Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 12 Gender and Sexuality

CHAPTER 12 Gender and Sexuality Figure It a ! When someone announces the birth of a new baby , a first question is often whether the infant is a boy or girl . credit It a Boy ! by George , BY ) CHAPTER OUTLINE Sex , Gender , and Sexuality in Anthropology Performing Gender Categories The Power of Gender Patriarchy and Matriarchy Sexuality and Queer Anthropology INTRODUCTION A friend announces , My sister just had a baby last night ! Many people will immediately ask , Is it a boy or a girl ?

Gender is central to the way people think about and interact with others . Anthropologists are curious about the many ways in which gender shapes impressions and assumptions about people and why gender is such a primary concern . Gender how people think about their own identities , how they present themselves to others , and how they plan to lead their lives . People sexual identities and desires are shaped by notions of themselves and others . Since the beginning of the discipline , anthropologists have described how cultures construct gender roles and sexual practices in many different cultural . This chapter will explore the origins of gender and consider various forms of biological evidence for gender differences . And it will consider how power operates in cultural constructions of gender and sexuality . Anthropologists have discovered great diversity in human systems of gender and expressions of sexuality .

Sex , Gender , and Sexuality in Anthropology LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to the concepts of sex and gender and explain the difference between the two concepts . Describe various cultural expressions of sexuality . Identify the difficulties in applying primate research to human gender and sexuality . Critique the man the hunter thesis of human evolution . For many people , male and female refer to natural categories that neatly divide up the human population . Often , people associate these two categories with different abilities and personality traits . Setting aside these ideas and assumptions , anthropologists explore aspects of human biology and culture to understand where notions of gender come from while documenting the diversity of gender and sexuality in cultures all over the world , past and present . The Terms Sex , Gender , and Sexuality In the social sciences , the term sex refers to the biological categories of male and female ( and potentially other categories , as discussed later in this chapter ) The sex of a person is determined by an examination of biological and anatomical features , including ( but not limited to ) visible genitalia ( penis , testes , vagina ) internal sex organs ( ovaries , uterus ) secondary sex characteristics ( breasts , facial hair ) chromosomes ( for females , XY for males , and other possibilities ) reproductive capabilities ( including menstruation ) and the activities of growth hormones , particularly testosterone and estrogen . It may seem as though nature divides humans neatly into females and males , but such a long list of distinguishing factors results in a great deal of ambiguity and diversity within categories . For instance , hormonal can produce results different from the ways that people typically develop . Hormonal shape the development of sex organs over time and can stimulate the emergence of secondary sex characteristics associated with the other sex . Clothes on or clothes off , people can have body features associated with one sex category and chromosomes associated with another . While sex is based on biology , the term developed by social scientists to refer to cultural roles based on these biological categories . The cultural roles of gender assign certain behaviors , relationships , responsibilities , and rights differently to people of different genders . As elements of culture , gender categories are learned rather than inherited or inborn , making childhood an important time for gender . As opposed to the seeming universality of sex categories , the content of gender categories is highly variable across cultures and subject to change over time . The two terms , biological sex and cultural gender , are often distinguished from one another to clarify the differences embedded in nature versus the differences constructed by culture . But are biological sex categories based on an objective appraisal of nature ?

Are sex categories universal and durable ?

Some scholars question the biological objectivity of sex and its opposition to the more notion of gender .

FIGURE Transgender activist Aurora Claire at a women march in , Canada . credit March in by , BY ) Associated with sex and gender , the concept of sexuality refers to erotic thoughts , desires , and practices and the sociocultural identities associated with them . The complex ways in which people experience their own bodies and perceive their own gender contribute to the physical behaviors they engage in to achieve pleasure , intimacy , reproduction . This complex of thoughts , desires , and behaviors constitutes a person sexuality . Some cultures have very strict cultural norms regarding sexual practices , while others are more . Some cultures confer a distinctive identity on people who practice a particular form of sexuality , while others allow a person to engage in an array of sexual practices without adopting a distinctive identity associated with those practices ( Nanda 2000 ) Sexual orientation refers to sociocultural identities associated with forms of sexuality . For instance , in American culture , sex between a woman and a man is into the normative identity of heterosexual . If you are a person who practices that kind of sex ( and kind ) then most Americans would consider you to be a heterosexual person . lfyou are a person who engages in sex with someone of the same category , then in American culture , you would be considered a gay person ( if you identify as male ) or a lesbian ( ifyou identify as female ) So anxious are Americans about these categorical identities that many young people who have erotic dreams or passing erotic thoughts about a friend may worry that they are really not heterosexual . As American norms have changed over the past several decades , some people who have romantic , emotional , or erotic feelings toward people of their own gender and another gender have adopted the identity of bisexual . People who may have erotic desires about and relations with others without regard to their biological sex , gender identity , or sexual orientation may consider themselves to be pansexual . Even more recently , some people who do not engage in sexual thoughts , desires , or practices of any kind have embraced the identity of asexual . While there are many aspects and manifestations of sexual orientation , sexual orientation is considered to be a central and durable aspect of a person sociocultural identity . In some cultures , heterosexuality was previously thought to be the most natural form of sexuality , a notion called . This notion has been challenged by research and the growth of the global movement . In many other cultures , people are allowed or even expected to engage in more than one form of sexuality without necessarily adopting any sexual identity . This is not to say that these other cultures are consistently more liberal and tolerant of sexual diversity . In many societies , it is acceptable for people to engage in practices in certain , but they are still expected to marry someone of the opposite sex and have children . Scholars who have studied sexuality in many cultures have also pointed out that a person gender identity , sexual orientation , and sexuality tend to change over the life span , responding to different and relationships . The term queer , originally a pejorative term in American culture for a person who did not conform to the rigid norms of heterosexuality , has been appropriated by people who do not abide by

those norms , particularly people who take a more situational and approach to the expression of gender and sexuality . Rather than a set of and durable identities , queer gender and sexuality are more , constantly emerging , and contingent on multiple factors . As complex as sex , gender , and sexuality can be , it is helpful to have a diagram illustrating the possible relationships among these factors . Activist Sam has developed a useful diagram known as Lhe Person ( depicting the various aspects of identity , attraction , expression , and physical characteristics that combine in the of whole persons . The Persona , Identity I ?

Masculinity an ' El rum El Elm ( Fund ma Female er er FIGURE Sam Person illustrates how identity , attraction , expression , and physical characteristics all contribute to gender and sexuality . credit Person by Sam Commons , Public Domain ) Evidence from Biological Anthropology Given humans close biological relationship to primates , one might expect to see similar dynamics of sex and gender between human and nonhuman primate social groups . Biologists and have examined sex differences in the biology and behavior nonhuman and human primates , looking for commonalities that might suggest a common biological genesis for categories . Primate Sex Differences Biology and Behavior In the , a time when American men were supposed to be and American women were urged to be housewives and mothers , most believed that males were the public actors in primate social life , while females were passive , marginal . of the time believed that males constantly competed against one another for dominance in a rigid group hierarchy , while females were more narrowly interested in raising young ( and 1989 ) In fact , described the total social organization in terms of male competition . This View went along with Charles Darwin notion that males are forced to compete for the opportunity to mate with females and so , therefore , must be assertive and dominant . Females , in Darwin theory , were shaped by evolution to choose the strongest male to mate with and then concern themselves exclusively with nurturing their offspring to adulthood . By the , however , a number of strong studies were showing some very surprising things about primate social organization . First , most primate groups are essentially composed of related females , with males as

temporary members who often move between groups . The heart of primate society , then , is not a set of competitive males but a set of closely bonded mothers and their young . Females are not marginal but central actors in most social life . The glue that holds most primate groups together is not male competition but female kinship and solidarity . Second , social organization in primates turned out to be incredibly complex , with both males and females actively strategizing for desirable resources , roles , and relationships . Research on a number species has demonstrated that females are often sexually assertive and highly competitive . Female primates actively exercise their preference to mate with certain male friends rather than aggressive or dominant males . For males , friendliness with females may be a much better reproductive strategy than fighting with other males . Moreover , many have begun to identify cooperation rather than competition as the central feature social life while still recognizing competition for resources by both males and females in their pursuit of survival and reproduction ( and 1989 ) What this means , in a nutshell , is that ( both females and males are competitive , both females and males are cooperative , and ( both females and males are central actors in primate social life . While evidence suggests that in primate groups males and females are equally important to social life , this still leaves open the question of biological differences and their link to behavioral differences . The anatomy of primate males and females differs in two main respects . First , of course , adult females can and often do experience pregnancy and bear offspring . The females of most primate species are often pregnant or nursing for most of their adult lives and devote more time and resources to care than males do ( although there are some notable exceptions , such as certain species of New World monkeys ) And some researchers have noted the tendency females to pay more attention to primate babies in the group than do juvenile males . Second , male primates tend to be slightly bigger than females , although this difference itself is quite variable . The size difference between males and females of any species is referred to as sexual dimorphism . Male and female gibbons are nearly the same size , while male gorillas are nearly twice the size of females . Female chimpanzees are about 75 percent the size of males . Human females are about 90 percent the size of males , making human sexual dimorphism closer to gibbons than chimpanzees . Some researchers suggest that a high level of sexual dimorphism is associated with strong male dominance , rigid hierarchy , and male competition for mating with females . Certainly these features reinforce one another in gorilla society . A low level of sexual dimorphism may be associated with monogamy , as with gibbons . However , anthropologist Adrienne cautions against making any about the relationship between biological features such as size and behavioral features such as sexual relations . She remarks , There is no simple correlation between anatomy and behavioral expression , within or between species ( 1997 , 100 ) Reviewing research on sex differences in gibbons , chimpanzees , gorillas , and orangutans , she concludes that each species features a unique mosaic of sex differences involving anatomy and behavior , with no clear commonality that might predict what is natural for humans .

, FIGURE Bonobo group hug . Bonobos , which share 99 of their DNA with humans , live in groups that are mostly egalitarian and peaceful . credit . by Rob , BY ) Humans closest primate relatives are chimpanzees and bonobos , both sharing 99 percent of their DNA with humans , and yet each species exhibits very different behaviors . Bonobos are , while chimpanzees are . Bonobo groups are mostly egalitarian and peaceful , while chimpanzee groups are intensely hierarchical , with frequent male aggression between groups . Sexual behavior among bonobos is remarkably frequent and extraordinarily variable , with a wide range of and pairings involving various forms of genital contact . Some researchers believe that sexual contact helps build social bonds and ease in bonobo groups . Bonobos have been called the make love , not war primate . Sexual behavior among chimpanzees is also variable but much more limited to pairings . A female in may mate with several males , a pattern called opportunistic mating . exclusive relationships may form , in which a male guards a female to prevent other males from mating with her . also happen , in which a female and a male leave the group for a week or more . With such variability between humanity two closest DNA relatives , it is impossible to use nonhuman primate behavior to make assumptions about what is natural for human males and females . In fact , with regard to gender , the lessons of may be that apes ( like humans ) are biologically quite and capable of many social expressions of gender and sexuality . Human Sex Differences Biology and Behavior Just as with primate research , research on human biological differences has been considerably slanted by the gender bias of the ( often male ) researchers . Within the intellectual tradition , scholars in the past have argued that women biological constitution makes them unfit to vote , go to college , compete in the job market , or hold political . More recently , beliefs about the different cognitive abilities of men and women have become widespread . Males are supposedly better at math and spatial relationships , while females are better at language skills . Hormonal activities supposedly make males more aggressive and females more emotional . In her book Myths , biologist Anne ( 1992 ) conducts a massive review of research on cognitive and behavioral differences in humans . Looking very closely at the data , she finds that the vast number of studies show no statistically difference whatsoever between the cognitive abilities of boys and girls . A minority of studies found very small differences . For instance , among four studies of abstract reasoning abilities , one study indicated that females were superior in this skill , one study indicated that males were superior , and two studies showed no difference at all . Overall , when differences are found in verbal abilities , girls usually come out ahead , but the difference is so small as to be irrelevant to questions of education and employment . Likewise , more than half of all studies on spatial abilities no difference between girls and boys . When differences are found , boys come out ahead , but the difference is again very small . Looking at the overall variation of skill levels in this area , only about percent of it can be attributed to gender . This means that 95 percent of the differences are due to other factors , such as educational

opportunities . FIGURE A girl solving math problems in school . Research has found no statistically difference between the cognitive abilities of boys and girls . credit by , BY ) Even these tiny differences that may exist in the cognitive talents of different genders are not necessarily rooted in biological sex differences . Several studies of spatial abilities have shown that boys may initially perform better on spatial ability tests , but when given time to practice , girls increase their skill levels to become equal to boys , while boys remain the same . Some researchers reason that styles of play such as sports , often encouraged more by parents of boys , may build children spatial skills . Parenting styles , forms of play , and gender elements of shape the data more than biology . studies also indicate that culture plays an important role in shaping abilities . A study of the found no differences at all in the spatial abilities of boys and girls , while in a study of the of Sierra Leone , boys outperformed the girls . girls are generally allowed more freedom and autonomy , while girls are more restricted in their activities . FIGURE The relative freedom of girls may enhance their spatial abilities . credit Children in by , BY ) Similar complexities emerge in the analysis of studies on aggression . found that most studies revealed no clear relationship between testosterone levels and levels of aggression in males . Moreover , testosterone aggression studies have been riddled with problems such as poor methodology , questionable of aggression , and an inability to prove whether testosterone provokes aggression or the other way

around . Where differences in aggression between girls and boys are documented , some researchers have concluded that cultural factors may play a strong role in producing those differences . Anthropologist Carol Ember studied levels of aggression among boys and girls in a village in Kenya . Overall , the boys exhibited more aggressive behavior , but there were exceptions . In families lacking girl children , boys were made to perform more feminine work such as childcare , housework , and fetching water . Boys who regularly performed those tasks exhibited less aggression than other to 60 percent less for boys who performed a lot of this work . As with the primate research on sex differences , research on the brains , bodies , and behaviors of male and female humans does not seem to suggest that behavioral differences are biologically hardwired . While researchers have discovered differences in the cognitive talents and social behaviors of males and females , those differences are very small and could very well be due to social and cultural factors rather than biology . As with bonobos and chimpanzees , humans are biologically quite , allowing for a diverse array of forms of gender and sexuality . Evidence from Archaeology Seeking to understand the origins of human sociocultural formations of gender and sexuality , some researchers have turned to the archaeological record . Archaeologists use temporal sequencing , fossil evidence , comparison with living communities , and knowledge of the evolutionary process to piece together an understanding of the development of and sexual behaviors in the context of human evolution . Early theories of gender in human evolutionary history were shaped by the man the hunter hypothesis . In the and , many anthropologists believed that hunting constituted the primary means of subsistence throughout humans evolutionary past , up until the domestication of plants and animals around years ago . As hunting was mainly done by men in contemporary societies , researchers assumed that hunting was naturally and exclusively a male activity throughout prehistory . Women could not hunt , it was thought , due to the burdens , nursing , and childcare . It seemed likely that adult women stayed together with their children at the home base while men went out in small groups in search of game . In this view , tools were invented for hunting and processing meat and were mostly made by men . Dependence on meat gave men power and prestige , leading to male dominance over females . Hunting also spurred the development of language because communication was necessary to coordinate hunting expeditions . Tools and language , in turn , stimulated the development of larger brains . Hunting by men was therefore thought to be the central driving force in the evolution of humans hominid ancestors . re if ' FIGURE A Kali na man and woman in the Venezuelan savanna on a gathering and hunting trip . The gathering typically done by women contributes far more to the diets of contemporary societies than the hunting typically done by men does . In most contemporary societies , men and women are fairly

equal . credit Pierre Commons , Public Domain ) In the , researchers from the emerging of drew from the man the hunter hypothesis to claim that certain gender roles and sexual relations evolved to be natural among humans . is a that attempts to explain human behavior by considering evolutionary processes . In regard to gender roles , for instance , sought to understand how evolution may have shaped men and women differently , encouraging strategies for survival and reproduction . Many have argued that men , as hunters , evolved to be strong and aggressive , able to strategize in groups but in competition to achieve the status of dominant male in contrast , women were primarily engaged in childcare and food preparation and therefore evolved to be more nurturing and submissive , focused on attracting the attentions of men . Dependent on men to supply meat for themselves and their children , women would have been motivated to ensnare men in monogamous relationships to ensure a constant food supply as well as protection from other aggressive males . Largely free from the responsibilities of childcare , men would have been motivated to mate with as many females as possible to ensure the greatest number of descendants . This view of the natural order of gender relations became very popular and widespread in American society . Less in American society is the thorough critique of the man the hunter hypothesis within archaeology and throughout the other of anthropology . Around the same time that were elaborating on their theories of gender , many anthropologists were pushing back against the notion that hunting was the primary subsistence activity of societies . As you recall from the discussion of such societies in , Work Life and Value Economic , gathering contributes far more to the diets of contemporary societies than hunting does . Rather than staying at the home base , women and children go out gathering in groups several times a week , largely meeting their own nutritional needs as well as sharing with others . Pregnancy and nursing do not significantly limit the subsistence activities of women , as they remain active throughout pregnancy and carry infants in slings or on their hips until the children are able to keep up . While meat is highly valued , it does not make women dependent on men , and the ability to hunt does not make men dominant over women . In most contemporary societies , men and women are fairly equal . In archaeology , some feminist researchers have countered the man the hunter hypothesis with a woman the gatherer hypothesis . These researchers point to fossil evidence suggesting that women activities were equally important to survival and development in humans evolutionary past . These archaeologists note that the teeth of early hominids indicate that they were omnivorous , eating a wide variety of foods . The very large , molars hominid skulls indicate an adaptation to a diet of gritty foods such as nuts , seeds , and fruits with tough peels . Given the centrality of plant foods to the diets of contemporary peoples , it seems likely that gathering was also the primary means of for humans ancestors ( though , of course , one must be cautious in making such generalizations ) was so crucial , then quite possibly the ingenuity of early hominids might have been focused not only on making hunting gear but also on developing tools for gathering , such as digging sticks and stones for breaking open hard shells . As hominid babies lacked the grasping toes of other apes , it would have been more for them to grasp hold of their mothers as they were carried out on gathering expeditions . Perhaps , then , an important invention might have been a baby sling made of animal skins , an object known as a kaross among the San peoples of the in southern Africa . Unfortunately , as digging sticks and baby slings would have been made of organic materials , the fossil record contains no trace of them . While the stone tools used in hunting are prevalent in the fossil record , the organic tools used in gathering would have decomposed long ago . If gathering was the crucial strategy of or was at least equal in importance to hunting , then women likely enjoyed considerable social power alongside men . were gathering , they probably contributed to the development of the tools associated with gathering . On the move throughout the local environment , women likely knew where to foods and when such foods were in season . If women could provide for themselves , they would have been free to become involved in romantic and sexual relationships on their own terms and to leave such relationships when they wanted . What is known about gathering in societies completely overturns assumptions of male dominance embedded in the man the hunter hypothesis . Beyond man the hunter and woman the gatherer hypotheses , cultural anthropologists who study

groups point out that the division of labor in societies is more than these essentialist theories might suggest . In such societies , men also gather plant foods , and women sometimes hunt for honey or kill small game such as lizards and insects . As mentioned in the introduction to this textbook , a team of archaeologists led by Randy Haas recently discovered the old bones of a woman buried with projectile points and other hunting implements in the Andes of South America ( Gibbons 2020 ) Having reexamined archaeological reports on the burials of 10 other women buried with hunting tools , Haas and his team believe they may also have been female hunters . FIGURE A statue of Diana , Roman goddess of the hunt . Recent archaeological of females buried with hunting tools suggest that in early human societies , hunting was not an activity solely performed by males . credit Diana of the Tower by ego , BY ) As with evidence from primates and human biology , the archaeological evidence for the origins of human gender roles and sexual relations is not . Rather , the main lesson seems to be that humans are biologically and culturally variable in their expressions of gender and sexuality . Performing Gender Categories LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain how essentialism triggers circular thinking about gender . Describe the performative aspects of gender . Distinguish between public and private social realms and identify the consequences of this distinction for gender categories . Give an example of the sociocultural construction of masculinity . Define the concept of intersex . Give a detailed example of a culture with multiple genders . So if gender is not a natural expression of sex differences , then what is it ?

Cultural anthropologists explore how people ideas of gender are formed in their minds , bodies , social institutions , and everyday practices .

Performing Gender Categories Nature , Culture , and the Performance of Gender FIGURE The natural history of gender , according to this English nursery rhyme , is based on little boys being composed of frogs and snails and puppy dog tails , while little girls consist of sugar and spice and all that nice . credit Walter Commons , Public Domain ) Gender not only how people think about themselves and others it also how they feel about themselves and how others make them feel . Romantic or sexual passion draws from identities and reinforces them . In the words sung by Franklin , You make me feel like a natural woman . There is something about identity that can feel deep and real . The sense that some trait is so profoundly deep and consequential that it creates a common identity for everyone who has that trait is called essentialism . Gender essentialism is the basis ofa lot of circular thinking . When a boy kicks a ball through the neighbor window and someone says , Boys will be boys ! essentialist . You may be familiar with this little essentialist ditty from culture Sugar and spice and everything nice , that what little girls are made of . Snips and snails and puppy dog tails , that what little boys are made of . In this view , gender is what you re made of is , your biological essence . And yet , biology and archaeology have shown that gender differences are complicated and illusory . What is a natural woman . or a natural man ?

Cultural anthropologists that some cultures consider men and women to be quite similar , while other cultures emphasize differences between genders . All cultures promote a distinctive set of ideal norms , values , and behaviors , considering those ideals to be natural and good . In cultures that consider men and women to be similar , those ideals apply equally to all people . In cultures that consider men and women to be quite different , one set of ideals applies to men and another set applies to women . In all cases , the content of those ideals varies enormously across cultures . Cultural anthropologist Margaret Mead conducted research on gender in several societies in New Guinea . She confessed that she had initially assumed that behaviors were grounded in biological differences and would vary only slightly across cultures . In her 1935 book , Sex and Temperament , she describes her surprise at discovering three cultural groups with vastly different interpretations of gender . Among the and , men and women were considered temperamentally quite similar , with little acknowledgment of 377

emotional or behavioral differences between them . The valued cooperation and gentleness , expecting everyone to show tolerance and support for younger and weaker members of the group . In contrast , among the , both men and women were expected to be competitive , aggressive , and violent . Among the ( or ) however , men and women were assumed to be temperamentally different men were seen to be neurotic and , while women were thought of as relaxed , happy , and powerful . While Mead dramatic have been subject to criticism , subsequent analysis and by other anthropologists have largely substantiated her main conclusions ( 2003 ) Like race , gender involves the cultural interpretation of biological differences . To make things even more complicated , the very process of cultural interpretation alters the way those biological differences are perceived and experienced . In other words , gender is based on a complex dynamic of culture and nature . Gender identities feel more natural than , say , class or religious identities because they involve direct reference to one body . Most people bodies feel natural to them even with the knowledge that culture shapes the way individuals experience their bodies . In this way , gender is not so much natural as it is naturalized , or made to seem natural . In the past three decades , many gender scholars have argued that gender is not so much a set of naturalized categories to which people are assigned as it is a set of cultural identities that people perform in their daily lives . In her book Gender Trouble ( 1990 ) philosopher Judith Butler describes gender as a kind of relation between categorical norms and individual performances of those norms . In childhood , people are presented with the idealized categories of male and female and taught how to enact the category to which they have been assigned . For Butler , gender is an impersonation because becoming involves impersonating an ideal that nobody actually inhabits ( 1992 ) If gender involves both established categories and everyday performances , then it necessary to pay close attention to the idealized norms of gender constructed in a particular cultural context and the various ways in which people enact those norms in practice . In Gender and Sexuality in Muslim Cultures ( 2015 ) researchers studying Muslim communities in Turkey , Egypt , Pakistan , Syria , and Iran examine the ideals of Muslim masculinity and femininity in those , as well as how those ideals are enacted and resisted in everyday life . Can describes how the Turkish government provides disabled veterans with access to assisted reproductive technologies so that they can father children . The aim of this program is to make them feel like real men again , their masculinity in the context of heterosexual family life . Maria shows how Muslim women in Cairo strive to achieve the purity and cleanliness associated with femininity through such practices as cooking , skin care , and becoming circumcised . The idea is that gender is not at all natural you have to work at it every day and make sure you doing it right . If you can not seem to approximate your gender norm for some reason , then your family members , friends , and even the government may step in to help you perform it . Women and Feminist Theories of Gender Inspired by the women movement of the , many female anthropologists in the early began taking a critical look at mainstream American anthropology , noticing how the discipline focused almost exclusively on the activities of as researchers and objects of study . In most early and , men were represented as the major social actors , and men activities were assumed to be the most important ones . Where were the women , and what were they doing ?

Calling for an anthropology of women , many feminist anthropologists set out to correct the ethnographic record by focusing more on the voices , perspectives , and practices ofwomen in cultures all over the world . Examining the roles of women in many cultures , feminist anthropologists began to see some patterns . In where women made strong and direct contributions to subsistence , they seemed to enjoy greater social status and equality with men . Among , for instance , where women gathering activities provided the majority of calories in the overall diet , women held positions of equality . In where women were relegated to the home as housekeepers and mothers , they were more subordinate to men and were not considered equal actors in sociocultural activities . Agricultural and industrial societies both created public spheres ofwork separate from the private sphere of the household . Women in these societies were more often assigned to work in the private sphere and sometimes even prohibited from entering public areas .

Performing Gender Categories FIGURE In the century , a cult of domesticity assigned American women to uncompensated work in the home . credit US National Archives and Records Commons , Public Domain ) In capitalist market systems , the domestic work of housewives is uncompensated and virtually invisible . Cultural anthropologist Michelle ( 1974 ) argued that the division of sociocultural life into public and private spheres resulted in the of women . While this early wave of feminist anthropology focused on women , more recently researchers have questioned the essentialism of this approach . Is gender always the most important factor in determining the status of women in all cultures ?

Gender intersects with race , class , ethnicity , age , sexuality , and physical ability to make the experiences of women diverse and complex , a position called . Due to economic necessity , women of color in American society have more often been forced to work outside the home . In fact , many privileged White women have been able to hire domestic workers to relieve them of their household often those domestic workers have been women of color . For cooks , nannies , and housekeepers , the private domestic sphere of privileged women constitutes their own public sphere of work , supervised by the woman of the house . The experiences of people of color complicate the idea that women are subordinated through their to the private domestic sphere . Men and While men had been the primary focus of anthropological research up to the , they had always been studied as general representatives of their cultures . The establishment of gender studies in anthropology prompted both male and female anthropologists to View all persons in a culture through the lens of gender . That is , men began to be seen as not just people but people who are socialized and culturally constructed as men in their societies ( 1997 ) In the 19905 , a wave of scholarship emerged probing the identities of men and the features of masculinity across cultures . Cultural anthropologist Stanley ( 1980 ) studied how men in , an Andalusian town in southern Spain , used folklore to express their ambivalent feelings of desire and hostility toward women . Through their jokes , pranks , riddles , wordplay , nicknames , and dramas , men in built camaraderie and constructed a ideology of dominance . A good part of each man day in was devoted to and playing pranks among other men . expressed fears about the sexual power of women , in 379

particular the ability ofwomen to seduce and destroy their male victims . provides a revealing example of one such symbolic joke A woman was walking along the streets of Madrid holding a dog in her arms so that it wouldn get run over . She was beautiful , the woman , and a man walking alongside her said , If only I were that dog , there in your arms ! Responded the woman , I taking him to have him castrated . Want to come along ?

1980 , 105 ) Research on masculinity demonstrates that male is not a category but is always held in opposition to female , even when women are not present . Other studies of masculinity have focused on the construction of masculinity through initiation rites , friendships , marriage , and fatherhood . Studying fatherhood among the Aka of central Africa , Barry ( 1991 ) discovered that fathers in these communities are remarkably affectionate , attentive , and involved in the care of their children . Among families with young children , fathers spend 47 percent of their day within arm length of their children and frequently hold and care for them , especially in the evenings . Ethnographic research suggests that men are not naturally awkward or inept at childcare , nor are they less able to forge intimate and emotional bonds with their children . Rather , men are socialized to perform versions of fatherhood as proof of their masculine identities . FIGURE A child expresses appreciation for his fathers at the National Equality March in 2009 . For many men , devoted fatherhood plays an important role in shaping masculinity . credit by , BY ) With the inclusion of masculinity , the anthropological study of gender came to be dominated by the opposed categories of male and female . Many studies take it as given that people are assigned at birth to one of these two categories and remain in their assigned category for a lifetime . A number ofpeople in every culture , however , are not obviously male or female at birth , and some people do change their gender identities from one category to even to an entirely different gender category that is neither male nor female . Intersex and the Ambiguities of Identity A friend tells you , My had a baby last night ! You respond , Is it a boy or a girl ?

Your friend replies , Well , they do know . Maybe neither , maybe Based on a detailed analysis of extensive data , Anne ( 2000 ) concluded that in about percent of births , a baby sex can not be completely by glancing at the baby genitalia . Note that due to different or changing considerations of sex determination , you may see different percentages or other differences in information this text is using the most widely accepted and adopted research . Intersex is an umbrella term for people who have one or more of a range of variations in sex characteristics or chromosomal patterns that do not the typical conceptions of male or female the inter means between and refers here to an apparent biological state between male and female . There are many causal factors that can make a person intersex . Genetically , the baby may have a different number of sex chromosomes . Rather than two chromosomes ( associated with females ) or one and one chromosome ( associated with males ) babies are sometimes born with an alternative number of sex chromosomes , such as ( only one chromosome ) or ( three chromosomes ) In other cases , hormonal activity or even chance occurrences in the womb can affect the baby anatomy . XY FIGURE Chromosomal compositions associated with sex categories . On the far left , the combination of two chromosomes is associated with female sex . On the far right , the combination of one and one chromosome is associated with male sex . In the center , the most common intersex chromosomal combinations are listed . An embryo lacking an chromosome is not viable . attribution Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) While it is true that the majority of humans display biological characteristics associated with either one sex or another , percent is not . If that percentage were applied to the global total of about 140 million babies born every year , it would mean that that more than two million of these babies could be intersex . On a more local level , if that percentage were applied to any town of people , there could be more than intersex people . Beyond biology , the category of intersex reveals a great deal about the cultural mechanisms of gender . Intersexuality can be recognized at any point in a person life , from infancy to well into adulthood . Parents often discover their child is intersex in a medical context , such as at birth or during a subsequent visit to the pediatrician . When a doctor explains that a child is intersex , parents may be confused and concerned . Some doctors who are uncomfortable with biological sex ambiguity may order tests to determine the chromosomal count and hormone levels and take measurements of the child genitals . They may urge parents to assign a specific gender to the baby and commit to plans for hormonal treatments and surgical interventions to that assigned gender to the growing child . Doctors are often taught to present the chosen gender as the real underlying sex of the baby , making medical treatment a process of allowing the natural ( meaning unambiguous ) sex to emerge . This conceptualization of intersex babies as really either male or female contradicts the complex mix of male and female traits presented by most intersex bodies ( 2000 ) disagrees with the practice of immediately affixing a sex to intersex babies through medical

interventions . She argues that gender identity emerges in a complex interplay between biology and culture that can not be assigned or controlled by doctors or parents . In an interview with the New York Times , she explained her position The doctors often guess wrong . They might say , We think this infant should be a female because the sexual organ it has is Then , they go and remove the penis and the testes . Years later , the kid says , I a boy , and that what I want to be , and I do want to take estrogen , and by the way , give me back my I feel we should let the kids tell us what they think is right once they are old enough to know . Till then , parents can talk to the kids in a way that gives them permission to be different , they can give the child a name , they can do a provisional gender assignment . 2001 ) Many intersex people support a ban on what they call intersex genital mutilation , or . In an article for ( intersex author and activist ( 2017 ) calls attention to the hundreds of intersex people who have come forward to say that has harmed them . The underlying goal of sexual assignment surgery , points out , is to create bodies capable of heterosexual sex . Medical ethicist Kevin ( 2020 ) argues that surgical interventions should only be carried out when surgery serves the best medical interests of the child and , in most cases , medical intervention should be delayed until the intersex person is old enough to give informed consent . also emphasizes that parents and children have the right to know the truth about an intersex child diagnosis and the possible consequences of any suggested treatment . Intersex ambiguity and the rush to hide or eliminate it reveal important lessons about biology and culture . The process of determining what an intersex person was meant to be often involves a large set variables , many of them subject to change over time . Those factors vary not only for intersex people but for everyone . Chromosomes alone do not make females and males . Rather , the interactions of genetic factors with hormones and environmental forces produce a complex continuum of gender . Instead of a binary of male and female separated by a hard boundary , many gender scholars recognize gender as a multidimensional spectrum of differences . There is far more biological variation within the cultural categories of male and female than between the two . This is not to deny the existence of biological differences but rather to complicate the concepts of sex and gender , allowing for the normalcy of ambiguity and the tolerance of variation . Multiple Gender and Variant Gender Many societies construct additional categories between male and female to accommodate people who do not into a binary gender system . The term multiple gender indicates a gender system that goes beyond male and female , adding one or more categories gender to accommodate more diversity . A variant gender is an added version of male or female that accommodates those who were not assigned to that category at birth but adopt that identity during the course of their lives . A person whose biology , identity , or sexual orientation contradicts their assigned role can adopt a identity . For instance , a person might be considered female at birth but later transition to a masculine version of anthropologists term female Variant . Cultural anthropologist Serena Nanda ( 2000 ) has studied categories in many societies , including Native North American societies and peoples in Brazil , India , Thailand , and the Philippines . The widespread practice of multiple gender indicates a common cultural need to accommodate the complexities of human and sexuality . In contrast , European and societies have inherited a rigid system that people who do not conform to the gender identity assigned to them at birth . Activists pressing for more gender can be inspired by examples of alternative gender in many cultures . When Spanish explorers came to North America , they were astonished to men in Native American societies who dressed as women , did the work ofwomen , and had sexual relationships with men . Later , anthropologists who studied Native American groups discovered that some groups , including the Crow and the Navajo , had categories of variant male ( assigned a male identity at birth but adopting a feminine identity later on ) and variant female ( assigned female at birth but adopting a masculine identity later on ) Note that people

in variant categories did not fully transition to the opposite gender but rather took on a masculine or feminine variant of the sex assigned at birth . Ignoring the Native American terms for variant gender , early European explorers referred to variant males as berdache , a Portuguese term that indicated a male that is not what they were at all . In 1990 , as Native American people sought to resurrect their heritage gender , they coined the term , meaning people with both male and female spirits . people were highly valued and esteemed in Native cultures . Rather than facing stigma or rejection , their alternate gender identity was thought to give them special talents and spiritual powers . In many Native American societies , people often became healers and spiritual leaders . They were typically very successful at performing the work of the opposite gender . people were known for their excellent cooking and needlework , and many people were great hunters and warriors . people were also called upon to act as intermediaries between genders , such as in marriage arrangements . Like people in many societies , people began to realize their variant identities in childhood , rejecting the activities associated with their assigned gender . A boy might want to cook or weave , or a girl might prefer to hunt and play with the boys . If there were not enough boys to hunt , a family might even encourage a girl to develop a variant identity so that she could help provide meat to the family . Sometimes , children would experience visions or dreams guiding them to the tools associated with the opposite gender . Generally speaking , people of variant gender had sexual relationships with people of the gender opposite their lived identity . So ifa person took on the clothing and work of a woman , they would be expected to have intimate relationships with men , and people who lived as men would have relationships with women . Neither people nor their partners were considered lesbian or gay . With European colonization of North America came a much more restrictive system of gender categories and . As expanded into Native American territories , Native Americans were pressured to assimilate to norms . From 1860 to 1978 , children were removed from their families and sent to assimilationist schools , where they were taught that Native cultures were backward and variant genders were sinful and deviant . By the , practices had largely disappeared . However , with the rise of the American movement , many Native Americans have rediscovered the more and tolerant gender system of their ancestors . The Power of Gender Patriarchy and Matriarchy LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain the concept of gender ideology and identify two such ideologies . Discuss how patriarchy is embedded in practices and institutions . Suggest reasons for the absence of matriarchy . Give two examples that complicate views of patriarchal dominance . In cultural constructions of gender , two or more genders are in an overall system that assigns various forms and activity to different categories or realms of society . Some of those activities are considered more important than others , and some of those behaviors are more authoritative and dominant . Gender is not only a system of differences between the realms of female and male but also a system of power between those two realms . Patriarchy Ideology and Practice The author of this chapter , Jennifer Hasty , on what she learned about gender ideology while working as wedding videographer As a side gig to my , Iran my own business as a wedding Videographer in the Philadelphia metropolitan area from 2010 to 201 . While the whole Venture was driven by economic necessity ( was ) the wedding industry turned out to be a fascinating Vantage point

from which to view gender in American society . Most weddings were meticulously planned by the bride , with the groom deferring to her wishes or staying out of the whole process . Brides who were attracted to my artsy , minimalist aesthetic tended to be professionals , college graduates heading in to careers in education , law , or medicine . Many of these weddings were grand of style and markers of identity . Though my brides were women with professional jobs , when it came to planning their special day , nearly all of them reverted to traditions infused with gender roles . Nearly all of them wore a long , white wedding dress , a symbol of virginal purity , although many of them had been with their grooms ( and some children with them ) FIGURE A bride being escorted by her father to her wedding ceremony . Weddings reveal a lot about a culture gender ideology . credit Father of the Bride by , BY ) Nearly all of them insisted on being given away by their fathers , even when those fathers had been largely absent for some part of their childhood due to divorce . This notion of being a gift , given away to the groom , was so powerful that one bride , whose father was not there , declared in her personal vows , I give myself in marriage to you . Grooms and their families did not use this language of gift giving . The notion that a woman is passed from the paternalistic domain of her father into the care and supervision of her groom a larger gender ideology about the relations between men and women in family life . A gender ideology is a coordinated set of ideas about gender categories , relations , behaviors , norms , and ideals . These ideas are embedded in the institutions of the family , the economy , politics , religion , and other sociocultural spheres . As with racial and class ideologies , people often challenge the explicit terms ofa gender ideology while actively participating in the institutionalized forms associated with it . Though women have made great strides in American public life in past decades , in their weddings , they still enact a gender ideology that positions them as dependent objects passed between men in the transaction of marriage . The power of gender ideology is that it most frequently operates below the level of consciousness . As you will recall from previous discussions of the term , an ideology that becomes naturalized as common sense becomes hegemonic .

Patriarchy is a widespread gender ideology that positions men as rulers of private and public life . Within the household , the eldest male is recognized as head of the family , organizing the activities of dependent women and children and governing their behavior . Family resources such as money and land are controlled by senior men . Men make decisions women acquiesce . Beyond the family , men are accorded positions of leadership throughout society , and women are summoned to play a supportive and enabling role as marginalized subordinates . Contemporary forms in American and European are linked to the European development of capitalism in the . As economic activities moved out of households and into factories and , the household came to be as a private sphere , while the world and political activities came to be called the public sphere . Women were assigned to the private sphere of family life , where they were expected to carry out nurturing roles as wives and mothers . Men not only governed the private sphere but also participated in the competitive and sometimes dangerous public sphere . Different forms of patriarchy have emerged throughout the world . In India , the development of agriculture and the rise of the state resulted in the increasing subordination of women in patriarchal social institutions ( 1995 ) Patriarchal ideology and social structure date back to the period ( In the communities of ancient India , men dominated economic and political life , and women were mostly excluded from these spheres . However , women could exercise some forms of authority as mothers in their households . Girl children , though not preferred , were generally treated well . Girls and boys both were educated and participated in religious activities . Female chastity and were highly valued , but women could engage in premarital sex without being shunned , and wives could divorce their husbands . Legally , however , daughters and wives were dependent on the men in their lives , who could make decisions on their behalf . A woman was not permitted to inherit property unless she was the only child . In the period , patriarchy was strengthened with the systematic of Hindu law . Patriarchy grew even more domineering , with the cultural spread of child marriage , female infanticide , and the and ritual death of widows . When India came under Muslim rule in the century , Islamic customs for veiling and secluding women further marginalized women in Hindu and Muslim communities alike . Though contemporary India is a country of ethnic and religious diversity , patriarchy has become a dominant organizational force throughout Indian society . In rural areas , people often live in large extended family households structured by patrilineal descent . These families consist ofa married couple , their sons and sons families , and their unmarried daughters . Men are recognized as heads of their households , exercising authority over their wives and children . The division of labor assigns men to work as farmers and traders , providing food to the family . Women mainly work in the home but sometimes also help out with agricultural chores such as weeding and harvesting . In the century , a reform movement called for the elimination of many patriarchal customs such as child marriage and sati ( the ritual death ) Reformers , most of them elite men and women , encouraged the education of girl children and the legalization of inheritance for women . In response , sati became outlawed , widows were allowed to remarry , the marriage age was at 12 , and women were permitted to divorce , inherit , and own property . In the latter part of the century , the Indian state passed laws to enhance women equality in many areas , including education , inheritance , and employment . Urban women in and families have from these reforms . However , in rural areas , many of the patriarchal customs outlawed by the state continue to be practiced . Matriarchy Ideology and ( Not ) Practice As the term suggests , matriarchy means rule by senior women . In a matriarchal society , women would exercise authority throughout social life and control power and wealth . Like patriarchy , matriarchy is a gender ideology . Unlike patriarchy , however , matriarchy is not embedded in structures and institutions in any culture in the contemporary world . That is to say , it just an a dominant one , and certainly not hegemonic . While societies with patrilineal kinship systems are strongly patriarchal , societies with matrilineal kinship systems are not matriarchal . This is a common source of confusion . In matrilineal kinship systems , children

primarily belong to their mother kin group , and inheritance passes through the maternal line . However , even in matrilineal societies , leadership is exercised by the senior men of the family . Instead ofa woman husband , it is her brother or mother brother ( her maternal uncle ) who makes decisions about family resources and disciplines the behavior of family members . Scholars who theorize the existence of ancient suggest that those societies were not only matrilineal but also dominated by the leadership of women as well as the values of fertility and motherhood . social evolutionists such as Friedrich and postulated that matriarchy was the original form of human social organization , later replaced by patriarchy in societies all over the world . This notion was revived by feminist scholars in the , such as archaeologist ( 1991 ) who postulated that the original matriarchal societies of the European Neolithic were overthrown in the Bronze Age by patriarchal invaders on horseback . argued that the Neolithic communities of Europe were peaceful , egalitarian , and , or . They worshipped a mother goddess associated with the fertility of women and the earth . High priestesses of this fertility cult were the primary leaders , supported by their brothers and a council of women . Warfare was unknown . Then , waves of swept across Europe on horseback , conquering the original matriarchal Europeans and establishing their violent , patriarchal order with its worship of male gods and veneration of warfare . FIGURE The Venus of statue , found in southern Austria , is presumed to be about years old . Some archaeologists speculate that this statue and the many others like it from Paleolithic Europe are symbols of a fertility cult or mother goddess . credit A Female Paleolithic Figurine , Venus of by Wellcome Collection , BY ) Many archaeologists disagree with interpretations of the archaeological record and her refusal to consider alternative and more mainstream interpretations of the same evidence by other archaeologists . Feminist archaeologist Ruth remarked that had the process of interpretation and presented her own conclusions as objective fact ( 1993 , 197 ) While work on European matriarchy is criticized by scholarly archaeology , her ideas have been embraced and popularized by New Age feminists . Where are the ?

Why is patriarchy so prevalent while matriarchy is nonexistent ?

Nobody really knows the answers to these questions . Some anthropologists think that pregnancy and childcare marginalized women , while men were freer to participate in cultural practices , technologies , and institutions . Others suggest that women reproductive power posed a threat to men . Patriarchy may have been developed as a system of subordination and control over the acknowledged power of women . In the search for matriarchy , it could be that feminists are looking for the wrong thing . While anthropologists have not found societies in which women dominate and control men , there are plenty of cultural examples in

which women and men enjoy relative equality and freedom from sexual oppression and control . Gender and Power in Everyday Life Contemporary anthropologists who study gender pay little attention to hypothetical debates about the origins or the possible existence of ancient matriarchy . Rather , cultural anthropologists are interested in how people interact with the cultural norms and systematized practices of gender in their societies . Gender is diffused throughout culture , embedded in systems of kinship , modes of subsistence , political leadership and participation , law , religion , and medicine . Anthropologists study how people move through these realms in their everyday lives . They explore how identities and possibilities are shaped by the structures of gender as well as how people struggle against and sometimes transform expectations . Cultural anthropologists who study women in patriarchal cultures highlight the diversity of womens experiences and their various techniques of asserting their interests in circumstances . In her study of the problem of among women in , Allison Heller ( 2019 ) explores how women navigate realms as they cope with a debilitating reproductive problem . Obstetric is a complication of childbirth in which tissues separating the bladder from the vagina are ruptured , often resulting in chronic incontinence ( uncontrolled urination ) Often the result of prolonged or obstructed labor , disproportionately affects women in rural and poor communities , who frequently give birth without professional medical assistance . The incontinence , pain , and reproductive complications of stigmatize many of the women who have this condition . A host of global aid and relief agencies depict such women as victims of , rejected by their husbands and ostracized by their communities . Heller ethnography complicates this simplistic picture . In her interviews with women affected by , Heller discovered that family structures and relationships profoundly shape women experiences of and the treatments available to them . In social and medical crisis , these women turn to their mothers for support and advocacy . Mothers may insist that their daughters be brought to the hospital in cases of complicated labor , thereby preventing or mitigating the severity of . Mothers may also act as intermediaries between women and their relatives and neighbors , working to reduce the stigma and promote sympathy and acceptance . Heller also found that marriage conditioned a woman experience of . Whether her marriage was arranged or a marriage for love , a woman whose family supported her marriage was more likely to receive extended family support . Women who had strong relationships with their husbands were far less likely to be rejected by them after developing . Heller also followed women into the specialized clinics devoted to care and surgical remediation . In what seems like a very unfair process , women with mild are often the first to receive surgery , due to the increased likelihood of positive outcomes . Women with severe may wait for months for their surgery and then undergo several surgeries . The longer the women waited , the more likely their support networks were to wear thin or break down . Contemporary anthropologists of gender study women experiences of migration , genocide , religious practice , and media , among many other topics . As mentioned earlier , a growing number of studies also focus on the social construction of masculinity , exploring how men interact with the expectations of their sociocultural . It is tempting to assume that men uniformly from systems of male privilege , with particular accruing to elite men . Researchers who study masculinity in settings have complicated this view . Cultural anthropologist Daniel Jordan Smith studied the challenges of enacting masculinity in communities of southeast . In his book , provocatively titled To Be a Man Is Not a ( 2017 ) Smith demonstrates how gender is not simply ascribed at birth but presented as a lifelong project that men must constantly work to achieve . The struggle for masculine identity begins in childhood and in secondary school as boys learn to love women and money ( 2017 , 30 ) As rural boys are often sent to towns and cities for schooling , the transition from boyhood to manhood frequently involves mastering strategies of urban survival , such as finding ways of making money to pay for consumer items that boost their prestige among peers and enable their romantic relationships . After schooling , a young man is expected to marry and

become a father as well as his role in larger extended family structures . In his senior years , a man is expected to bury his own father with a spectacular funeral . Men learn these roles largely through their relationships with other men who counsel them as friends and mentors . Central to the achievement of Nigerian manhood is money . The central markers of adult manhood all require substantial resources . Without money , a man can not pay bride wealth to marry or provide for his children . In adulthood , men are expected to accumulate wealth through successful careers and business activities and then use their resources to support their families as well as expanding networks of dependents . Elite men who achieve these milestones later struggle to build and maintain impressive family houses , send their dependents to expensive schools , clothe their wives in fashions , and sponsor lavish weddings and funerals . As these examples illustrate , the cultural anthropology of gender considers the situations people face as persons and how they draw from available resources and relationships to their roles and sometimes challenge expectations . Sexuality and Queer Anthropology LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain how sexuality is threaded through the life cycle and various realms of culture . Describe the prevalence of relationships in heteronormative societies . the concept and practices related to ritualized sexuality . Give two examples of transgender roles in heteronormative . Intersecting with gender , the anthropological study of sexuality explores the diversity of meanings , practices , relationships , and experiences associated with erotic interactions . Since the , the study of sexuality in anthropology has into the dynamic of queer anthropology . Anthropologists working in this focus on areas of sociocultural activity distinguished from the presumed norms of heterosexuality and binary gender identities ( Howe 2015 ) Early Anthropological Studies of Sexuality Cultural anthropologists have long been fascinated with sexuality . In his ethnography of sexual practices among the , 1929 ) sexuality as a central concern threaded throughout the sociocultural realms of everyday life . Of central importance to marriage , kinship , and gender relations , sexuality also pervades art , religion , medicine , economics , and even politics in culture . charts the sexual life stages of , starting with sexualized games in childhood and continuing with adolescent crushes and expeditions by groups of teenage boys or girls to nearby villages in search of amorous adventures . He describes the selection of marriage partners and the frequency of extramarital sexual relations among men . Throughout his analysis , emphasizes that all societies must regulate the primal sexual impulse . In this functional view , sexual norms and rules function to maintain order and protect the institutions of marriage and kinship . Like ( and writing in the same time period ) Margaret Mead plots the sexual life stages of women and men in Samoan culture in her most famous book , Coming in ( 1928 ) Unlike , however , she emphasizes differences between the processes of sexual socialization in and the United States . Focusing on girls and women , Mead argues that Samoan culture had a more relaxed and open attitude toward sexuality . Throughout childhood , girls often witnessed the bodily realities of childbirth , menstruation , copulation , and death . In adolescence , both boys and girls were expected to experiment with romantic and sexual relationships . Free from the repression and strict sexual discipline of culture , Samoans experienced adolescence as not a time of crisis but rather a golden era of freedom and adventure .

Sexuality and Queer Anthropology FIGURE Three young Samoan women , circa 1890 . In her most famous book , Coming in , Margaret Mead explored the sexual life stages of women and men in Samoan culture . She found that adolescence was experienced as a golden age of romantic and sexual freedom . credit My Trip to ( 1911 ) Samoan Girls Making Ava 1909 by Commons , Public Domain ) Shaped by the feminist movement , more contemporary approaches to gender roles and sexuality highlight structures of power in erotic relations between women and men . Over the past few decades , many Americans lave become increasingly concerned about the prevalence of sexual assault on college campuses . Forms of sexual intimidation and violence can happen in many campus , including and classrooms as well as student events and parties . An online survey conducted by researchers at the University of Oregon ound that students in Greek life ( fraternities and sororities ) experience sexual contact more than three times as often as other students ( Barnes et al . 2021 ) Anthropologist Peggy Reeves ( 1990 ) conducted ethnographic research on fraternity culture , focusing on how some young men in American engage in violent assault and criminal coercion against young women . describes how men used their privileged access to alcohol and party venues to lure insecure young women to where they were plied with alcohol , sometimes drugged , and then sexually assaulted by one or more members . argues that fraternity culture is often permeated with forms of verbal and physical aggression against women . Not to fraternities , the problem of sexual assault on campuses across the States has prompted many universities to develop consent awareness training sessions , sexual assault response teams , and survivor support programs . and Queer Studies hough they may be provocative and enlightening , anthropological studies of heterosexuality are still focused on mainstream gender categories and norms . Even more challenging to traditional Western sensibilities are studies , first emerging in the and , that demonstrate the prevalence of erotic interactions in cultures all over the world . A contemporary of and Mead , renowned British anthropologist spent his early career studying social organization and witchcraft among two different African groups , the and the . Later in his career , began thinking about the many stories he had heard in the course of his years studying African societies , particularly stories describing the prevalence of erotic practices in society in times . In an article on the topic , he describes how unmarried adult warrior men , unable to marry due to the scarcity of marriageable women and forbidden to engage in adultery with other men wives , often took younger men as sexual partners or wives ( 1970 ) The warrior paid bride wealth to the parents of the younger man and performed services to the young man as he would have to the natal family of a female wife . The partners took on the roles of husband and wife , and the younger men referred to themselves as women . As the did not approve of anal sex , male partners had sex between the thighs is , the older man penetrating between the thigh gap of the younger one . 389

Like the men , women also commonly engaged in practices and relationships . In culture , men were permitted to have more than one wife ( a form of marriage called polygyny , as you will recall from Forming Family through Kinship . A husband took turns sleeping with each of his wives . In a family of several wives , then , a woman would wind up sleeping alone many nights . If she had married a royal husband with several hundred wives , she might have sex with her husband only a few times in her entire married life . men and women told that lonely wives would often get together at night , cut a sweet potato or manioc root into the shape of a penis , and tie it around the waist of one of the women . With this vegetable phallus , they took turns penetrating each other . Women could also formalize a relationship in public , widely considered by men to be a cover for relations . Unlike relationships , however , women erotic practices were discouraged . Sexual practices between senior and junior men have been found in many cultures , sparking controversies over questions of consent and child abuse . Studying a New Guinea group he called the ( a pseudonym ) anthropologist Gilbert ( 1984 ) described initiation rituals in which teenage boys were ex to fellate older male mentors in order to absorb the male essence that would make them into fully socialized men . termed this practice though some have argued with the application of Western categories of sexuality to describe such symbolically complex ritual practices . some practices are ritualized , others are more informal and less public . Some cultures construct practices as a phase associated with adolescent experimentation and tutelage . As in many parts of contemporary Africa , girls in boarding schools in are known to experiment with re . In , it called ( possibly short for supervisor or superintendent ) In boarding high , a senior girl might take ajunior girl as a special friend ( 2009 and 2020 ) Some of these bonds are fairly casual . The junior girl runs errands for the senior girl , such as fetching water or food . The senior girl provides protection and help to the junior girl ( such schools could be full of di , including supply shortages and bullying ) Some relationships can become emotionally and physically intense . The two girls often exchange gifts , write each other love letters , and fondle and caress one another . They might shower together or share a bed . is not limited to a special category of girls ( lesbians ) but has been widespread among schoolgirls , nearly all of whom eventually marry men and fu their conventional roles as wives and mothers . In the past two decades , evangelical Christianity in has branded relationships as evils to be rooted out through ceremonies resembling exorcism . While is an ambiguous practice , sometimes involving sexuality and sometimes not , it has been stigmatized by evangelicals in . have written stories about wealthy women who snatch away young wives , referring to lesbian relationships as . Lurid popular such as Women in Love ( 1996 ) and The Real Woman to Woman ( 1996 ) both sensationalize and condemn women practices , associating them with a secret cult of mermaid worship called Mami . Many anthropological studies describe practices in societies that otherwise strongly value heterosexual marriage and fertility . In such , sexuality is not so much an identity as it is a ritual , life stage , coping technique , or form . Though sometimes shielded from public view , relations are seen as complementary to heterosexual relations in some cultural , fully compatible with conventional demands for heterosexual marriage and family life . In his research on gender and sexuality in , for instance , Roger Lancaster ( 1992 ) found that conventionally masculine men could maintain their essentially heterosexual identities if they took the active , penetrative role in encounters . With the progress of the movement originating in the United States and western Europe , people around the world who engage in and transgender practices have formed public identities and communities , calling for the acceptance and legal recognition of their relationships . Rather than indulging in pleasures as a substitute for the real thing or as something done on the side , American gay and lesbian communities recast their own practices as the real thing , a set and relationships central to their whole way of life . This assertion has profound implications for notions of family and community . If heterosexual marriage and reproduction form the foundation of kinship systems based on the idea of biological descent , then relationships suggest new forms of kinship based on networks and shared values . In Families We Choose ( 1991 ) anthropologist Kath Weston explores how lesbian and gay families in the

San Francisco Bay Area constructed family networks that both and challenged mainstream notions of family . FIGURE Boston Pride Parade , 2007 . people around the world have publicly advocated for the acceptance and legal recognition of their relationships . credit Children in Wagon ( Part ) by , BY ) SE PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Esther Newton , Personal History Esther Newton ( was born the child of an unmarried Protestant mother and an absent Jewish father . After she was born , she and her mother were ostracized from her mother genteel family . Her mother later remarried . Growing up in the , heteronormative and , Esther gender norms at an early age , becoming an , a girl ( Newton 2018 , 60 ) She was bullied for her unconventional dress and behavior . As a young woman , she wore men clothes , smoked Lucky Strike cigarettes , and dated lesbian women . Thus , before she even came out as a lesbian , Newton constructed her butch the identity that had ever made sense out of my body situation , the rendition of gender that ever rang true , the look I could ever pull together ( 92 ) For her undergraduate studies , Newton attended the University of Michigan , where she earned her BA with distinction in history . In Margaret Mead Made Me Gay ( 2000 ) Newton describes her reaction to reading the work of anthropologist Margaret Mead as a college student . Mead relativistic portrayal of the of gender categories gave Newton consolation and ignited her interest in anthropology . She went to the University of Chicago to study anthropology at the graduate level with kinship scholar David Schneider Area For her dissertation , Newton conducted among men who dressed as women in the American Midwest . Entitled The Drag Queens A Study in Urban Anthropology ( 1968 ) this work described the experiences , challenges , and culture of American men in a variety of theatrical and everyday settings . Her research on this topic was later published in her book Mother Camp Female Impersonators in America ( 1972 ) the major anthropological study of a gay or lesbian community in the United States . In spite of its initially lukewarm reception , the book has since become a classic in studies . Accomplishments in the Field Hired in 1971 , Newton was a founding faculty member of the State University

of New York at Purchase , also known as Purchase College . She helped establish the disciplines of anthropology , women studies , and studies there . Newton taught at Purchase until 2006 and is now a professor . Importance of Her Work In her memoir , Butch Career ( 11 ' 2018 ) Newton tells the story of the half of her life , highlighting the challenges facing her generation of class lesbians . She describes the of pursuing higher education and building a professional career , including the impossibility of coming out even as she studied and wrote about lesbian , gay , and gender nonconforming communities in American society in the . Esther Newton work has been translated into French , Spanish , Hebrew , Polish , and . She is the subject of the documentary Esther Newton Made Me Gay , currently in production , which has a trailer available to view ( In an interview , Newton commented , Its been fun being a star ( 2019 ) Studies research on marriage among the provided an example of young men who were socially constructed as women through their wifely role in these marriages . Across the continent , in West Africa , women in society could be ritually transformed into men and then engage in marriages as husbands . In Male Daughters and Female Husbands ( 1987 ) describes how a father with no sons could make his eldest daughter into an honorary son who could inherit and carry on the . This woman became a male If she were married , she would return to her natal compound to undergo a ceremony that transferred her into the social category of male . She would then wear men clothes , live in the male section of the compound , perform men work rather than women , and participate in community life as a man . She could marry women who then became her wives ( thus becoming a female husband ) Those wives would have discreet liaisons with men in the area in order to bear children , who would belong to the lineage of the female husband . It was also possible for women who became wealthy and powerful in their communities to take a title through ritual means that allowed them to take wives of their own , just as male daughters could . Even if she were married herself , a powerful woman could have wives to do most or all of her domestic work . Did these powerful women have sexual relations with their wives ?

Anthropologists just do know . describes about sex between women in such marriages , but nobody knows how common it might have been . Building on this earlier research , a fresh area of inquiry has developed in anthropology centered on the experiences , identities , and practices of transgender and persons and communities . Transgender describes a person who transitions from a gender category ascribed at birth to a chosen gender identity . Gender describes a person who rejects strict male and female gender categories in favor ofa more and contextual expression of gender . Cultural anthropologists have described a great diversity in the expression of trans identities , pointing to the prevalence of transgender practices the world over . Taking an innovative approach , anthropologist Marcia ( 2014 ) devised a research project on spectacular femininity in Venezuela by examining two communities female beauty pageant contestants and transgender sex workers who also hold beauty pageants . traces the emergence of the beauty pageant in Venezuela and this ritual competition as a carrier of notions of modernity and nationhood . She explores the competition women , or misses , in the Miss Venezuela pageant as well as the local and regional beauty pageants for , gay Venezuelans who identify as women . The stylized performances of carry over into their displays on in central , the neighborhood where they conduct their trade as sex workers . In order to compete in these realms of spectacular femininity , both misses and undergo painful surgical procedures to make their bodies conform to an exaggerated ideal of femininity .

! Ii FIGURE , Pamela , Miss winner , 2007 ( left ) transgender women at Trans Pride 2007 in Washington , right ) A fresh area of anthropological inquiry explores the experiences , identities , and practices of transgender and persons and communities . credit left , Silvio Commons , BY right , Transgender Pride 2007 by , BY ) work is in its ability to bring together concepts often explored separately or held in opposition heterosexuality and , gender and sexuality , and cis and trans identities ( describes gender identity constructed on the sex assigned at birth ) misses and , she shows how these seemingly disparate concepts are threaded together in the complex web of Venezuelan culture . The End of Gender ?

In cultures that are strongly heteronormative with rigid systems , some people feel restricted in their gender identities and sexual practices . In many countries , efforts to create more in the expression of gender and sexuality have focused on gaining equal rights for and combating discrimination against women and persons . In the past 50 years , this social movement has achieved great strides at national and global levels . In 2011 , the United Nations Human Rights Council passed a resolution recognizing rights . The United Nations subsequently urged all countries to pass laws to protect persons from discrimination , hate crimes , and the of . sex marriage has now been legalized in 29 countries , including the United States , Canada , Mexico , and most of western Europe . In many countries , however , acts and gender nonconformity are still criminalized , sometimes punishable by death . Where progress has been made on human rights for persons , these changes have made life much easier for many people , allowing them to feel secure in their families , theirjobs , and their public lives . Some activists are concerned that such legal reforms do not go far enough , however . Gender and sexuality are not just legal issues they are cultural issues as well . The strict heterosexual scheme common to European and American cultures is a system infused with patriarchal values , expressed in patriarchal practices and institutions . That is to say , inequality is built into the heteronormative system of gender . In order to achieve true freedom and full equality , is it necessary to get rid of categories of gender and sexuality altogether ?

Are gender categories inherently oppressive ?

Some people think so , arguing that society should transition to more forms of language and social relations . In the United States , a movement is underway to neutralize gender in everyday language . Whereas masculine pronouns ( were previously the default way of referring to hypothetical persons or situations where gender is not , followed by a movement toward specifying both masculine and feminine pronouns ( he or or her ) new conventions call for the use of plural forms ( them ) as singular pronouns instead , particularly to include people who identify as neither man nor woman .

For example , instead of saying , Every person should wash his hands or Every person should wash his hands , one might say , Every person should wash their lands . Notably , this is already an accepted feature of everyday English that people commonly use without thinking about if a housemate tells you , Someone left a message for you , you more likely to respond with did theywant ?

than with What did ?

or What did he or she want ?

Moreover , a convention is evolving that allows people to specify the pronouns they would prefer , either ( or neutral ( other ) Will changes in pronoun usage bring about greater free om and equality in patriarchal societies ?

Maybe . Many languages have pronouns , such as , a West African language of the Akan peoples in central . However , though matrilineal , the are also . And gender is a very fundamental aspect of identity in Akan societies , structuring norms of dress , language , behavior , and relationships throughout a person life . In other words , pronouns do not bear much relationship to the organization of gender in culture and social institutions . In the United States , the English pronoun system might change to be gender neutral , but women and people will still inhabit those cultural categories . Those categories will not just disappear Previous discussions of racial categories have the fact that race is not a set of biological categories objectively found in nature . Rather , race , like gender , is constructed . Even so , it is naive to pretend that race does not exist as a social reality that structures inequality in many societies . As discussed in , Social , when people try to be color blind , ignore the sociocultural reality of race and make it more to recognize and racial inequalities . Similarly , the fact that gender is a social construct does not mean that people can easily transition to a society . Scholars of gender and sexuality argue that American society still grants forms of authority and privilege to heterosexual men through the cultural norms pervading public and private life . Asserting a gender blind perspective may obscure forms of inequality and violence that operate through gender and sexuality . Race and gender are both powerful sociocultural categories embedded in social practices and institutions . Anthropology encourages recognition of the diversity and complexity of those constructed categories alongside acknowledgment of the real histories of and struggle . Perhaps changes in pronoun use are just the beginning of more changes to come . ACTIVITY Consider your own body . What do you do to your body on a daily or weekly basis ?

Why ?

For two nonconsecutive days , make careful note of all of the routine practices devoted to your body ( including hygiene , dress , exercise , Are these practices shaped by notions of gender ?

Of sex or sexuality ?

Do these practices shape the way you think of your body as ?

Do they the way you present yourself in social situations ?

Do you think they the way others interact with you ?

Consider how other people respond to and interact with your body ( or refuse to interact with it ) How are these interactions shaped by cultural notions of gender and sexuality ?

Are there notions of power embedded in these bodily practices ?

Patriarchy ?

Feminism ?

Suggested Readings di Leonardo , ed . 1991 . Gender at the Crossroads in the Postmodern Era . Berkeley University of California Press . Newton , Esther . 2000 . Margaret Mead Made Me Gay Personal Essays , Public Ideas . Duke University Press . Stryker , Susan , and Stephen Whittle , ed . 2006 . The Transgender Studies Reader . New York .

Key Terms asexual not engaging in sexual thoughts or activities . bisexual engaging in sexual thoughts or activities involving persons of one own category as well as a different category ( or multiple other such categories ) essentialism a sense that some trait is so profoundly deep and consequential that it creates a common identity for everyone who has that trait . gay people whose enduring physical , romantic , or emotional attractions are to people of the same sex or gender usually refers to men who are attracted to other men , but may include women who are attracted to other women . gender a set of cultural identities , expressions and roles that are assigned to people , often based upon the interpretation of their bodies , and in some cases , their sexual and reproductive anatomy . gender ideology a coordinated set of ideas about gender categories , relations , behaviors , norms , and ideals . gender rejecting strict male and female gender categories in favor of a more and contextual expression of gender . the notion that heterosexuality is the most natural and normal form of sexuality . heterosexual engaging in sexual thoughts or activities involving persons of a different gender category . the recognition that gender , race , class , ethnicity , age , sexuality , and physical ability all intersect to make the experiences ofa person in any category diverse and complex intersex born with differences in sex characteristics or chromosomes that do not fall within typical conceptions of male or female . lesbian a woman whose enduring physical , romantic , emotional attraction is to other women . matriarchy a hypothetical gender ideology that positions women as rulers and public Summary Gender and sexuality are complex and highly variable aspects of culture . Examining evidence from primates and humans as well as the archaeological record , anthropologists have concluded that humans are highly variable , capable life . multiple gender a gender system that goes beyond male and female , adding one or more other categories . pansexual engaging in sexual thoughts or activities with others without regard to biological sex , gender identity , or sexual orientation . Pansexual people may refer to themselves as , meaning that sex and gender are not determining factors in their erotic relations . patriarchy a widespread gender ideology that positions men as rulers of private and public life . queer originally a pejorative term in American culture for people who did not conform to the rigid norms of heterosexuality now used as a term of pride among many members of the community to highlight the , constantly changing , and contextual nature of gender and sexuality . queer anthropology a of anthropology that focuses on areas of sociocultural activity distinguished from the presumed norms of heterosexuality and gender identities . sex biological categories of male , female , and intersex . sexual dimorphism a size difference between males and females of a species . sexual orientation sociocultural identities associated with forms of sexuality . sexuality erotic thoughts , desires , and practices and the sociocultural identities associated with them . a of biology that attempts to explain human behavior by considering evolutionary processes . variant female a category of persons who are ascribed female at birth but adopt a masculine identity later on . variant gender a category of gender other than male or female . variant male a category of persons who are ascribed male at birth but adopt a feminine identity later on . of many expressions of gender and sexuality . Cultural anthropologists describe how notions of femininity and masculinity are embedded in institutions and performed by people in their everyday practices . A growing area of research

considers the experiences of intersex persons as well as efforts by parents and doctors to assign gender in ambiguous situations . Many cultures allow for greater beyond the dichotomy of male and female , providing alternative forms of masculinity and femininity for people who wish to transition out of their assigned categories . The study of gender and sexuality also shows how power operates among the categories of gender , particularly through forms of gender ideology such Critical Thinking Questions . How would your life be different ifyou had been ascribed a different gender category at birth ?

Would your parents , siblings , and other relatives have treated you differently ?

Would your experiences in school have been different ?

Would you be the same person ?

How did you learn to perform your assigned gender role ?

What lessons were explicitly taught , and what did you learn through observation and experience ?

Who taught you ?

Have you ever felt as though you were failing to successfully perform your gender role ?

What would life be like in a matriarchal society ?

How might family life be different ?

How would government and religion be different ?

What values might be emphasized ?

Why do you think so ?

Do all men from patriarchy ?

How might men be limited or harmed by patriarchal beliefs and practices ?

Do some women from patriarchy ?

How so ?

Do you live in a heteronormative culture ?

How Bibliography as patriarchy . Like gender , human sexuality is a highly aspect of culture , expressed in a broad range of practices and institutions . Anthropologists have discovered that practices are quite common even in heteronormative . Recent anthropological research illustrates how gender ideologies shape the identities and experiences of people in communities practicing different forms of sexuality . can you tell ?

Are things changing ?

What sex practices and relationships might have existed in the past in your culture ?

What does the prevalence of transgender practices in many cultures tell us about human gender and sexuality ?

Do you think that your gender identity and sexual orientation are , or might they change throughout your lifetime ?

In your society , do men and women live in different ?

In what are women and men segregated , either formally or informally ?

What forms of social interaction and bonding occur in those situations ?

What might be the function of the found in many societies ?

Would it be possible to entirely eliminate the concept of gender in your society ?

What might be the advantages and disadvantages of a gender free society ?

How would the ideologies and practices of sexuality be transformed by such a change ?

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NORA Nordic Journal and Gender Research 17 ( 08038740903117208 . 1970 . Sexual Inversion among the American Anthropologist 72 ( Anne . 1992 . Myths Biological Theories about Women and Men . ed . New York Basic Books . Anne . 2000 . Sexing the Body Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality New York Basic Books . Anne . 2001 . A Conversation with Anne Exploring What Makes Us Male or Interview by Claudia . New York Times , January , Linda Marie , and Laurence . 1989 . Gender and the Study of In Gender and Anthropology Critical Reviews for Research and Teaching , edited by Sandra Morgen , Arlington , VA American Anthropological Association . Gibbons , Ann . 2012 . Bonobos Join Chimps as Closest Human Relatives . Science , June 13 , Gibbons , Ann . 2020 . Woman the Hunter Ancient Remains Challenge Old Ideas of Who Speared Big Game . Science , November , 1991 . The Civilization ofthe Goddess The World Europe . Edited by Joan Marler . San Francisco . Matthew 1997 . in Men The Anthropology of Annual Review of Anthropology . Angela , and . 2020 . Caught between Worlds Youth Views of Hybrid In Handbook Studies , edited by , New York . Heller , Alison . 2019 . Fistula Politics Birthing Injuries and the Quest for Continence in . New Brunswick , Rutgers University Press . Gilbert , ed . 1984 . Ritualized Homosexuality in . Berkeley University of California Press . Barry 1991 . Intimate Fathers The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care . Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press . Howe , Cymene . 2015 . Queer In International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences , edited by James Wright , New York . Lancaster , Roger 1992 . Life Is Hard Machismo , Danger , and the Intimacy of . Berkeley University of California Press . David . 2003 . Rereading Sex and Temperament Margaret Mead Triptych and Its Ethnographic Anthropological ( 1929 . The Sexual Life of Savages in An Ethnographic Account of Courtship , Marriage , and Family Life among the Natives of the Islands , British New Guinea . London George Sons . Frances , and Nancy Johnson Black . 2000 . Gender . Prospect Heights , IL Press . Mead , Margaret . 1928 . Coming in A Psychological Study of Primitive Youth for Western

Civilisation . New York Morrow . Mead , Margaret . 1935 . Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies . New York Morrow . Nanda , Serena . 2000 . Gender Diversity Variations . Prospect Heights , IL Press . Newton , Esther . 1972 . Mother Camp Female Impersonators in America . Cliffs , Newton , Esther . 2000 . Margaret Mead Made Me Gay Personal Essays , Public Ideas . Duke University Press . Newton , Esther . 2018 . Career A Memoir . Duke University Press . Newton , Esther . 2019 . Esther Newton Talks My Butch Career A October , 2019 , in Outtake Voices , hosted by Charlotte Robinson . Podcast . Marcia . 2014 . Queen for a Day , Beauty Queens , and the Performance of Venezuela . Duke University Press . Gul , ed . 2015 . Gender and Muslim Cultures . Michelle . 1974 . Woman , Culture , and Society A Theoretical Overview . In Woman , Culture , and Society , edited by Michelle and Louise , Stanford , CA Stanford University Press . Peggy Reeves . 1990 . Fraternity Gang Rape Sex , Brotherhood , and Privilege on Campus . New York New York University Press . Smith , Daniel Jordan . 2017 . To Be a Man Is Not a Masculinity , Money , and Intimacy in . Chicago University of Chicago Press . Ruth . Review of The Civilization of the Goddess The World of Old Europe , by , edited by Joan Marler . American Anthropologist 95 ( 2017 . Doctors Resort to Nonsensical Reasoning to Justify Surgeries on Intersex Children . July 29 , Weston , Kath . 1991 . Families We Choose Lesbians , Gays , Kinship . New York Columbia University Press . Adrienne 1997 . Natural History of Apes Features in Females and Males . In The Evolving Female A Life History Perspective , edited by Mary Ellen , Alison Galloway , and Adrienne , Princeton , Princeton University Press .