Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 13 Religion and Culture

13 Religion and Culture Figure A man carries a Tibetan Buddhist prayer wheel , rotating it as a way of sending out prayers as blessings . credit Person in face mask holding Tibetan Buddhist Prayer Wheel by , CHAPTER OUTLINE What Is Religion ?

Symbolic and Sacred Space Myth and Religious Doctrine Rituals of Transition and Conformity other Forms of Religious Practice INTRODUCTION Religion is one of the most complex and pervasive of all sociocultural institutions . It is also universal . All cultures and societies across time have had beliefs and that can be as religious in nature , even within political institutions that are or avow atheism . Innovative research also indicates that primates , most especially the human species , have evolved physically , socially , and emotionally toward a sense of spirituality and religiosity ( see King 2007 )

400 13 Religion Culture What Is Religion ?

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Distinguish between religion , spirituality , and worldview . Describe the connections between witchcraft , sorcery , and magic . Identify differences between deities and spirits . Identify shamanism . Describe the institutionalization of religion in state societies . Religion , Spirituality , and Worldview An anthropological inquiry into religion can easily become muddled and hazy because religion encompasses intangible things such as values , ideas , beliefs , and norms . It can be helpful to establish some shared signposts . Two researchers whose work has focused on religion offer that point to diverse poles of thought about the subject . Frequently , anthropologists bookend their understanding of religion by citing these . French sociologist Emile ( utilized an anthropological approach to religion in his study of totemism among Indigenous Australian peoples in the early century . In his work The Elementary Forms ofthe Religious Life ( 1915 ) he argues that social scientists should begin with what he calls simple religions in their attempts to understand the structure and function of belief systems in general . His of religion takes an empirical approach and key elements of a religion A religion is a system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things , that is to say , things set apart and and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church , all those who adhere to them ( 47 ) This breaks down religion into the components of beliefs , practices , and a social a shared group of people believe and do . FIGURE An outdoor Christian worship service timed to coincide with the sunrise on Easter morning . Religion includes a great variety of human constructs and experiences . credit Easter Sunrise Service 2017 by James of Public , Public Domain ) The other signpost used within anthropology to make sense of religion was crafted by American anthropologist Clifford ( in his work The Interpretation ( 1973 ) takes a very different approach A religion is ( a system of symbols which acts to ( establish powerful , pervasive , and moods and motivations in men by ( formulating conceptions ofa general order of existence and ( clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that ( the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic ( 90 ) which is complex and holistic and addresses intangibles such as emotions and feelings , presents religion as a different paradigm , or overall model , for how we see systems of Access for free at

belief . views religion as an impetus to view and act upon the world in a certain manner . While still acknowledging that religion is a shared endeavor , focuses on religion role as a potent cultural symbol . Elusive , ambiguous , and hard to , religion in conception is primarily a feeling that motivates and unites groups ofpeople with shared beliefs . In the next section , we will examine the meanings of symbols and how they function within cultures , which will deepen your understanding of . For , religion is intensely symbolic . When anthropologists study religion , it can be helpful to consider both of these because religion includes such varied human constructs and experiences as social structures , sets of beliefs , a feeling of awe , and an aura of mystery . While different religious groups and practices sometimes extend beyond what can be covered by a simple , we can broadly religion as a shared system and practices regarding the interaction of natural and supernatural phenomena . And yet as soon as we ascribe a meaning to religion , we must distinguish some related concepts , such as spirituality and worldview . Over the last few years , a growing number of Americans have been choosing to themselves as spiritual rather than religious . A 2017 Pew Research Center study found that 27 percent of Americans identify as spiritual but not religious , which is percentage points higher than it was in 2012 ( and 2017 ) There are different factors that can distinguish religion and spirituality , and individuals will and use these terms in ways however , in general , while religion usually refers to shared with a particular structure or organization , spirituality normally refers to loosely structured beliefs and feelings about relationships between the natural and supernatural worlds . Spirituality can be very adaptable to changing circumstances and is often built upon an individual perception of the surrounding environment . Many Americans with religious also use the term distinguish it from their religion . Pew found in 2017 that 48 percent of respondents said they were both religious and spiritual . Pew also found that 27 percent ofpeople say religion is very important to them ( and 2017 ) Another trend pertaining to religion in the United States is the growth of those themselves as nones , or people with no religious . In a 2014 survey of Americans from 50 states , Pew found that nearly a quarter of Americans assigned themselves to this category ( Pew Research Center 2015 ) The percentage of adults assigning themselves to the none category had grown substantially , from 16 percent in 2007 to 23 percent in 2014 among millennials , the percentage of nones was even higher , at 35 percent ( 2015 ) In a survey , participants were asked to identity their major reasons for choosing to be the most common responses pointed to the growing of American churches and a more critical and questioning stance toward the institutional structure of all religions ( Pew Research Center 2018 ) It is important , however , to point out that nones are not the same as or atheists . Nones may hold traditional nontraditional religious beliefs outside of membership in a religious institution . Agnosticism is the belief that God or the divine is unknowable and therefore skepticism of appropriate , and atheism is a stance that denies the existence ofa god or collection of gods . Nones , and atheists can hold spiritual beliefs , however . When anthropologists study religion , it is very important for them to the terms they are using because these terms can have different meanings when used outside of academic studies . In addition , the meaning of terms may change . As the social and political landscape in a society changes , it affects all social institutions , including religion . Religious Percentage Christian Jewish Muslim Buddhist

Religious Percentage Hindu TABLE American religious and nones , based on the Pew Research Center Religious Landscape Study , 2014 . Even those who consider themselves neither spiritual nor religious hold secular , or nonreligious , beliefs that structure how they view themselves and the world they live in . The term worldview refers to a outlook or orientation it is a learned perspective , which has both individual and collective components , on the nature of life itself . Individuals frequently and intermingle their religious and spiritual beliefs and their as they experience change within their lives . When studying religion , anthropologists need to remain aware of these various dimensions . The word religion is not always adequate to identify an individual belief systems . Like all social institutions , religion evolves within and across time and across early human species ! Adapting to changes in population size and the reality of people daily lives , religions and spiritual practices life on the ground . Interestingly , though , while some institutions ( such as economics ) tend to change radically from one era to another , often because of technological changes , religion tends to be more viscous , meaning it tends to change at a much slower pace and mix together various beliefs and practices . While religion can be a factor in promoting rapid social change , it more commonly changes slowly and retains older features while adding new ones . In effect , religion contains within it many of its earlier iterations and can thus be quite complex . Witchcraft , Sorcery , and Magic People in Western cultures too often think of religion as a belief system associated with a church , temple , or mosque , but religion is much more diverse . In the 19605 , anthropologists typically used an evolutionary model for religion that associated less structured religious systems with simple societies and more complex forms of religion with more complex political systems . Anthropologists noticed that as populations grew , all forms of , economic , social , and more complex as well . For example , with the emergence of tribal societies , religion expanded to become not only a system of healing and connection with both animate and inanimate things in the environment but also a mechanism for addressing desire and . Witchcraft and sorcery , both forms of magic , are more visible in , more complex societies . The terms witchcraft and sorcery are variously across disciplines and from one researcher to another , yet there is some agreement about common elements associated with each . Witchcraft involves the use of intangible ( not material ) means to cause a change in circumstances to another person . It is normally associated with practices such as incantations , spells , blessings , and other types of formulaic language that , when pronounced , causes a transformation . Sorcery is similar to witchcraft but involves the use of material elements to cause a change in circumstances to another person . It is normally associated with such practices as magical bundles , love potions , and any action that uses another person personal leavings ( such as their hair , nails , or even excreta ) While some scholars argue that witchcraft and sorcery are dark , negative , antisocial actions that seek to punish others , ethnographic research is with examples of more ambiguous or even positive uses as well . Cultural anthropologist Alma , who did among the Beng people of Cote in Africa , describes how the king that the Beng choose as their leader must always be a witch himself , not because of his ability to harm others but because his mystical powers allow him to protect the Beng people that he rules ( 2008 ) His knowledge and abilities allow him to be a capable ruler . Some scholars argue that witchcraft and sorcery may be later developments in religion and not part of the earliest rituals because they can be used to express social . What is the relationship between , religion , and political organization ?

Consider what you learned in Social . As a society population rises , individuals within that society have less familiarity and personal experience with each other and must instead rely on family reputation or rank as the basis for establishing trust . Also , as social diversity increases , people themselves interacting with those who have different behaviors and beliefs from their own . Frequently , we trust those who are most like ourselves , and diversity can create a sense of mistrust . This sense of not knowing or understanding the people one lives , works , and trades with creates social stress and forces people to put themselves into what can feel like risky situations when interacting with one another . In such a setting , witchcraft and sorcery provide a feeling of security and control over other people . Historically , as populations increased and sociocultural institutions became larger and more complex , religion evolved to provide mechanisms such as witchcraft and sorcery that helped individuals establish a sense of social control over their lives . Magic is essential to both witchcraft and sorcery , and the principles of magic are part of every religion . The anthropological study of magic is considered to have begun in the late century with the 1890 publication of The Golden Bough , by Scottish social anthropologist Sir James Frazer . This work , published in several volumes , details the rituals and beliefs of a diverse range of societies , all collected by Frazer from the accounts of missionaries and travelers . Frazer was an armchair anthropologist , meaning that he did not practice . In his work , he provided one of the earliest of magic , describing it as a spurious system of natural law as well as a fallacious guide of conduct ( Frazer 1922 1925 , 11 ) A more precise and neutral depicts magic as a supposed system of natural law whose practice causes a transformation to occur . In the natural world of our senses and the things we hear , see , smell , taste , and operate with evidence of observable cause and effect . Magic is a system in which the actions or causes are not always empirical . Speaking a spell or other magical formula does not provide observable ( empirical ) effects . For practitioners of magic , however , this abstract cause and effect is just as consequential and just as true . Frazer refers to magic as sympathetic magic because it is based on the idea of sympathy , or common feeling , and he argued that there are two principles of sympathetic magic the law of similarity and the law of contagion . The law of similarity is the belief that a magician can create a desired change by imitating that change . This is associated with actions or charms that mimic or look like the effects one desires , such as the use of an that looks like another person or even the Venus associated with the Upper Paleolithic period , whose voluptuous female body parts may have been used as part ofa fertility ritual . By taking actions on the , the magician is able to cause an effect on the person believed to be represented by this . The law of contagion is the belief that things that have once been in contact with each other remain connected always , such as a piece owned by someone you love , a locket of hair or baby tooth kept as a keepsake , or personal leavings to be used in acts of sorcery .

404 13 Religion and Culture FIGURE The Venus was a genre of art most frequently associated with the late Upper Paleolithic period , It is considered a form of magic because the exaggerated female body parts are believed to be related to ideas of female fertility and reproduction . credit Venus von by Commons , BY ) This of magic broadens our understanding of how magic can be used and how common it is across all religions . Prayers and special mortuary artifacts ( grave goods ) indicate that the concept of magic is an innately human practice and not associated solely with tribal societies . In most cultures and across religious traditions , people bury or cremate loved ones with meaningful clothing , jewelry , or even a photo . These practices and sentimental acts are magical bonds and connections among acts , artifacts , and people . Even prayers and shamanic journeying ( a form of metaphysical travel ) to spirits and deities , practiced in almost all religious traditions , are magical contracts within people belief systems that strengthen practitioners faith . Instead of seeing magic as something outside of religion that diminishes seriousness , anthropologists see magic as a profound human act of faith . Supernatural Forces and Beings As stated earlier , religion typically regards the interaction of natural and supernatural phenomena . Put simply , a supernatural force is a or energy that does not follow natural law . In other words , it is nonempirical and can not be measured or observed by normal means . Religious practices rely on contact and interaction with a wide range of supernatural forces of varying degrees of complexity and . In many religious traditions , there are both supernatural deities , or gods who are named and have the ability to change human fortunes , and spirits , who are less powerful and not always by name . Spirit or spirits can be diffuse and perceived as a or an unnamed force . Practitioners of witchcraft and sorcery manipulate a supposed supernatural force that is often referred to by the term mana , in among the of New Zealand ( mana is a word ) Anthropologists see a similar supposed sacred energy in many different religious traditions and now use this word to refer to that energy force . Mana is an impersonal ( unnamed and ) force that can adhere for varying periods of time to people or animate and inanimate objects to make them sacred . One example is in the biblical story that appears in Mark , in which a woman suffering an illness simply Access for free at

touches Jesus cloak and is healed . Jesus asks , Who touched my clothes ?

because he recognizes that some of this force has passed from him to the woman who was ill in order to heal her . Many Christians see the person of Jesus as sacred and holy from the time of his baptism by the Holy Spirit . Christian baptism in many traditions is meant as a duplication or repetition of Christ baptism . There are also named and known supernatural deities . A deity is a god or goddess . Most often conceived as humanlike , gods ( male ) and goddesses ( female ) are typically named beings with individual personalities and interests . Monotheistic religions focus on a single named god or goddess , and polytheistic religions are built around a pantheon , or group , of gods goddesses , each usually specializing in a sort of behavior or action . And there are spirits , which tend to be associated with very ( and narrower ) activities , such as earth spirits or guardian spirits ( or angels ) Some spirits emanate from or are connected directly to humans , such as ghosts and ancestor spirits , which may be attached to individuals , families , or places . In some patrilineal societies , ancestor spirits require a great deal of from the living . This veneration of the dead can consume large quantities of resources . In the Philippines , the practice of the ancestor spirits involves elaborate house shrines , altars , and food offerings . In central Madagascar , the Merino people practice a regular turning of the bones , called . Every to seven years , a family will disinter some of their deceased family members and replace their burial clothing with new , expensive silk garments as a form of remembrance and to honor all of their ancestors . In both of these cases , ancestor spirits are believed to continue to have an effect on their living relatives , and failure to carry out these rituals is believed to put the living at risk of harm from the dead . Religious Specialists Religious groups typically have some type of leadership , whether formal or informal . Some religious leaders occupy a role or status within a larger organization , representing the rules and regulations of the institution , including norms of behavior . In anthropology , these individuals are called priests , even though they may have other titles within their religious groups . Anthropology priests as practitioners , meaning they occupy a religious rank at all times , whether or not they are at rituals or ceremonies , and they have leadership over groups of people . They serve as mediators or guides between individuals or groups of people and the deity or deities . In terms , anthropological priests may be called by various names , including titles such as priest , pastor , preacher , teacher , imam ( Islam ) and rabbi ( Judaism ) Another category of specialists is prophets . These individuals are associated with religious change and transformation , calling for a renewal of beliefs or a restructuring of the status quo . Their leadership is usually temporary or indirect , and sometimes the prophet is on the margins ofa larger religious organization . German sociologist Max Weber ( 1947 ) prophets as having charisma , a personality trait that conveys authority Charisma is a certain quality of an individual personality by virtue ofwhich he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural , superhuman , or at least exceptional powers or qualities . These as such are not accessible to the ordinary person , but are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary , and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader . A third type of specialist is shamans . Shamans are religious specialists who work with clients to address very and individual needs by making direct contact with deities or supernatural forces . While priests will at recurring ritual events , a shaman , much like a medical psychologist , addresses each individual need . One exception to this is the shaman role in subsistence , usually hunting . In societies where the shaman is responsible for calling up the animals so that hunters will have success , the ritual may be calendrical , or occurring on a cyclical basis . While shamans are medical and religious specialists within shamanic societies , there are other religions that practice forms of shamanism as part of their own belief systems . Sometimes , these shamanic practitioners will be known by terms such as pastor or preacher , or even . And some religious specialists serve as both priests and shamans , occupying more than one role as needed within a group . You will read more about shamanism in the next section .

Shamanism One early form of religion is shamanism , a practice of divination and healing that involves soul travel , also called shamanic journeying , to connect natural and supernatural realms in nonlinear time . Associated initially with societies , shamanic practices are now known to be embedded in many of the worlds religions . In some cultures , shamans are specialists , usually drawn into the practice by a calling and trained in the necessary skills and rituals though an apprenticeship . In other cultures , all individuals are believed to be capable of shamanic journeying trained . act frequently initiated by dance , trance , drumbeat , song , or hallucinogenic shaman is able to consult with a spiritual world populated by supernatural and deceased ancestors . The term itself , saman , meaning one who knows , is an word , originating among the people of northern Siberia . Shamanism , found all over the world , was studied by anthropologists in Siberia . While shamanism is a healing practice , it conforms to the anthropological of religion as a shared set of beliefs and practices pertaining to the natural and supernatural . Cultures and societies that publicly shamanism as a predominant and generally accepted practice often are referred to as shamanic cultures . Shamanism and shamanic activity , however , are found within most religions . The world two dominant mainstream religions both contain a type of shamanistic practice the laying on of hands in Christianity , in which a mystical healing and blessing is passed from one person to another , and the mystical Islamic practice of , in which the practitioner , called a dervish , dances by whirling faster and faster in order to reach a trance state of communing with the divine . There are numerous other shared religious beliefs and practices among different religions besides shamanism . Given the physical and social evolution of our species , it is likely that we all share aspects of a fundamental religious orientation and that religious changes are added on to , rather than used to replace , earlier practices such as shamanism . FIGURE Whirling dervishes enter a trance state during a ceremony in Turkey by practicing a rhythmic , spinning dance . In this state , they are able to commune with the deity . credit Whirling Dervishes by Richard , BY ) Indigenous shamanism continues to be a force for healing and prophecy today and is the predominant religious mode in , societies , such as bands of gatherers and hunters . Shamanism is valued by hunters as an intuitive way to locate wild animals , often depicted as getting into the mind of the Shamanism is also valued as a means of healing , allowing individuals to discern and address sources of physical and social illness that may be affecting their health . One of the shamanic healing practices is that of the ! Kung San in Central Africa . When individuals in that society suffer physical or distress , they practice tchai , a medicine dance , to draw up spiritual forces within themselves that can be used for shamanic ( Marshall 1969 2009 )

What is Religion ?

FIGURE Shamanism is an early form of religion . It is based on perceived contact between natural and supernatural realms . Here , a shaman from the Northwest coast of the United States makes contact with supernatural forces . credit emerging from the by Edward of Congress Prints Photographs Online Catalog , Public Domain ) Shamanistic practices remain an important part of the culture of modern people in the Canadian Arctic , particularly their practices pertaining to whale hunting . Although these traditional hunts were prohibited for a time , people were able to legally resume them in 1994 . In a recent study of whaling communities in the Canadian territory of , cultural anthropologists and ( 2013 ) found that although hunting technology has spears now include a grenade that , when aimed properly , allows for a quick and more humane shamanistic beliefs and social practices pertaining to the hunt endure . The sharing of or ( whale skin and blubber ) with elders is believed to lift their spirits and prolong their lives by connecting them to their ancestors and memories of their youth , the communal sharing of whale meat connects families to each other , and the relationship between hunter and hunted mystically sustains the populations of both . hunters believe that the whale gives itself to the hunter in order to establish this relationship , and when the hunter and community gratefully and humbly consume the catch , this ties the whales to the people and preserves them both . While and found that most communities practice Christianity , the shamanistic values of their ancestors continue to play a major role in their understanding of both the whale hunt and what it means to be today . Their practice and understanding of religion incorporate both the church and their ancestral beliefs . 407

408 13 . Religion and Culture FIGURE Contemporary still use shamanistic practices when they hunt and . Here , an in goes out seeking fish . credit , Above all , shamanism the principles and practice of mutuality and balance , the belief that all living things are connected to each other and can have an effect on each other This is a value that reverberates through almost all other religious systems as well . Concepts such as stewardship ( caring for and nurturing resources ) charity ( providing for the needs of others ) and justice ( concern and respect for others and their rights ) are all valued in shamanism . The of Religion Shamanism is as animism , a worldview in which spiritual agency is assigned to all things , including natural elements such as rocks and trees . Sometimes associated with the idea of dual day soul and a night soul , the latter of which can wander in sometimes with unnamed and disembodied spirits believed to be associated with living and nonliving things , animism was at understood by anthropologists as a primitive step toward more complex religions . In his work Primitive Culture ( 1871 ) British anthropologist Sir Edward , considered the academic anthropologist , animism as a , an evolutionary beginning point for all religions . As population densities increased and societies developed more complex forms of social organization , religion mirrored many of these changes . With the advent of state societies , religion became institutionalized . As population densities increased and urban areas emerged , the structure and function of religion shifted into a bureaucracy , known as a state religion . State religions are formal institutions with administrators ( priests , pastors , rabbis , imams ) a set doctrine of beliefs and regulations , and a policy of growth by seeking new practitioners through conversion . While state religions continued to exhibit characteristics of earlier forms , they were now structured as organizations with a hierarchy , including functionaries at different levels with different . Religion was now administered as well as practiced . Similar to the use of mercenaries as paid soldiers in a state army , bureaucratic religions include paid positions that may not require subscribing to the belief system itself . Examples of early state religions include the of Egypt and Greece . Today , the most common state religions are Christianity , Islam , Buddhism , and . Rather than shamans , tribal and state religions are often headed by religious leaders who Access for free at

administer higher levels within the religious bureaucracy . With institutionalization , religion began to develop formalized doctrines , or sets of and usually rigid principles or teachings , that would be applied through the of a formal system of laws . And , unlike earlier religious forms , state religions are usually not by but by conversion . Using proselytization , a recruitment practice in which members actively seek converts to the group , state religions are powerful institutions in society . They bring diverse groups of people together and establish common value systems . There are two common arrangements between political states and state religions . In some instances , such as contemporary Iran , the re institution and the state are one , and religious leaders head the political structure . In other societies , there is an explicit separation between religion and state . The separation has been handled differently across . In some states , the political government supports a state religion ( or several ) as the religion ( In some of these cases , the religious institution will play a role in political rom local to national levels . In other state societies with a separation between religion and state , religious institutions will receive favors , such as subsidies , from state governments . This may include tax or military exemptions and privileged access to resources . It is this latter arrangement that we see in the United States , institutions such as the Department of Defense and the IRS keep lists of recognized religions with political and status . Among the approximately 200 sovereign worldwide , there are many variations in the relationship between state and religion , including societies that have political religions , where the state or state rulers are divine and holy . In North Korea today , people practice an policy , which means and independence . A highly nationalist policy , it has religious overtones , including reverence and obeisance to the state leader ( Kim Jong Un ) and unquestioning allegiance to the North Korean state . An extreme form of nationalism , functions as a political religion with the government and leader seen as deity and divine . Unlike in a theocracy , where the religious structure has political power , in North Korea , the political structure is the practiced religion . Historically , relationships between religious institution and state have been extremely complex , with power arrangements shifting and changing over time . Today , Christian fundamentalism is playing an increasingly political role in society . Since its bureaucratization , religion has had a political role in almost every state . In many state societies , religious institutions serve as charity organizations to meet the basic needs of many citizens , as educational institutions offering both mainstream and alternative , and as community organizations to help mobilize groups of people for actions . Although some as Cuba , China , North Korea , and the former Soviet declared atheism as their policy during certain historical periods , religion has never fully disappeared in any of them . Religious groups , however , may face varying levels of oppression within state societies . The are a mostly Muslim ethnic group of some 10 million people in northwestern China . Since 2017 , when Chinese president Xi issued an order that all religions in China should be Chinese in their orientation , the have faced mounting levels of oppression , including discrimination in state services . There have been recent accusations of mass and genocide by the Chinese government against this ethnic minority ( see News 2021 ) During periods of state oppression , religion tends to break up into smaller units practiced at a local or even household level . Symbolic and Sacred Space LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Distinguish between a symbol and sign . Explain the architectural dimensions of sacred space . Understand the meaning of sacred place . Symbolism in Religion Symbolism plays a vital role in religion . A symbol stands for something else , is arbitrary , and has no natural connection to its reference . There are two main types of symbols . A symbol can be a metaphor , meaning that it is completely disconnected from what it represents , such as the Islamic symbol of the crescent and star , which

represents enlightenment brought about through God . Or a symbol might be a metonym , in which the part stands for the whole , such as the cross , which is an artifact ofa portion of Christian history that is now used to stand for Christianity as a whole . Symbols are multivocal by nature , which means they can have more than one meaning . Their meaning derives from both how the symbol is used and how the audience views it . The more common and widespread a symbol , the more references and meanings may coexist . As an example , think of the when draped over a veteran casket , the has a different meaning from when it is waved at a rally or burned in protest . One symbol , multiple meanings . FIGURE ( left ) In the first image , fog represents the collision of warm and cold air over San Francisco Bay it is a natural effect . right ) In the second image , the is created onstage at a Rolling Stones concert to establish a particular mood and association . It is symbolic . credit ( left ) Above the fog by , BY , credit ( right ) by Commons , BY ) The prevalence of symbolism in religion indicates that religions are learned and shared systems of belief . While there are empirical aspects to religion , especially in regard to religious practices such as dance , trance , and prayer , the meaning behind the practices is entirely learned . Symbolism is attached not only to supernatural deities and spirits but also to religious places , myths , and rituals . In the Ethnographic Sketch at the end of the chapter , you will read more about symbols and religion . FIGURE The tools used for working magic displayed on this traditional Wiccan altar include an , a ritual knife that is used in many rituals , among them the ritual of casting a circle ( creating a sacred place ) Also shown are a , sword , wand , pentacle , chalice , and censer . credit Wiccan Altar by Fer Commons , Religious Anthropologists distinguish between space , an unmarked physical on which imagination or action can occur , and place , a location that has sociocultural meaning ( attached . Many religions and religious practices are by sacred places that serve as settings for , the manifestation of the sacred or divine .

Commonly , the sense of the sacred derives from the prior history and the use of a place . In most religions , sacred places are marked by other symbols . A Jewish home is as a special religious place . One way of marking this sacred place is by attaching , small casings containing a tiny parchment with a verse from the Torah to external and internal doorposts . these at the points of entry mark the place inside as holy , sacred , and set apart . Like most religious places , the Jewish home is a densely symbolic place . Religious places are part of the built environment , or places that people create as representations of their beliefs . Religious scholar focuses on religious places in his work The Sacred and Profane ( 1959 ) arguing that one becomes aware of the sacred because it manifests itself , shows itself , as something wholly different from the profane ( 11 ) He three characteristics associated with sacred places Every sacred place is marked bya threshold , which separates the two spaces , the sacred inside and the profane outside . It marks a passageway and a new mode of being The threshold is the limit , the boundary , the frontier . It is guarded in various ways and it is an object of great importance ( 25 ) Every sacred place a , or sacred event , by including an area within the sacred place that is most where something sacred has occurred in the past . This is like an umbilical cord ( calls it an axis mundi ) that connects practitioner with deity spirit , memorializing the occurrence of something special that happened ( or happens ) here . In many religious places , there will be an altar or some sort of commemoration in this spot . Every sacred place represents an Imago mundi , an image or microcosm of the world as seen from the religious perspective . In some religious traditions , sacred places will be decorated with reminders of what is most valued by that tradition , using various types of artworks . In Catholic churches , for example , paintings of the events associated with the of Christ , known as the stations of the cross , remind believers of Christ . characteristics of sacred places can be useful tools for beginning to understand the role of a place in a religion or a religious practice that is unfamiliar to us . They prompt us to look at the place through a eyes What happens here ?

What are the meanings associated with the different parts of this place ?

What are the proper ways to enter and exit and show respect ?

Because religion is heavily symbolic , we must strive to understand these places from inside the religious belief system . The practice of casting the Wiccan circle is a good example of creating religious place . Wicca is a relatively new religious movement based on ancient pagan beliefs and rituals . It is sometimes referred to as a movement because it is a modern polytheistic movement focused on belief in nature spirits . Although it has historical roots , the movement itself began in the in England . Wicca is focused on the dual energies of the male and the female and typically involves the worship of a goddess and a god ( sometimes along with other deities ) celebrating the natural world and the idea that this dual spirit resides in nature . The pentagram , a star , is the primary Wiccan symbol , representing the classical elements air , water , earth , and aether ( spirit ) When called witches , regardless of to worship , they establish a religious place outdoors . This is done through a ritual called casting a circle . Using a ritual knife or sword that represents , the witch casting the circle will symbolically cut the circle in three dimensions by walking out the circumference on the ground to symbolically mark the boundaries and establish the threshold . Then the caster will call on the guardians of the watchtowers of the four , south , east , and above to mark the spherical shape as the caster marks the space using salt water ( earth and water ) and incense ( and air ) Once the guardians are invoked , the circle is cast and the practitioners can enter for the sacred ritual . When the ritual ends , the circle is dismantled by reversing each of these actions and returning the ground to its profane ( not holy ) status . The circle is sacred as soon as it is cast and remains sacred until the meeting ends and it is ritually deactivated . The circle is , portable , and only cast for a single use each time . It serves as the entrance to the sacred portal in which the practitioners will encounter and interact with the spirits . Knowing how to properly cast the circle is critical , so a skilled witch is always in charge of this phase .

. FIGURE Cathedral in Paris is a sacred place marked by numerous symbols . Note that elaborate stained glass , Gothic arches , candles , and incredibly high ceiling . It is shown here before a 2019 fire that caused considerable damage . credit Inside Notre Dame by Commons , BY ) While approach to sacred architecture remains useful , anthropology increasingly uses a phenomenological , or , approach when studying place . The phenomenological approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a place emerges as it is used . Within this approach , a church building is understood to become sacred when practitioners bring their beliefs and meanings regarding the sacred with them into the sanctuary . It is the meaning assigned to the place by the people entering it that establishes its sacredness . The phenomenological approach argues that the nature ofa place emerges from its use and denomination as a sacred place . This a new perspective in anthropology that opens up exciting new in the study of religious place . Myth and Religious Doctrine LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to myth . Explain the social importance of myth . Analyze mythic meaning using a structural approach . Explain the importance of oral tradition in religion . The Role of Myth in Religion Sometimes , our everyday usage ofa word is the same as its scholarly use when it comes to the word myth , however , this is not the case . Myth is used often in popular culture to mean something that is false or deceptive , a story that is not true , as in the series MythBusters . In anthropology , however , myth is as a story that explains primary principles , beliefs , and values outside of chronological time . Pieces of a myth may or may not be true . Its veracity is not what matters it is most important for what it teaches . Many times , the characters within myths are culture heroes , semidivine persons whose experiences and lives serve as a teaching tool , allowing those within the culture to identify with them and learn from their challenges . Myths shape a society worldview , explain its origins , and also teach and social norms ( Moro 2012 ) There are various types of myths , including myths , culture hero myths , and animal myths . The study of myth overlaps with many different scholarly disciplines , including anthropology , folklore , mythology studies , and psychology . Anthropology approaches the study of myth by examining each story for its primary messages about the society and culture it comes from . myths are among the and most universal myths . Among these , a common type of creation story is the myth , famously studied by folklorist and anthropologist Alan ( 1962 )

In myths , a creator deity sends an agent , usually an animal , into deep waters to a bit of mud that the deity will use to create dry land and , later , humans . Through this single act , the deity begins a creative cycle that will eventually result in life as it is known today . Although there are cultural differences in the way this myth is told , argues that the key elements of the myth are universal a creator deity , an intermediary agent , and humans created from earth elements . A Brief Structural Analysis of ( Myth I FIGURE Anthropologist Claude ( collected and analyzed myths as a way of studying culture . credit Michel , Commons , BY ) Anthropologist Claude saw myths as containing both universal messages about shared human experiences and concerns and particular messages about the cultures with which they are associated . His approach to understanding myth is part of the theory of structuralism , and it separates myth into its component parts in order to understand the underlying structure . believed that mythic structure was the same across all cultures . He argued that the concerns of all cultures , expressed within their myths , are very similar . Structural analysis can be very complicated . At each step , as the myth is gradually stripped down , the information it reveals is more enlightening . There are approaches to structuralism that can be applied more quickly , however , allowing a more penetrating look at the real story within the myth . A ofa structural analysis will have at least three major components binary oppositions , which are two contrasting concepts , which are the minimal units , or story components , that form the structure of the myth and the primary messages of the myth , which are universal . Let look at a version of structuralism in action by analyzing a myth from the people of the Northwest coast of North America , collected by Franz Boas in 1916 . The Myth The Bear Who Married a Woman , collected by anthropologist Franz Boas ( 1916 , 192 ) Once upon a time there lived a widow of the tribe of the . Many men tried to marry her daughter , but she declined them all . The mother said , When a man comes to marry you , feel of the palms of his hands . If they are soft , decline him if they are rough , accept She meant that she wanted to have for a a man skillful in building canoes . Her daughter obeyed her commands , and refused the of all young men . One night a youth came to her bed . The palms of his hands were very rough , and therefore she accepted his suit . Early in the morning , however , he had suddenly disappeared , even before she had seen him . When her mother arose early in the morning and went out , she found a halibut on the beach in front of the house , although it was midwinter . The following evening the young man came back , but disappeared again before the dawn of the day . In the morning the widow found a seal in front of the house . Thus they lived for some time . The young woman never saw the face of her husband but every morning she found an animal on the beach , every day a larger one . Thus the widow came to be very rich .

. She was anxious to see her , and one day she waited until he arrived . Suddenly she saw a red bear . emerge from the water . He carried a whale on each side , and put them down on the beach . As soon as he noticed that he was observed , he was transformed into a rock , which may be seen up to this day . He was a supernatural being of the sea . The Binary Oppositions In order to binary oppositions , one must identity the important points within the exactly is asserted in the story . The opposite of each of these points , which may or may not be openly expressed in the myth , is the primary term opposition . The oppositions form the structure of the myth because they identify what is important . Below are the binary oppositions in the paragraph of the myth ( Note that the words are not always critical , and sometimes there is more than one version of the quality that can be expressed . Once upon a time there lived a widow ofthe tribe of the . then now , live die , male female , married widowed , together alone , member of the tribe nonmember or belong not belong ) tried to daughter , but she declined them all . many few , men women , marry not marry , daughter son , child childless , accept decline , all none ) The mother said , When a man comes to , feel the palms ofhis ( female male , mother father , say not say , man woman , come not come , marry not marry , feel not feel not test ordo not do , palms of his hands another body part ) If they are soft , decline him if they are rough , accept ( soft rough , decline accept , rough soft , accept decline ) She meant that she wan ted to have for a son a man skillful in building canoes . female male , want not want , have a not have a , man woman , skillful inept ) Even this cursory analysis reveals certain qualities that come up again and again male versus female , married versus unmarried , belonging versus not belonging ( expressed also as accepted versus declined ) The emphases seem to be on sex , family , and legitimacy . The In the light version of structuralism , the are best revealed by retelling the story in shorter and shorter versions , each time with fewer particular details . Using the paragraph , again ( original ) Once upon a time there lived a widow of the tribe of the . Many men tried to marry her daughter , but she declined them all . The mother said , When a man comes to marry you , feel of the palms of his hands . If they are soft , decline him if they are rough , accept him . She meant that she wanted to have for a a man skillful in building canoes . retelling ) Once upon a time there was a widow . Many men tried to marry her daughter , but she declined them all . The mother said , Feel the palms of his hands , and if they are rough , accept him . She wanted a who was skillful in building canoes . second retelling ) A widowed mother told her daughter to get a husband with rough hands . She wanted a hardworking . Note how the second version of the story has only of action and consequence . The information left in the is the critical information , the major points , of the myth . argued that reveal universal concerns . All local information is removed . Considering the myth as a whole , the tribe and the characteristics to avoid can be omitted . The Primary Messages In this version of structuralism , the ways in which the messages are written are less important than what they are generally saying . The general messages are extracted from the emphasis within the binary oppositions . How much emphasis is put on something such as kinship ?

Sharing ?

There are several possible ways to say each of the following , but the central messages in this myth seem to be the following Be careful what you wish for . There may be unforeseen consequences to what you think you want . Don look a gift horse in the mouth . Do fault with things that are good . Family matters . Kinship is important . Oral and Written Religious Traditions Religion scholars often separate religions into oral traditions , or local or indigenous religions passed down across generations through storytelling , and written traditions , or world religions that are primarily associated with sacred , written texts . While each may use components of the other storytelling is still occasionally used in a religion that is primarily a written tradition , for emphasis on either oral or written worship affects the nature of the religious system in various ways . Religions that remain primarily oral , such as most tribal and religions , rely on religious performance as a way of bringing history to life instead of storing this cultural knowledge in written form . Most oral traditions have a cyclical connection to time , interpreting the past as repeating in cycles over and over , and see themselves and their ancestors as connected by enduring relationships over time . One of the clearest contemporary examples of this is a concept in the belief systems Indigenous Australian peoples commonly known as . In her study of womens rituals and song lines among the people , Diane Bell ( 1993 ) became very interested in the tradition , the women rituals . Through rituals of song , dance , and ceremony , women bring their ancestors to life . In one ritual , they walk paths near their communities where various historic and mythic events are believed to have occurred . These ritualized walks are called storylines because the women believe they are actually reliving the events that occurred in those locations and bringing their ancestors to life by remembering what happened in these meaningful and sacred places . Men have their own storylines and . Among indigenous Australian peoples , as among many societies , religion is not separate from everyday life . Instead , it infuses what they do and how they think about themselves . Theirs are oral and performative traditions in which they walk alongside their ancestors as they walk the same trails that their ancestors walked and remember them by remembering their stories . In this way , they turn myth into ritual itself , one intermingling with the other . Myths , for the , are alive and relived when they are performed . connects the people to their ancestors and their history and strengthens their cultural identity . Even in religious faiths that rely primarily on doctrine , storytelling remains critical . The phrase people of the book , an Islamic reference to the , Christianity , and used to describe religious traditions that primarily , although not exclusively , rely on text and textual study . Each of these traditions has a primary sacred book used as the foundation of the Bible in Christianity , the in Islam , and the Torah in Judaism . Yet while these traditions are based on scripture ( writings ) there are also oral components in the practice of these faiths . Many of the writings are based on earlier oral traditions and retain characteristics of oral performance , such as repetition for emphasis and to encourage remembering and story units that are and can be moved around . And each tradition utilizes oral performance in worship , reading aloud from their sacred texts during religious services . PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Manuel Personal History was born in Lorica , Colombia , in 1920 and studied medicine in the capital at the de Bogota , eventually working as a physician and psychiatrist . He traveled throughout Latin America , Europe , and the United States , lecturing in the United States at Howard University and the University of Kansas . When introducing himself at the Library of Congress , he stated , Soy Manuel , medico , I am Manuel , Colombian , novelist , medical doctor , and anthropologist ) His academic , literary , and across all areas of what it means to be human . Area Born into a family of mixed ethnic and racial father was of European and African ancestry , and his mother was of Indigenous and Spanish was interested in

identity and cultural diversity in Colombia . While traveling in the United States in the , he witnessed segregation and racial discrimination against Black Americans he returned to Colombia and dedicated himself to studying the culture of ( Colombians of African descent ) even as he continued his medical practice . Accomplishments in the Field For his works , received many awards throughout the Americas and Europe . and scholars today value work for its cultural detail and focus on an understudied and too often overlooked population . Importance of His Work His ethnographic work provided the material for him to write a series of historical novels , the best known of which is , gran ( the badass , 1983 ) an epic novel tracing the African from its origins in the slave trade across generations . His work incorporated many of the syncretic religious and mythic elements of contemporary . Speaking at a national literary event on the importance of studying identity and culture today , he said , For young countries such as ours , to assert our traditions , our evolutionary reality , our creative force is to take possession of ourselves , to come of age ( 2010 , 185 ) On the experience in the Americas , published more than a dozen novels and numerous short stories and essays ( Selected Correspondence ) Rituals of Transition and Conformity LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify the characteristics of ritual . Describe how ritual reinforces social solidarity . Distinguish between the different types of ritual . Explain the social forces of and . Identify the stages of rites of passage . The Varieties of Ritual Experience in Religion Rituals , also called rites , are performative acts by which we carry out our religious beliefs , public and private . As sociologist Emile noted , they follow a formal order or sequence , called a liturgical order are performed in a place that is set apart and sacred during the time of the performance and are inherently social . Unlike idiosyncratic behaviors that an individual may practice on their own , rituals are learned and shared . They foster social solidarity and identity within a community of believers ( this a focus of ) Even when performing a religious ritual alone , such as walking a labyrinth during meditation , the ritual itself , because it is learned as part of a larger body of religious practices , connects the individual to the larger community .

Rituals of Transition and Conformity FIGURE Walking a labyrinth , such as this one in Grace Cathedral in San Francisco , California , is experienced by many people as a meditative or prayerful ritual . credit Grace Cathedral Labyrinth by Jay , BY ) Rituals tend to have a common structure even though ritual and ritual performance can be quite variable . In his work Ritual ( 1993 ) West African writer and ritual scholar ( 1993 1997 , 68 ) outlines the major stages of most ritual acts . Opening setting the stage by designating the purpose of the ritual and gathering the human participants Invocation calling upon the spirit world to join the group Dialogue establishing an open between participants and the spirit world Repetition sequences , prayers , acts that are required to legitimize the rituals purpose Closure a blessing or other form of dismissal for both human and spirit participants ' Even when rituals are scripted and parts are carefully read and followed , individual participation and collaboration will subtly change a ritual each time it is enacted or performed . Rituals are never exactly duplicated , and not all rituals serve the same purpose . Some are primarily performed to , strengthen , and maintain solidarity within the group some are social markers of life transformations for individuals , families , or groups and others address healing and the need for renewal . There are many categories of ritual commemoration feasts or rituals ( Christmas or ) which are usually held over a calendrical cycle , usually a year divinatory rites to the causes of illness , ask for healing , or prophesy about the future , which usually occur on an basis and rites of rebellion , in which social rules and norms may be inverted to emphasize their value within a society . a ritual found among the , a group in southern Africa , is a national holiday during which many social rules are suspended or inverted , allowing women to take on men public roles and men to take on women household duties in a public farce Among the , this ritual is understood to illustrate the value of different gender roles in society as well as the importance of social norms in reducing social disorder . In the United States , Halloween is also a rite of rebellion , one in which children go out at night to beg for candy from neighbors . Among the most common broad types of religious ritual , though , are rites of , rites of passage , and rites of . 417

Rites of Called by various names , such as rites of and calendrical rites , rites of are performed to , strengthen , and maintain bonds of solidarity . Most of the repetitive religious services that are offered through churches , synagogues , and mosques are rites of . These rituals tend to have a rather stable and repetitive structure that allows practitioners to follow along easily . Ifyou attend or participant in any kind of repetitive daily , weekly , or monthly religious ritual , it is likely a rite of . These rites and indoctrinate individuals so that they identify as a religious community , even though there may be other ritual acts accompanying it . It is not unusual in state religions for these rites to create unity among believers across cultures and . A good example is the daily practice of Islamic prayer , or salat . praying in the direction of the holy city of Mecca at dawn , noon , midafternoon , sunset , and evening every day , regardless of where the believer is located or even what they are doing . a direct relationship between the believer and God and one membership in a global community of Muslims . FIGURE An Islamic congregation practices a rite of called , or ritual prayer . credit Istanbul by Commons , BY ) Rites of Passage First by anthropologist Arnold van in 1909 , rites mark social transformations in people lives and establish a change in social status within their communities . Associated most commonly with birth , puberty , marriage , and death , these rituals can be prolonged ceremonies during which the individual receives instruction and preparation for this change in their lives . noted that there are three stages in a rite of , transition , and that during the transition stage , the individual must traverse a threshold ( limen in Latin ) from their old social position or status to a new one . Separation ( The separation phase is marked by detachment from one previous status . While the person or people involved may be physically separated and held in a special place , the separation normally occurs within daily life over a period of time and is always marked symbolically . Some examples of separation are the formal engagement ofa couple with rings and a period of preparation for the upcoming marriage the process of catechesis , or formal religious instruction , for young people planning to be baptized or in a Christian church and wearing special clothing or colors while mourning the death ofa family member . Transition ( The transition phase is marked by an ambiguity of status and associated with instruction and teaching . This phase is usually restricted to the period in which an active and public ritual transformation is taking place . The person or people involved , already separated from their previous status and identity , are now transformed into a new status . This is the most active phase ofa rite of passage . It is highly scripted and almost always involves teachers , guides , or mentors who usher the individuals through the proper steps to a new social status . Some examples of transition are the marriage

ceremony itself , the actual baptism or ritual in the church , and the funeral service for a loved one . Incorporation ( The incorporation phase is marked by a formal public presentation of the person or people who have gone through the ritual . During incorporation , different symbols are used to express a new social status and identity . In this last stage , those going through the transformation begin to assume the rights , privileges , and responsibilities of their new social status . This might include changing their names , moving to a new location , or wearing different clothing . In many rites of passage , this is an extended period that can last from months to years . Anthropologist Victor Turner ( 1969 ) discusses in detail the of in rites of passage . During , an individual is what Turner calls betwixt and between ( 95 ) without social status or standing , outside of the structure , and in transition from one social stage to another . It is a form of social death . Often , the individual will be dressed in uniform , unmarked clothing and follow behaviors associated with humility and anonymity in their culture . There is also an expectation of total obedience during the change of status , as the individual depends on ritual leaders ( gatekeepers ) to teach , coach , and mentor them through the passage . If there is a cohort of individuals participating in the rite of passage , such as an age grade going through puberty rites , the participants will share a strong sense of equality and social bonding among themselves , referred to as . Through Turner research on the of , anthropologists were better able to understand these common mechanisms of social change . One example of a rite of passage among the Navajo of the southwestern United States is the . The is a traditional ceremony ( a puberty rite ) for young Navajo women that occurs shortly after a girl menstrual cycle and involves her extended family and community ( Carey 2010 2019 ) Typically , the ceremony lasts four days and occurs both inside a traditional Navajo house , called a hogan , and in the surrounding area , where the girl will periodically run to ensure that she has a strong and healthy life . At the beginning of the ceremony , as separation begins , the girl lies down and her family straightens her limbs and helps dress her and prepare her for the transition . During the days of seclusion , there are many different tasks as the girl is initiated into womanhood . On the third day , she and her mother will bake a corn cake called an , and then , led by a Navajo medicine man or woman , they will sing prayer songs all night until the sunrise . During the stage of the , in the morning of the fourth day , the mother washes her daughter hair and dries it with cornmeal ( corn is a Navajo deity ) The young woman will then take her last run toward the east , now followed by many young children , so that she might eventually become a loving mother whom her children will always follow . After the ceremony , she is reintroduced to her community as a woman and not a child she is now considered a young adult . Not all rites of passage are religious . There are also secular rites of passage , such as graduation or , a celebratory birthday for girls in many Latin American communities . And sometimes the religious and the secular are intermingled , as in a marriage ceremony that is both civil and religious . Societies use both secular and religious rites of passage to mark changes in the life cycle of their members . Rites of Affliction Unlike rites of and many rites of passage , rites of are usually and unplanned . Normally as healing rituals or petitions for supernatural intervention , these rites seek remedy or compensation for the . Whether directly through a Shamanic journey or through the mediation of a religious leader , communities petition the spirits or deity for healing or a blessing . While illness and health in most Western societies are understood to be biomedical phenomena based on empirical evidence , in societies and in localized religious traditions across cultures , is viewed as a relationship between body and soul and thus is believed to have a religious component . While nonbelievers might refer to rites of as superstition , a belief or practice that has no credible evidence for its , for believers , these religious rites allow them to plead for help and sometimes control the outcome of threatening life events . Rites of , first described by vary greatly depending on the need . People may perform witchcraft and sorcery to determine the source of , exorcism to remove the presence of an adverse spirit , or divination to identify the source of harm . Divination is a practice or test

420 13 Religion Culture intended to gain understanding , guidance , or advice about an event or situation . There are literally hundreds of different methods of divination . Some examples include scapulimancy ( burning the shoulder blade of a cow or antelope and reading a message in the burn pattern ) reading tea leaves at the bottom of a cup ) oomancy ( rubbing an egg over an area of illness or pain and then breaking it open to read a pattern ) bibliomancy ( randomly opening the Bible or another book and seeking a message in whatever passage is on that page ) reading tarot cards , and checking astrological signs . One common rite of in the Christian tradition is the laying on of hands . This ritual appears in the Bible , used both as a means of conveying the Holy Spirit ( Num . Acts ) and as an act of healing by Christ ( Luke ) Today , in many Pentecostal and Evangelical churches , congregations practice the ritual of laying on of hands . Believers place their hands on the shoulders or head of the congregant who seeks from social , mental , or physical the belief that with fervent prayer and physical contact , the Holy Spirit can move from one individual to another to strengthen , heal , and anoint them with God grace . Sometimes the helpers stand or bend over the individual seeking help . Sometimes believers walk behind the individual in need , who sits in a chair , and then lay hands on their shoulders and pray , either silently or aloud so that the individual can hear the prayer being offered . In these acts , the religious community pools its spiritual and social resources and encourages the powerful antidote to illness no matter the faith tradition . Although they are not exclusively associated with rites of and are sometimes performed as acts of obedience , celebration , spiritual merit , enlightenment , or even penance , pilgrimage is often practiced as a rite to seek redress and healing . A to a shrine or holy place , pilgrimage is practiced in many religions . Some of the most famous pilgrimages are the , an Islamic pilgrimage to Saudi Arabia the Christian pilgrimage to the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes , a site in France where Mary is believed to have appeared and the Hindu pilgrimage to the River Ganges in India . FIGURE The is a Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca , pictured here , which is the birthplace of the prophet Mohammed . At the center of the photo , note the Ka aba , the symbolic dwelling place of Allah . credit Holy Ka ba by Camera , BY ) The is one of the pillars , or primary tenets , For believers with the physical ability and means , completing the to Mecca , Saudi Arabia , is essential to their faith . While the pilgrimage itself may occur at any time during the last three months of the Islamic calendar , the last to six days of the month are those on which the most rituals occur . Based on the lunar calendar , the is a movable feast , meaning it is a celebration whose dates vary each year and will occur in different seasons over a cycle of years . Because the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar , it does not coincide annually with the Gregorian calendar followed by most of the Western world today . Access for free at

Historically , pilgrims arrived by walking , using the travel time and its accompanying struggles to focus on growing in their faith . Some individuals continue this traditional means of completing the , but other devotees arrive by boat , bus , or plane , dedicating themselves to contemplation once they arrive . Mecca is an important symbolic place for Muslims because it was the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad . During the ritual , the pilgrims will perform many faith acts , including circling the Ka aba , a building at the center of the mosque representing the most sacred place , seven times clockwise to open the ritual praying running between the nearby hills of and clipping their hair going east of Mecca to confess their sins and seek atonement gathering pebbles to perform a symbolic stoning of the devil buying vouchers so that an animal will be on their behalf and then again circling the Ka aba seven times , this time counterclockwise , to close the . Other Forms of Religious Practice LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify utopian religious communities . Explain the historical and social importance of the Shakers . Identify secular religion . Give an example of secular religion . Utopian Religious Communities While the most typical form of religious community today is a group of people who share a common faith and set and meet periodically to worship , there are other ways of creating religious community . One example , widespread in the United States during the century , is utopian religious communities . A utopian community is a community intentionally established by a group of people seeking to live out their ideas of an ideal society . Utopian communities may be secular or religious . The utopian communities that are most successful share certain characteristics they are physically separate from the larger society establish a degree of economic , through either agriculture or industry and have a clear authority structure and ideology , or shared set of beliefs . There have been dozens of utopian religious communities in American history . In the century , many people in Europe viewed the United States as a blank slate , a country unburdened by history or tradition . The forced removal of Indigenous peoples opened up vast areas of land and natural resources to White settlers and new religious groups seeking autonomy . While many of these societies were , impractical , and troubled by discord , they were home to thousands during the and centuries . Today , we still small utopian communities throughout the United States , some based primarily on religion ( such as the ) and others on sustainable economics ( in Fulton County , Georgia ) Religious utopian communities make particular religious beliefs the center of the community . Some such communities separate themselves completely from secular society , while others establish an enclave , a so called heaven on Earth within the larger society , that members hope will spread outward and attract more converts . Although utopian religious communities are relatively rare today , they do exist . The Amish , found throughout the United States but primarily in Pennsylvania , Ohio , and Indiana , live in small , farming communities built around very traditional Swiss German and Protestant roots . The Amish have what they call a plain lifestyle based on simple technology , and they tend to separate themselves from the Amish communities around them . The , now located primarily in Canada , are also from German Protestant roots and are much like the Amish , except they typically are more interactive with their neighbors and do not prohibit more modern technology . The are more recent utopian religious communities , originating in the , also with German Protestant roots but now found in many different places , including South America , Africa , Europe , Australia , and the United States . The have a communal lifestyle based on biblical ideals , though they interact with communities around them . While they do have industries , such as a furniture industry for children , they also work and study in secular society . Among the most successful of the American religious utopian communities was the United

Society of Believers in Christ Second Appearing , commonly known as the Shakers . Although they formed near the city of Manchester in England in the mic , the group did not become a utopian community until after members immigrated to the United States in 1774 . Their first settlement was established at , New York , in 1776 under the leadership of an , Ann Lee . Mother Ann , as Shakers called her , and her original eight English followers traveled throughout New England seeking converts to join the community at . Fol owing Mother Ann death in 1784 , caused by beatings she received during her period of itinerant evangelism , the Shaker society began to develop a more formal structure that beliefs , social expectations , and a strict work ethic . By 1790 , new members were required to sign covenants in which they to consecrate all of their property to the society , work for the communal good of the group , follow a celibate life ( with those who were already married ending their marriages prior to formally becoming a Shaker ) and adhere to Shaker principles and beliefs . From a single , small settlement at , Shaker societies grew and spread over 10 York , Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New , Ohio , Inc iana , Kentucky , Florida , and a membership at its height in excess of individuals . Today , the Shakers survive as a single remaining society at Lake , Maine . There are now two remaining covenanted Shakers . The Shakers are a millennialist Christian faith , meaning that they believe that Christ has already returned and is present now on Earth as the Holy Spirit within . With Christ within them , Shakers believe that it is their duty to establish a heaven on Earth . The Shaker principles of faith historically encompass a range of social and religious tenets . They believe that God is dual , both male and female , and they practice gender equality , vesting leadership in both men and women since their beginnings in the late century . They also embrace a commitment to racial equality . Even during the century , as the Civil War raged throughout the United States , this included the practice of housing Black people and White people within the same community with equal access to resources . Shakers are dedicated , refusing to engage in warfare , and they commit to hard physical labor and , taking as their motto a phrase attributed to Mother Ann Hands to work and hearts to The Shakers contributed a great deal to the material culture of the United States . Examples of products developed and successfully marketed by the group include paper seed packets ( now used throughout the seed industry worldwide ) their simple and graceful furniture , an improved washing machine , waterproof clothing , the circular saw , and medicinal herbs . Their artifacts , architecture , and music continue to be widely recognized and highly regarded . The Shaker song Simple Gifts ( 1848 ) borrowed and used by in his ballet score Appalachian Spring ( 1944 ) has been performed at three presidential . While there are few Shakers left today , they remind us of the importance of religion as an enduring institution , the power of religion to bind people together into common cause , and the rich embedded in the heart of faith traditions .

FIGURE Shaker Ricardo , seated in a workshop at the Hancock Shaker Village in , makes oval wooden boxes to sell in 1935 . The Shakers , who took as their motto Hands to work and hearts to God , earned a reputation for producing elegant and objects for everyday use . credit Brother Ricardo , box maker by Samuel of Congress Prints Photographs Online Catalog , Public Domain ) Secular Religion Secular religion is a system held by a society that elevates social ideas , qualities , or commodities to a metaphysical , semidivine status . Often , the group sees itself in terms ofa divine image , creating a situation in which , as Emile famously said , society Various types and degrees of nationalism are a form of secular religion in which a group shows honor , respect , and allegiance to the nation itself as a sacred entity . For large and diverse societies , secular religion can create a powerful and enduring bond among otherwise very different groups of people . Often , philosophical ideas and materialism itself have been at the center of secular religion . One of the most prominent examples of secular religion is nationalism , the belief that the and its interests are more important than those of local groups . sociologist Robert ( 1967 ) studied secular religion in the United States and documented the many ways that American society uses religious practices , such as myth , ritual , and sacred space , to elevate the idea of the . During occasions such as presidential and the convocation of Congress , for example , it is routine to use sacred language and prayer , elevating the to a privileged , sacred status , blessed , ordained , and legitimized by religious imagery . Rituals such as raising the national while saying a pledge to the , at full versus , and draping over the of deceased service members are practices of secular religion . Burials at cemeteries such as Arlington National Cemetery may be with imagery of secular religion , including a caisson , a bugler , a drummer , and gun salutes . ETHNOGRAPHIC SKETCHES Dia de los Experience of Marjorie Snipes , chapter author

In the highlands of Argentina , most communities celebrate All Souls Day , or Dia de los ( Day of the Dead ) on November and every year . While this Catholic ritual commemorates the recently departed , usually those who have died in the past three years , it also includes elements of Indigenous religious practices and beliefs centered on ( Mother Earth ) This integration of beliefs from more than one religious system is common across cultures and is called syncretism . The practice of Dia de los is a solemn occasion . Families prepare a favorite meal or food items that they associate with the recently departed and set a place setting for their soul ( alma ) Candles and adorn the elaborately decorated family table . The meal remains available for the soul of the departed from the evening of November until the evening of November . During that time , family members meet periodically around the table to offer prayers and to share remembrances of the deceased , and souls are invited to eat and prepare themselves for thejourney to the spirit world . Souls of the departed are believed to remain strongly attached to their families and unwilling to leave the living world for three years following death . They must be coaxed by surviving family members to make a peaceful transition to the spirit world , where they can rest . In the southern Andes , many people believe that moths are visual symbols of the soul presence . With candles lit throughout the night of November , families in rural households often encounter moths . This serves as ritual . On the evening of November , after a last prayer of departure , families in El will gather the favorite foods of their departed and offer them to by piling or burying the food into an altar of rocks . Each household has a family altar near their house , called a , dedicated to . It is a cairn predominantly consisting of white rocks , each believed to symbolize the goddess . The rocks may be naturally white , consisting of milky quartz , a common rock in the area , or they may be or even painted white . During , I asked people about the importance of the color white , but their answers were similar to the types of answers many of us would give to questions about our traditions This is her special color , It just this way , or This is our custom . These truthful responses represent . As a scientist , though , I seek connections between the color white , stones , and . I suspect there are several reasons that this color began to be associated with Mother Earth milky quartz is a common rock in the region and readily available since the earth is considered to be body , the white rocks mimic the color of bone and perhaps most , the color white is associated with breast milk , a characteristic associated with mothers . Understanding symbolism is important because it gives anthropologists a window into what matters most to those we are studying . FIGURE A cairn , or stack of rocks , built alongside the road to Mount in Peru . These stacks of rocks are similar to those created as family altars by families in El . credit Mount , by ,

ACTIVITY Participant Observation Analysis of a Religious Service Do and an analysis of a religious service of your choice . With permission from the religious leader ( attend the service and practice participant observation . Using what you have learned about sacred place and ritual , analyze the physical environment where the service is occurring . Where the threshold ( Where is the axis mundi ?

How does the built environment contribute to the practice of religion and spiritual exercises ?

In the service itself , what are the primary themes , and how do different participant constituencies respond to these ?

Does the service conform to any of the rituals that you studied in this chapter ?

If so , how ?

After analyzing the service , reflect on your experience this activity .

Key Terms agnosticism the belief that God or the divine is unknowable and therefore skepticism is appropriate . animism a worldview in which there is believed to be spiritual agency in all things , including natural elements such as rocks and trees . atheism the lack of belief in a god or gods . binary opposition two opposing concepts , commonly found in institutions such as kinship and in myth . a cohort of individuals participating in a rite of passage who share a strong sense of equality and social bonding among themselves . deity a god , usually named , with individual personalities and interests . divination a practice or test to discern knowledge about a certain event or situation . doctrine a set of formal and usually rigid principles or teachings of a religious organization . myths creation myths in which a creator deity sends an agent , usually an animal , into deep waters to mud that the deity will use to create dry land and humans . exorcism the removal of an adverse supernatural spirit from a person . goddesses female deities . gods deities often , male deities . the manifestation of the sacred or divine . law of contagion the belief that things that have once been in contact with each other remain connected always a theory of magic . law of similarity the belief that things that are alike exert a force on each other a theory of magic . a state in which an individual is viewed as being in a transition from one social stage to another . magic a supposed system of natural law , the practice ofwhich causes a transformation to occur . mana an impersonal force that can adhere to people or animate and inanimate objects to make them sacred . metaphor a symbol that is not naturally connected to what it represents . metonym a symbol in which a part stands for the whole . monotheistic religion a religion that centers on a single named god or goddess . multivocal describes symbols that have more than one meaning . myth a story that teaches primary principles , beliefs , and values outside of chronological time . the minimal and portable units that form the structure ofa myth . none a person with no religious . pilgrimage a to a shrine or other holy place . place a location that has sociocultural meaning attached to it . polytheistic religion a religion that centers on a group of gods goddesses , each devoted to a action or behavior . priests religious leaders who manage and administer at a high level within the religious bureaucracy . primary messages the meaning of a myth , which can be applied universally . prophet an individual associated with religious change who calls for a renewal or a restructuring of the status quo . A prophet leadership is usually temporary or indirect . proselytization a recruitment practice in which members actively seek converts to the group . religion a shared system and practices that are highly regarded in society . Most often , religion is focused on the interaction of natural and supernatural phenomena . rite of affliction a ritual invoked to seek some sort of redress , remedy , or compensation for an individual by means of supernatural intervention . rite of a ritual performed by a religious group to , strengthen , and maintain bonds of solidarity . rite of passage a ritual in which an individual or group marks a social transformation . rituals performative acts by which people carry out religious beliefs , both public and private also called rites . secular religion a system of beliefs held by a society that elevates social ideas , qualities , or commodities to a metaphysical , semidivine status . shaman a religious who works to connect with deities on behalf of others . shamanism a practice of healing and divination that involves soul travel to connect natural and supernatural realms in nonlinear time . sorcery a practice involving the use of material elements to cause a change in circumstances to

another person . space an unmarked physical a place with no cultural meaning . spirit supernatural being associated with activities , such as an earth spirit or guardian spirit ( or angel ) spirituality a loose structure and feelings about relationships between the natural and supernatural worlds . state religion a formal religious institution with administrators , a set doctrine of beliefs and regulations , and a policy of seeking growth by conversion of new practitioners . structuralism a theory and method focused on identifying patterns in culture also includes Summary Religion is found across all cultures , and yet it can be di to . French sociologist Emile used an empirical , identifying re as an institution related to sacred things , with beliefs , practices , and a social organization . This provides a checklist for studying re . Anthropologist Clifford , on the other hand , it as a system of symbols connected to moods , motivations , and a general order of existence . While more abstract , this ac dresses the meaning and sense of identity that re conveys to practitioners . In the United States today , people identify themselves religiously in a number , including as nones , people with no religious . Nones , and at do have particular to their cultures , and they sometimes also have spiritual beliefs . Religion has several common characteristics . Witchcraft and sorcery became part of religion as it evolved to adapt to world populations . In these cases , religion expresses social within the society . Magic is also part of every religion , as religious belief systems are based on cause and effect , and anthropologists see magic as a profound human act of faith . Most religions also involve supernatural forces , such as gods and goddesses . Monotheistic religions focus on a single named god , while polytheistic religions involve a group of deities . Most religions have some type of leadership , either priests or shamans . Shamanism is an early form of religion , found mythic analysis . superstition a belief or practice that is believed to have no credible evidence for its . symbol something that stands arbitrarily for something else and has no natural connection to its referent . syncretism an integration or use of more than one religious system . witchcraft a practice involving the use of intangible means to cause a change in circumstances to another person . worldview a outlook or orientation that an individual or group of individuals holds on the nature of the world . throughout human history , and possibly the explanation for mortuary artifacts and even cave painting . While shamanism is a healing practice , it is also a set of beliefs and practices regarding a supernatural world . As populations became larger , some shamanic cults developed into more organized and institutional forms of religion , leading to large state religions such as Christianity , Islam , and Buddhism . Shamanic practices can still be found within these larger religions . Symbolism is common to all religions , regardless of whether they are small indigenous cults or state religious systems . Geographical space marked by symbolism can become a sacred place with meaning to religious practitioners . Religious myths , the stories behind the beliefs , are heavily marked with symbolic meaning . Religions can convey their beliefs through both oral and written traditions , with certain groups focused on one or the other . Religious practice is known as ritual , and there are a variety of types of ritual , including rites of , rites , and rites of . Historically , there has been a great diversity in religious groups , including utopian religious communities that live separate from secular society and focus almost entirely on living a religious life . The Shakers are an example of this type of religious society . There are also examples of secular religion , in which the state or society itself is elevated as if it had a divine status .

Critical Thinking Questions . What is religion , and why do you think it is universal across cultures ?

What is the role of religion in your life and the life ofyour family ?

Consider differences in gender , age , and generation . Has your own relationship with religion changed over your life ?

Compare and contrast shamanism with more institutionalized religions , identifying elements they have in common and the ways in which they are different . What is the of symbolism in religion ?

Bibliography . Describe the attributes or characteristics of a religious place . How do anthropologists approach the study of religious myths ?

How do religious rituals strengthen a society ?

What differences would you expect to find between communities in which there are diverse religious traditions and utopian religious communities ?

What examples of secular religion do you encounter every day ?

Nikki . 2002 . Mapping the Wiccan Ritual Landscape Circles of Folklore Forum 33 ( News . 2021 . Who Are the and Why Is China Being Accused of Genocide ?

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