from sunup to sundown . The Islamic fast entails a prohibition on food and drink , including water . Every evening after sundown , Muslims eat a large meal that include fruits , vegetables , and dates to rehydrate for the next day fast . Some food prohibitions are customary and tied more to ancient cultural traditions than religion . Many food prohibitions pertain to meat . Among several East African groups , there is a prohibition against eating of any kind . This is called the taboo because the prohibitions are found among many , but not all , cultural groups whose languages are part of the family , such as the Somali , and peoples . Horsemeat was historically consumed infrequently in the United States until it was outlawed in 2005 , primarily because of toxins in the meat related to the butchering process . Even before then , horsemeat in mainstream US society was a food prohibition . However , it is consumed throughout Europe , where there are butchers solely devoted to handling horsemeat .

446 14 Anthropology of Food FIGURE A horse butcher shop in Italy . In many European countries , horsemeat is processed separately from other meats and sold at specialized butcher shops . credit at English Commons , BY ) An interesting case of food rules and regulations across cultures is cannibalism , the act of eating an individual of one own species . Although we do not usually think of human as a menu item , in some cultures it is considered a kind of food , typically eaten as symbolic nutrition and identity . cultural and medical anthropologist Beth ( 1995 ) and Brazilian cultural anthropologist ( 2002 ) conducted research among the ' of western in Brazil and found that prior to evangelization by Christian missionaries in the , the practiced two different types of cannibalism endocannibalism , or eating members of one own cultural group , and exocannibalism , or eating those who are foreign or outside of one cultural group . Each form of cannibalism was associated with its own beliefs , practices , and symbolism . The belief system is based on the principle that only the are real people . All others , people and animals alike , are not humans and thus can be considered meat ( 2002 , 358 ) When speaking of the practice recognized by anthropologists as exocannibalism , the ' did not consider themselves to be practicing cannibalism at all they saw people as not fully human and them as a type of prey . Endocannibalism was understood differently . Endocannibalism among the was practiced as part of the mourning process and understood as a way of honoring a person who had died . Following a death , the immediate family of the deceased arranged for and relatives by marriage to dress and prepare the body by dismembering , roasting , and eating virtually all of it . Consuming the of the deceased was considered the ultimate act of respect , as the remains were not buried in the ground but in the living bodies of other ' Once eaten by , the deceased could transform from humans into spirits and eventually return as prey animals to provide food for the living . For , this practice indicates mutualism , or the relationship between people and animals through the medium of food and eating For , the magic of existence lies in the commonality of human and animal identities , in the movements between the human and nonhuman worlds embodied in the recognition through cannibalism of human participation in both poles of the dynamic and being eaten . 95 ) Cannibalism has been associated with many cultures , sometimes accompanying warfare or imperial Access for free at

expansion , as in the case of the Aztecs ( Isaac 2002 ) and sometimes as a means of showing respect for and establishing kinship with the deceased ( see 1979 for an example in New Guinea ) Although there have been scholarly arguments around the nature and frequency of cannibalism ( 1979 ) there is increasing evidence that this was a practiced norm in many human societies . Some religions also incorporate symbolic cannibalism as a way of identifying with the deity . Food can be deeply symbolic and plays an important role in every culture . Whether foods are prescribed or prohibited , each culture constructs meanings around what they as food and the emotional attachments they have to what they eat . Consider your own plate when you next sit down to eat . What meanings are attached to the different foods that you choose ?

What memories do different foods evoke ?

Food and Gender While food itself is a material substance , humans classify and categorize foods differently based on cultural differences and family traditions . In many cultures , food is , meaning some foods or dishes are associated with one gender more than with the other . Think about your own culture . lfyou were cooking a meal for only women or only men , would that the foods you chose to prepare ?

Although food choices are stereotypes of male and female dietary preferences and every person has their own individual preferences , many social institutions and entertainment venues cater to diets . When the television show Man Food , a show devoted to big food and eating challenges , premiered on the Travel Channel in 2008 , it had some of the highest ratings of any show on that channel . Many of the foods showcased are those stereotypically associated with men ( burgers , potatoes , ribs , fried chicken ) and the host participates in local competitions , highlighting regional cuisines around the United States . In this show , food functions as a sporting activity under extreme conditions . Food delivery business did a study of male and female ordering preferences in at some different restaurants in more than 700 US cities to better understand takeout and delivery ( 2018 ) In their results , they noted some differences between men and womens ordering habits . Pizza was the most popular item for both men and women , but among other selections , women tended to order more healthy options , such as salads , sushi , and vegetable dishes , and men ordered more meat and chicken , with the most popular choices being General chicken , chicken parmesan , and bacon . Food historian Paul Freedman traced the emergence of foods and food stereotypes in the United States back to the , when shifting social the entry of women into the women more opportunities to dine without men ( Freedman notes that there was a rapid development of restaurants meant to appeal to women . Many of these featured lighter fare , such as sandwiches and salads , and some were referred to as ice cream saloons , playing on a distinction between them and the more traditional type of saloon primarily associated with men ( Freedman 2015 ) There was also growth in the recipe industry to provide women with home cooking options that allowed for quicker meal preparation . foods , a practice often associated with life stages and rituals , is found across cultures and across time . In his study of marriage customs in the chiefdom in , social anthropologist Emile notes that the marriage is formalized by an exchange of foods between the polygamous families The groom offers raw male products ( palm oil , plantain , and wine ) to the of the girls mother , while the hand over the palm oil to the girl father , and the girl side offers female products ( yams , potatoes , taro ) to the husband side . 2017 , 134 ) This exchange of foods between families mirrors the marriage ceremony and symbolically binds the couples families together . foods are also common during puberty rituals in many cultures , especially for young women , as female puberty is marked by the beginning of menstruation , an obvious and observable bodily change . In the , the Navajo puberty ceremony for young girls that takes place shortly after the menstruation , the girl and female members of her family together cook a corn cake in a special underground oven . The corn

448 14 Anthropology of Food cake , called an , is understood as a of the corn cake baked by the Navajo deity Changing Woman . After baking this corn cake , Changing Woman offered a piece of it to the sun in gratitude for food and life . By reenacting this ritual , the young girl marks her own journey toward the creation of life , as she is now capable of becoming a mother . FIGURE Ashes smolder in a in preparation for baking the corn cake that is used to celebrate a Navajo girl ( puberty ) ceremony . credit by , Public Domain ) As we saw in Chapter 12 , Gender Sexuality , cultures may also celebrate foods that enhance sexuality . In some regions of Vietnam , there are restaurants that serve dog to male customers only , as dog meat is believed to enhance masculinity ( 2011 ) Food contains and conveys many cultural beliefs . This can be compared to attributed to chocolate in the United States , especially during the celebration of Valentine Day . Do you have similar beliefs about food and sexuality ?

The Globalization of Food LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe the impacts of globalization on food and food diversity . food deserts and food oases . Globalization of Food Most people , when they think about food , consider it a local , individual choice based on personal preferences and economic possibilities . But food is a global commodity marketed by transnational corporations , health institutes , advertising campaigns , and subtle and cultural messaging through global media such as movies , television , and online video . Most often , what people choose to eat is based on underlying structures that determine availability and cost . While there are now hothouse businesses growing fruits and vegetables , often prohibits everyone from having access to fresh , ripe foods . Instead , mainstream grocery stores most often stock foods imported across long distances . Most fruits and vegetables sold in the grocery store were harvested unripe ( and often tasteless ) so that they would last the days and weeks between harvesting and purchase . Access for free at

FIGURE Pallets of fruit being loaded on deck for shipment overseas . Most commercial fruits are harvested before they are ripe so that they will not spoil before arriving at a supermarket , often far from where they were picked . credit Commons , BY ) In her work on food and globalization , anthropologist and food studies specialist Phillips points out the crooked pathways ( 2006 , 38 ) that food takes to become a global commodity . Increasingly affected by transnational corporations , food today is marketed for endlessly higher . Food no longer goes simply from producer to consumer . There are many turns along the way . Food globalization has numerous effects on our daily lives The food chains from producers to consumers are increasingly fragile as a small number of transnational corporations provide the basic foods that we eat daily . Failures in this food chain might come from contamination during production or breaks in the supply chain due to climate crises , tariffs , or trade negotiations between countries . Our dependence on global food chains makes the food supply to our communities more vulnerable to disruption and scarcity . Our food cultures are less diverse and tend to revolve around a limited number of meats or grains . With the loss of diversity , there is an accompanying loss not only of food knowledge but also of nutrition . As foods become more globalized , we are increasingly dependent on food additives to enhance the appearance and taste of foods and to ensure their preservation during the from factory farm to table . We are also increasingly exposed to steroids , antibiotics , and other medicines in the meat we eat . This exposure poses health risks to large numbers of people . As plants and animals are subjected to ever more sophisticated forms of genetic engineering , there is an increasing monopoly on basic food items , allowing transnational companies to affect regulatory controls on food safety . As corporate laboratories develop patented seeds ( such as the Corporation genetically engineered corn ) that are and able to withstand challenges such as harsh climate conditions and disease , growers become dependent on the seed sold by these corporations . No longer able to save seed from year to year , growers have little choice but to pay whatever price these corporations choose to charge for their genetic material . Factory farming of all types , but especially animal farms , are major contributors to global warming . Not only do they produce large amounts of water and air pollution and contribute to worldwide deforestation , but as more and more forest is turned into pasture , the sheer number of livestock contributes levels of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming . Worldwide , livestock account for around 145 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions ( Quinton 2019 ) Food has long been an international commodity , even during the and centuries , when traders sought spice and trade routes connecting Europe and Asia . Today , however , food has become transnational , with production sometimes spanning many different countries and fresh and processed foods moving long

distances from their original harvest or production . Because these migrating foods must be harvested early or packaged with preservatives that we may not know or even be able to pronounce , there has been a parallel development in local food movements , organic food movements , and establishments as people see the dangers of food globalization . In the very popular The Omnivore Dilemma A Natural History Meals ( 2006 ) American author and food journalist Michael Pollan advocates that people should know the identity of the foods they eat and should make every effort to eat locally sourced products . Shortly after the book publication , chef and author Jessica Prentice coined the term to refer to those who eat locally and know the origins of their foods . In 2007 , was chosen as the New Oxford American Dictionary word of the year . Food Deserts and Worldwide , access to nutritious and affordable foods is growing increasingly unequal . Areas with inadequate or unreliable access to nutritious foods are sometimes called food deserts . Food deserts present serious challenges to health and wellness in multiple ways and have been linked to eating disorders , obesity , and malnutrition . In Western nations , food deserts frequently correspond to other areas of social inequality , such as and minority communities . Reduced availability of healthy and economical food often exacerbates many of the challenges these communities face . No Car and No Supermarket Stove Within a Mile . I I I , i ?

ha ' am a I . FIGURE Food deserts are common in Western countries , especially in and around urban areas . This chart shows areas in the United States where percentages of people both have no car and no grocery store within a mile of their home , which is about a twenty minute walk for a healthy adult . credit United States Department of Agriculture and Centers for Disease Commons , Public Domain ) As the world population continues to grow ( at around billion people ( climate change accelerates , and food production becomes more and more concentrated in the hands ofa few corporations , access to food will become increasingly critical to our survival . The story of progress embraced by Western society tells us that globalization and agricultural developments have stabilized and secured our food chains , but anthropological studies of suggest otherwise . Agricultural production is tied to access to arable land , clean water , stable climate , and a reliable workforce . Periodically , crops ( and animals ) fail due to disease , drought , and even disruption from warfare and extreme weather , leading to scarcity and famine in many parts of the world . In addition , as families and communities produce less and less of their own food and become more and more dependent on intermediaries to gain access to food , their vulnerabilities increase . While there are many differences between state societies and , there are valuable lessons we can learn from them . facing the same unstable conditions that we all face worldwide , have a more varied and diet and are able to adjust their needs seasonally based on local availability . They eat locally , and they adjust their needs to what is available . There are also food oases , areas that have high access to supermarkets and fresh foods , and these are growing in number . Some are in urban or suburban areas , and some are in rural areas where sustainable farming supports a local community or restaurant . In , Kentucky , the Trustees Table serves food from the nearby Pleasant Hill Shaker gardens . Visitors to the Shaker site , a historic cloistered religious community , learn about the Shaker seed industry , plant varieties , and sustainable gardening techniques at Shaker Farm ,

then walk down to the Trustees Table to have a meal . The seasonal menu features local Kentucky dishes that would have been common fare during the period of Shaker occupation ( such as garlic potatoes , warm or cold salads , vegetable pot pies , and apple pie . By utilizing the foods raised in the nearby gardens , the Trustees Table serves as a legacy restaurant that helps preserve and sustain Shaker research and farming . In Richmond , Virginia , an organization called Real Local ( was founded in 2014 as a grassroots local food movement to support businesses and residential areas in the downtown area of the city . It expresses its core value as collaboration over The group sponsors monthly meetings , local farm tours , and community events highlighting businesses and prominent in the local food movement . The participants are all farmers , independent grocers , or local restaurants that source local ingredients and products as part of their mission . Besides advocating for small farms and independent businesses , Real Local also sponsors workshops and education on sustainable farming , does joint marketing and storytelling about its partnership and the values of local food networks , and provide a recognizable brand to identify participating members for the wider urban community . Although local food movements are increasingly popular , most still primarily operate in more areas . As we develop more of these healthy initiatives , we also must expand the zones in which they operate , especially in cities , to include all ofour neighbors and neighborhoods . Food and sociality go hand in hand . As Michael Pollan writes , The shared meal elevates eating from a mechanical process of fueling the body to a ritual of family and community , from mere animal biology to an act of culture ( 2008 , 192 ) The study of food in anthropology is important for many reasons . Food reveals cultural identities and physical vulnerabilities , and it helps build social networks and mark important life events . How often eating is prescribed , what foods are considered appropriate , who cooks , who serves whom , and what foods are most and least valued all vary across cultures . As anthropologists seek to understand human cultures , food is often a centerpiece ingredient in knowing who we are . ACTIVITY Food Memories Food plays an important role in memory , as it is linked to smell , taste , and texture and often is a central feature of social functions , whether they be family dinners or holiday feasts . In this project , you will interview two individuals who are likely to have different food memories than you they may be older , they may be living in a different part of the country ( or world ) or they may have lived part of their lives in a environment ( rural or urban ) that is different from yours . Ask each person to share with you stories about special holiday meals prepared and served as part of their family life , whether as a child or an adult . What foods do they most identify with holidays ?

How did they prepare and consume those foods ?

Were there gender roles during the preparation and holiday meals ?

After collecting and writing up what you have learned , what conclusions can you make about the role of food in human social and cultural life ?

Key Terms basalt an igneous rock frequently used for early grinding tools in the Near East . approach a perspective that looks at both the cultural and biological roles that food plays in human lives . cannibalism the act of eating an individual of ones own species . cuisine the cultural traditions of cooking and preparing food . cultural heritage traditions passed down through generations that serve as primary characteristics of how a group and itself to other cultural groups . cultural identity the ways in which people and distinguish themselves culturally from other groups . feasts elaborate meals of symbolically meaningful foods shared among large groups of people . food a substance eaten for the purpose of nutrition social status . food deserts areas that lack access to nutritious and affordable foods . food oases areas that have high access to supermarkets and fresh foods . Summary Food is a ubiquitous artifact . Found everywhere during all periods of history , it is diverse and symbolic . The study of early human diets is important for understanding the evolution of humans , and archaeologists use various kinds of evidence to determine early , from material artifacts such as food utensils to food residues and even . The study of ancient foods provides valuable information about health , economics , politics , and religion of early humans and the ways humans adapted to changing environments . Today , Indigenous groups such as the Cherokee are incorporating traditional in cultural revitalization efforts , negotiating with the government to protect their ability to harvest wild foods on ancestral lands . Many anthropologists take a approach to the study of food , examining the nutritional role of food and its connection to identity . Agricultural practices such as the Three Sisters practice of the are good examples of ways in which human cultures have used their knowledge about food to develop sustainable and healthy farming techniques . Sustainable farming techniques , many of them grounded in traditional food prescriptions foods that one should eat and are considered culturally appropriate . food foods that are prohibited and are not considered proper as food also called food taboos . the collection , production , and consumption of food how culinary traditions shape cultural identity . genetically modified plants plants whose DNA has been altered through human intervention . heirloom seeds seeds that are not genetically , are open pollinated , and have been in existence for at least 50 years . planting different seeds mixed together instead of in separate rows . a person who eats locally produced foods and knows their origins . residue studies chemical analyses of small amounts of material left intact on surfaces in order to identify the substance . shell midden a large collection of discarded shells , either food remains or waste piles from other activities . practices , typically produce higher food yields , reduce fertilizer costs , build healthier soils , and avoid genetically plants . There is also growing interest today in cultural that may increase health and wellness , such as the Mediterranean diet , based on fruits , vegetables , and olive oil , and the paleo diet , which is based on our perspective of early human diets and includes lean meats , fruits , vegetables , and nuts . Food plays a central role in cultural identity . Cultures practice food prescriptions , or foods considered critical to maintaining cultural identity , such as rice for the Japanese , and food , which are food taboos , such as horsemeat in the United States . Feast foods are another way in which cultures use food to mark and symbolize special occasions . In short , what we eat as human societies who we are . Some societies , such as the in Brazil and many others , have also practiced forms of cannibalism as ways of kinship and humanity . Gender and religion are other areas in which food plays a major role in creating boundaries and identities . Today , many foods are global commodities . Grocery

store foods , produced and distributed by transnational corporations , may be shipped many thousands of miles from their points of origin . Access to fresh food is a global challenge , especially in urban environments with concentrated populations . In food deserts , multiple forms of social inequality affect the health and wellness of the Critical Thinking Questions . What are the various ways in which food can be as an artifact ?

What is the relationship between heritage foods and cultural identity ?

How do archaeologists study early human diets ?

What evidence can they use to determine eating habits ?

How does food serve as both physical and cultural nourishment ?

Describe various food prescriptions and food Bibliography whole society . There are also growing numbers of food oases , where local movements offer table meat and produce . Food plays an important role in our biological and cultural lives . Given the ongoing challenges of climate change , food insecurity is increasing worldwide as dependable food networks are shifting . prohibitions that are common in your own cultural practices . What is the relationship between food and gender ?

How might food habits reinforce gender stereotypes ?

Give some examples from your own cultural practices . How has globalization affected the cultural diversity and value of food ?

Why should food deserts concern everyone in a society ?

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