Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 10 The Global Impact of Human Migration

CHAPTER 10 The Global Impact of Human Figure Refugees are people who have been forced out of their homelands for various reasons . This is a camp in Haiti that arose after the 2010 earthquake . An estimated million people were displaced after this catastrophic event . credit Military Relief Efforts in Haiti After Devastating by Fred Baker Commons , Public Domain ) CHAPTER OUTLINE of the World Early Global Movements and Cultural Hybridity Peasantry and Urbanization Inequality along the Margins INTRODUCTION The word migration is likely to bring to mind a stereotype familiar to American culture people voluntarily coming into another country in search of work and other opportunities . Yet this is only one aspect of the meaning of migration as understood by anthropologists . Migration , put simply , is movement from one place to another that a household , either permanently or temporarily . Examples of migration include seasonal movements in search ofwork , temporary movements due to a crisis or local challenges , transnational movements from one nation to another , and even occasional moves from one household to another over a lifetime ( sometimes referred to as internal versus external migration ) Migrants , by extension , are simply people who move . Other than those relatively few people who are living in the same house they were born into , we are all migrants of one sort or another . Within this larger category of migrants , immigrants are individuals who move permanently from one country ( where they are referred to as emigrants ) to another country ( where they are called immigrants )

The human species , along with our ancestors , has practiced migration from our earliest origins . It is part of who we are . Most living species migrate in some way , but humans move more widely than other species and modify the landscape the most through their movements . Human migration impacts the world in innumerable ways . of the World LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Describe the early migration patterns of the genus Homo . Distinguish the primary controversies in the of America theories . Identify major sites in the United States . Early Migrations Human species were migratory from the beginning , moving as small populations of gatherers and hunters within eastern and southern Africa . By following game and the availability of seasonal vegetation from place to place , these small groups of nomads learned about their landscape , interacted with each other , and met their subsistence needs . Their daily needs came through interaction with a changing environment . With the emergence of Homo erectus around million years ( before the present ) expanded their territories and began to exhibit increasing control over their environment and an ability to adapt , evidenced by the development of new subsistence systems , including cultivation , pastoralism , and agriculture , and an upsurge in migration within Africa and , eventually , into Asia and Europe . This expansion into new geographical regions was a hallmark of the later human species . There are several theories on possible migratory sequences within and beyond the African continent . One possibility is that by million years ago , Homo had begun migrating out of Africa , moving northward into . Another theory argues that an earlier species , either australopithecine or an early species of the genus Homo , migrated out of Africa around million years ago , eventually evolving into the population who were settled in eastern Europe by million years ago , possibly representing another link between erectus and . Although settlement dates are currently being retested and reexamined for precision ( Matsu ura et al . 2020 ) it is known that between and million years ago , erectus settled on Java , an island that is now part of Indonesia . They likely traveled there by a land route , as seas were lower during the Ice Age ( approximately years ago ) allowing for more passage through interior coastal routes . For more on early human migrations , see The Genus Homo Homo and the of Us . Regardless of the time frame and migration pattern , it is well established that there was gene between various populations , which indicates that there were migration and exchange . With the migration of these early populations , cultural practices and improvements in toolmaking spread as well . Wherever humans traveled , they carried with them their traditions , intermingling and reproducing both physically and culturally . Controversies Surrounding the of the Americas Current evidence points to the emergence of the genus Homo in Africa . From these beginnings , human populations began moving toward the global north , east , and south in migratory waves . Motivations for these migrations included animal movements , overcrowding and resource scarcity , and , likely , curiosity and adventure . The movement into the Western Hemisphere , into North and South America , occurred later than migrations into Europe and Asia how much later is a question of enormous controversy today . How did the peoples make their way to the Americas ?

When did they arrive , and how did they migrate within these vast continents ?

The available evidence is inconclusive , leaving us with one of the biggest enigmas in human evolution . While there is some debate on whether earlier human species migrated into the Americas , the evidence we have today points to members of the species Homo sapiens being the earliest humans to do so . At this point , there is no evidence of any earlier species in either North or South America . The Western Hemisphere was wholly settled by migrants coming from other continents .

There are many theories regarding the human migration into the Western Hemisphere . Because of changing global climate conditions and the retreat of glaciers toward the end of the epoch , new lands opened to migrating animals and the humans who were likely hunting them ( et al . 2018 ) As always , because of limited and ambiguous artifact and fossil , the primary pieces of evidence are open to multiple interpretations . Upon examining the range of theories , two primary arguments are apparent . Both of these arguments are backed by supporting evidence , and both rely on migratory patterns of sapiens in the Americas that have been established . While both migration theories are valid , the question that remains open to argument is which came , coastal or interior migration ?

The interior route , also called the Bering Strait theory , is the and most accepted theory for the human migration into the Americas . The foundation of this theory is the land bridge , which connected northeast Siberia and what is now Alaska when sea levels were lower due to glacial ice formation on the continents . This theory proposes that the earliest human of the Americas crossed this marshy land on foot , most likely beginning around years ago based on artifacts and dating sequences . The land bridge was alternately exposed and submerged multiple times over the earth history . According to the interior route theory , the earliest humans crossed this marshy land in pursuit of migratory herds of mammals and then proceeded to southward , splitting into multiple groups , some ofwhich penetrated into the interior America as they continued to move east and south . Route Coastal Home A ' Ocean Pact a 500 Ocean Kilometers FIGURE The interior route theory argues that a northeastern Siberian population of hunters entered the Americas on foot from following migrating herds , while the coastal route theory argues that the earliest migrants followed fish and sea animals by boat along the coast of the Western Hemisphere . Although the precise date forthe earliest migrations is debated , it is estimated to be between and years ago . credit Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) The coastal route is also based on the migration ofa northeastern Siberian population into the Western Hemisphere , but by boat rather than on foot . This theory , sometimes called the kelp highway hypothesis , proposes that the earliest migratory populations followed the continental coastline southward , subsisting on kelp , birds , and sea mammals . Research by archaeologist Jon ( et al . 2007 Ocean Wise 2017 ) suggests that migrants may have followed these food sources all along the continental shelf , a shallow sea area near the shore . Some believe that they eventually reached as far south as Chile , in South America , before breaking into groups and penetrating the interior lands . Each theory presents its own probabilities and problems in relation to dating sequences and artifacts , and there were possibly multiple early routes for the the Americas . research does agree on some known facts , however . Genetic sequencing shows continuity between the earliest Americans and populations in northeastern Siberia that indicates the earliest inhabitants of the Americas arrived no more than years ago , making the Americas the most recent continental habitation ( outside of Antarctica ) Humans were already inhabiting Australia by the time other humans arrived in the Americas .

Archaeological sites in the Americas present fascinating evidence of early human migrations , with the dating sequences continually being retested and revised . Based on some of the early archaeological evidence , scientists had believed that the American inhabitants were part of what is known as the Clovis culture , with a projectile point used in hunting . As excavations have continued , though , there is growing indication of an extensive culture , evidenced by a technology based on gathering , hunting , and , with dates extending back further than years before present . Clovis projectile points are smaller , less standardized , and less worked ( indicating a less advanced tool production . Many sites are located below the Clovis period occupation . As archaeologists have continued excavations , the dates for earliest occupation continue to be pushed backward . FIGURE Clovis points from the Virginia Aquarium and Marine Science Center . Clovis points are long , shaped points that are bifacial , or flaked on both sides . credit Virginia Aquarium Marine Science Center Arrowheads Clovis Point Stone Tools by , BY ) Why so much debate about the settling of the Americas ?

There are various reasons for the in establishing settlement dates . The Bering land bridge was periodically exposed and submerged under water during periods of glacial growth and retreat . Using core samples obtained by drilling down into the shallow sea , archaeologists have found evidence of large mammals and even points ( hunting tools ) in and around the Aleutian Islands , through which the land bridge would have crossed . Establishing and cross checking dates , though , has been because most evidence is now submerged . This is a challenge also for the coastal route theory , as coastlines have receded since the end of the , and encampments would have likely been small , possibly temporary sites . Many sites are likely now submerged offshore ( 2020 ) Among the sites are the following Monte Verde Site , Chile . This is one of the most studied sites . An extensive array of artifacts has been found at Monte Verde , including hearths , wooden and stone tools , animal bones , and even human footprints . The dates assigned to these artifacts , as early as , put this site within the range of me Clovis dates seen in North America . Debra Site , Texas . This site has a dating sequence of to . A wide range of tools have been found here , including partially tools , blades , and . Cactus Hill Site , Virginia . A Clovis site has been at Cactus Hill , but below this level of artifacts , there is evidence of projectile points . Although controversial , these points have possible dating sequences of .

FIGURE A archaeological site in County , Virginia , in the United States ( credit Archaeological Site Entrance by Commons , Public Domain ) Based on this new evidence , scientists now agree that the Americas were settled by a population . How they arrived , when they arrived , what movements they made , and in what order they made them are major archaeological questions today . What we can conclude is that human populations continued to migrate after the Americas . Early Global Movements and Cultural Hybridity LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain the ways that globalization connects local populations through the phenomena of flows . Describe the roles that colonialism played in shifting populations between colonizing and colonized nations . Distinguish between , and cultural hybridity . Explain the contemporary forces of and forced migration . Colonialism and Migration as Global Forces The global movement that characterizes our current period in history is not preordained . The volatile and powerful nature of multinational cultural change and economic exploitation associated with this global movement is connected with historical forces . One of the most consequential early global forces was colonialism , an exploitative relationship between state societies in which one has political dominance over the other , primarily for economic advantage . Colonialism did not only affect the countries enmeshed in colonial relationships it also established world alliances and enduring social , political , and economic changes . Some scholars date the earliest emergence of colonialism to the of Mesopotamia in western Asia , an area occupied today by parts of Iran , Iraq , Turkey , Kuwait , and Syria . Evidence indicates that by around 3500 , the northern and southern regions were connected by exploitative trade relationships and intense and prolonged warfare . US archaeologists Guillermo and Clemens ( 2013 2007 ) in excavations at in ancient Mesopotamia , have unearthed trade goods that indicate a vast exchange network involving items such as pottery , jewelry , metalwork , and even wine . There is also a pattern of destruction and warfare at and , more recently , at Tell in Syria , which indicates the movement of populations as well as trade goods . Tell was a major site of obsidian tool and blade manufacture as early as 4500 , with raw materials coming from as far away as Turkey , some 100 miles to the north . At Tell , collapsed walls and a large number of penetrating clay bullets , likely delivered by slingshots , are some of the oldest known artifacts of organized warfare . The archaeological sites indicate that there was armed and that groups of people were moving between locations . The patterns of destruction across these various sites suggest that populations were most likely vying for control over resources and production sites , similar to associated with more modern colonialism , which also were

primarily characterized by a drive for political control based on access to raw materials and resources . After these early beginnings , colonialism spread , including the development of European and Mediterranean settlements in northern Africa . The Phoenicians , from what is now Lebanon , established the city of Carthage in what is now to facilitate and control trade throughout the Mediterranean area . Carthage remained an important hub for trade from its founding in the century until it was destroyed by the Roman Empire in 146 . In what is now Egypt , the Macedonian king Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria in 331 . Alexandria rapidly grew in economic and political because of its control over Mediterranean trade routes in the Greek confederation of , only Rome was more powerful . As colonizing nations consolidated their political and economic , they increasingly sought to expand their access to the natural resources and human labor of other societies . Colonial occupations were repeatedly marked by violence . By the end of the century , when Christopher Columbus began the of what would be four voyages ( to the New World , many of the nations of Europe were aggressively seeking new territories , establishing what is now called the Age of Discovery ( During this period , Spain , Portugal , the Netherlands , Belgium , France , Germany , and Great Britain all funded sea and land voyages to seek out new territories in order to expand their global . The European world order of developed and developing nations emerged from the colonialism begun during of the Age of Discovery . Across the globe , generations of Indigenous peoples contested European . Often fighting with less effective weaponry having little or no immunity to Old World diseases such as smallpox , measles , typhus , and cholera , which decimated their populations and balancing efforts to defend their homelands and families with the desperate need to maintain agricultural production to fend off famines , Indigenous people frequently migrated from one area to another , leaving behind land and crops . In the area , a group of Indigenous peoples , became nomadic to oppression . Declaring ownership and control over lands and people who had few effective means to challenge them , European nations quickly established colonies throughout North and South America , the Caribbean , Africa , and Asia . Politically , most colonies were beset with and periodic uprisings , such as the Great Rebellion of Tupac II from 1780 to 1783 in , Peru , during which peoples came very close to toppling the Spanish government after almost 250 years of oppression . During this period , there also emerged new sociocultural institutions and rituals blending colonizing and Indigenous cultures as aspects such as food and religious beliefs became entangled ( 2020 ) This blending is referred to as creolization . Culturally , the dismantling of Indigenous languages , religions , and other institutions continues to be devastating . Late European colonialism of the to the century , sometimes called classic colonialism , was a period in which the institutions of control and extraction were standardized , especially in Africa . This period of colonialism is characterized by very goals , policies , and attitudes . The colonial relationship was symbolically depicted as one of benevolence between the mother country and the colony , with people such as missionaries , colonial advisors , settlers , businesspeople , and teachers all working together to promote economic development and in the colony . The official for these practices was that European Christians had a White man burden to spread their civilization worldwide . Beneath this rhetoric , however , the goals were power and control . Colonialism was an extractive and exploitative economic venture with a social structure designed to dehumanize Indigenous peoples . Raw materials were extracted from the colonies using Indigenous labor and sent to European nations , where they were transformed into goods that were then sold back to the colony and its Indigenous peoples at an enormous for the Europeans . Indigenous cultures were severely damaged or destroyed . Frequently , Indigenous peoples were removed from their homelands and settled on reservations or within territories that were of less use to the Europeans , freeing up large swaths of land for European immigrants . Many young Indigenous people , handpicked for their skills and aptitude , were sent to European countries to be educated and as future leaders in the colonies . The intention of this preparatory system was to disrupt the of Indigenous cultures and create enduring institutions within the colonies . It also served to divide the Indigenous populations , further weakening them . In other cases , Indigenous peoples were bought , sold , and traded as commodities , moving them away from their languages , cultures , and families . From the to the century , it is estimated that between 10 and 12 million Africans were enslaved and transported from

Africa to the Americas in the transatlantic slave trade . The massive scale of this forced migration changed the world ethnically , culturally , linguistically , and economically . Untold millions died in the enslavement process , fracturing families , communities , and societies . While the movement and mixing of so many different peoples resulted in expansive cultural innovation in areas such as languages , foods , religions , and rituals , the cost of this massive displacement in human lives and human potential was incalculably high , leaving scars and challenges that continue today . These policies , of removing peoples from their homelands and of sending young people far from home for schooling and , are just two examples of the ways in which colonialism forced people onto new lands and into new cultures . As colonies grew into empires , with many different nations under the control of a single European as Great Britain , which had colonies in places as far apart as Kenya , Australia , and was a global movement ofpeople and cultures across continents . Colonization also affected those living in European countries , contemporary identities in many ways . The area of Poland was partitioned several times by neighboring and was colonized by both Germany and Russia during World War II and its aftermath . In this eastern European nation , the impacts of migration and change continue to affect the way Poland sees itself today . The various movements and cultures have left Poland uneasy with its own history and national identity . In her research on museums in Poland , sociocultural anthropologist and curator Erica ( 2020 ) studies the contested narratives within the legacies of collecting , categorizing , and displaying objects in postcolonial countries where prior migrations have changed the nature of national identity . FIGURE The Museum of the History of Polish Jews opened in Warsaw , Poland , in 2005 . It focuses on Jewish history in Poland , with a mission of promoting openness , tolerance , and truth . credit by Fred , BY ) In its history , Poland has been both the colonizing nation ( in regard to neighboring states in eastern Europe ) and the colonized ( in regard to its long history as a colony of Russia and its later occupation during World War II ) Depleted by wars , territorial shifts , and genocide , Poland contemporary population is far more homogeneous by race , class , and religion than it was prior to World War 11 . Museum depictions of Poland culture and national identity have created a host ofwhat calls awkward objects ( 2020 , 290 ) that hark back to earlier , and sometimes darker , historical periods . These include museums objects made by Poles representing their memory and imagination of Jews in the War II era , some depicting ambiguous racial stereotypes , as well as hybrid objects that could have been artifacts of either Jewish or Catholic communities but are depicted by object origin and associated with only one of those communities . One example is a collection of children , which were depicted in the museum as artifacts from a Catholic Polish community without noting that Jewish Polish children would have played with similar toys at that time . And how should a Polish cultural museum handle darker awkward artifacts , such as carvings ofa gas chamber at Auschwitz ?

The roles and responsibilities that contemporary societies have in telling these parts of their history are relevant to museums and cultural institutions around the globe .

Museums often house artifacts of colonialism . Think about cultural and historical museums that you have visited . How did they tell the story of the darker parts of history ?

Are certain historical periods overlooked or underdeveloped ?

calls for pluralist , meaning that museums should not just include the cultural origins of the object but also indicate how they were obtained and how they connect with other cultural communities . Citing a need for ethical curatorial principles , she says Strategic curatorial approaches can frame objects to function as a source of ethical inspiration and empathy , spurring people to acknowledge and address those histories that are unchosen by national or communal authorities . the museum here is not about restitution . These awkward objects are most valuable to us curated in ongoing , caring conversation wherever historical injuries still resonate , reminding us that we are tied together by our wounds . 307 , 311 ) Indigenous Identities , and Forced Migration Although colonialism as a direct policy is usually associated with earlier historical periods , it continues to have effects on the world today . The enduring relationships established by colonialism have left behind concentrations of capital and technology , wealth and privilege in the former colonizing countries , mainly in Europe , as well as inequality , racism , and violence in the relationships between these nations and their colonies . These of colonial relationships are referred to as . As independence movements began to take hold in the early century , former colonies found themselves depleted of resources and competing against European countries whose growth came from their own demise . Today , is a topic for anthropologists whose research focuses on the effects of colonialism , and , where race , gender , and class identities come together . One of the most prominent consequences of colonialism is the inequality between the developed countries and the developing or underdeveloped ones . Following World War II and the rise of a new world order , many political and economic theories began to distinguish between world countries , which had the highest ( gross domestic products ) based on the total value of all goods and services produced in a country , and those with the lowest , referred to as third world countries . The second world tier was typically reserved for those countries with a socialist or communist government . In this tiered and hierarchical system , the former were always within the top tier and their former colonies in the lowest ranks . Much of this inequality was due to the exploitation of resources and the brain drain migration of Indigenous peoples , in which the wealthiest and most educated members of Indigenous societies relocated to the former colonizing nation for education and employment , many leaving their homelands permanently . This out migration devastated many Indigenous families and enhanced the productive capacities of richer nations . Many former colonizing countries thus continued to exert over their former even after independence . This relationship of unequal is referred to as . Many Indigenous societies are involved in relationships ( meaning relationships that are structured to make one country dependent on another ) with the in which they live , a situation sometimes referred to as second colonialism ( Gandhi 2001 ) Indigenous groups continue to be uprooted , and sometimes forcibly removed , from their homelands and moved onto reservations , into model villages , or simply into urban areas . This type of forced migration , an involuntary or coerced removal from a homeland , can result in poverty , alienation , and loss of cultural identity . Native peoples in the United States have been subjected to repeated waves of forced migration since the arrival of Europeans . Many societies were forced to move multiple times as White settlers pushed them onto more western and less fertile lands . All of this forced dislocation has had cultural and economic consequences . As Native Americans Richard Meyers ( Lakota ) and Ernest Weston ( Sioux ) write Tragedies of many kinds are often all too common for many people who reside on our reservation . Endemic poverty creates endless problems for community members , from violent dog packs to pervasive alcoholism and diabetes . Dismal statistics paint our reservation as the Third World right here in the United States . The numbers are hard to pin down but always dreary Unemployment is sometimes listed as being as high as percent , and more than 90 percent of the population lives

below the federal poverty line . Meyers and Weston 2020 ) While many Indigenous peoples in Western nations face unique problems of Western historical paralysis , in which the the virtues of Indigenous people at a time in its history with little or no regard for contemporary Indigenous identities , some Indigenous peoples are adapting their cultural traditions to urban areas where they have been forced to migrate . In her study of Indigenous youth in the Brazilian state of Acre , Finnish anthropologist ( 2006 ) found a cultural revival of traditional puberty rituals for young adults . The are a lowland Amazonian people who traditionally practiced cultivation . Over the past century , their access to farmland has become increasingly limited , leaving them unable to make a living in the forest . Many young have migrated from their traditional homelands to live in urban areas among other lowland Amazonian Indigenous peoples . These sought to strengthen their cultural identity by reviving and adapting certain traditional rituals , such as the ayahuasca ceremony , in which pubescent boys ingest a hallucinogenic substance as a spiritual experience , and a menstruation ceremony in which girls are instructed by their elders on their new status as adults . Few remain on their ancestral homelands , and many of these cultural traditions were in danger of dying out . In Acre , the urban found that being an Indigenous person had social value with Westerners who appreciated traditional Indigenous cultures . Much of this growth in appreciation came as a result of the rapid decline of Indigenous cultures and populations and the increasing urbanization and alienation of people from rural environments . The younger generation of began to appreciate their traditional cultural roots and see the value of maintaining their cultural identity , rather than being lumped into a broad category of Indigenous persons , while living in an urban environment . By marking themselves as , they were able to leverage a higher social standing . This process of using identity as a way to gain status is an example of symbolic capital , or the use of resources to gain social prestige . Maintaining a Indigenous identity within Western is challenging , as the numbers of Indigenous peoples continue to decline and migration into urban areas creates a mixture of cultures that frequently results in the loss of traditional identities . Indigenous identity is complex and not monolithic , as cultural groups have distinct identities no single spokesperson can realistically represent all Indigenous people . Recently , activist movements have developed worldwide to increase the visibility and strengthen the voices of Indigenous peoples . These global movements of people and ideas make it possible for Indigenous people to form alliances for change . Globalization in Motion As the connections and interactions between communities , states , countries , and continents have , a global network of linked forces and institutions known as globalization has emerged . Unlike earlier worldwide movements , globalization tends to be , meaning it is not controlled by any particular or cultural group . Emerging from earlier worldwide historical movements pertaining to exploration , colonialism , and capitalism , globalization has exceeded them with its reach and has created a worldwide interdependence far more intense and transformative on a global scale than anything ever before seen in human history . It involves all aspects of our lives ( political , economic , social , and religious ) and it has no center or origin point . Changes and interactions occur within a dynamic and seemingly arbitrary field of connections among people , ideas , countries , and technologies . Globalization causes the movement of people , resources , and ideas in various ways . Not only do people migrate for work and travel , but they also share ideas and technology , resulting in cultures and populations that are no longer restricted and contained by geographical boundaries . These globalized cultures and networks have changed the way that anthropologists think about culture . Culture is no longer solely attached to a local place and community rather , it is diffuse and possibly widespread , due to the complicating forces of globalization . One of the early scholars of globalization is Indian American anthropologist Arjun . His research is grounded in the idea of a new global cultural economy that in multiple simultaneous of material goods , ideas , images , and people , reminding us that global movements and transformations affect every one , whether or not we actually change the nation or community in which we live . Within globalization , local and global communities are deeply intertwined in and dynamic relationships of mutual . These

sometimes lead to unpredictable outcomes . 1990 ) different global cultural , tagging each with the to call attention to the and multiple ways of viewing these the of new ideas and new ways of living created by the ongoing migration of tourists , immigrants , refugees , exiles , guest workers , or other cultures and borders . As just one example , the descendants of the Koreans who immigrated to Japan following World War II have established Korean schools and a Korean university in Japan . the worldwide movement of technology , both equipment and information , as well as the multinational origins and manufacturing process of technology along a global assembly line . One example is an iPhone , which has component parts and a manufacturing process that involves many different places . the movement of money and capital through currency markets , national stock exchanges , and commodity speculations . The funds of even the most local investors are intermingled and invested on the global market . the various types of media representations that the way we experience our world . These are , strips of reality ( 1990 , 299 ) diffused through digital media , magazines , television , and , introducing characters and plots across cultural settings and meanings . the and interaction of ideas and ideologies . describes as terminological ( 1990 , 301 ) in which words and ideas carrying political and ideological meanings are across cultures . In this process , their meanings become increasingly amorphous and obscured . One example is the political change that resulted from a reawakening of democratic movements in the Middle East in the , inspiring the Arab Spring , a series of protests and rebellions . protests in spilled over into Egypt , Libya , Yemen , Syria , and , toppling government leaders and triggering social violence . speaks of these as primary agencies and intersections within the global cultural economy in other words , each of these creates change through interactions with others . In this exchange of ideas , material goods , and persons , the interact , overlap , and contradict one another as cultures themselves come to be commodities produced and consumed by the global community . FIGURE Semiconductor chips are currently made in only a few countries . The United States imports these chips for use in automobiles , medical technology , and computers . In 2021 , facing a worldwide shortage of computer chips , President Joe pledged funding to support the creation of chip manufacturers in the United States . credit by , BY )

There are multiple perspectives for understanding globalization . It can be interpreted as an imperial force in which certain countries and cultures have dominance over others , with their images , capital , and ideas in the global marketplace . Indian anthropologist aptly says , The people earlier had been the creators and creatures of culture , but today the corporate bodies and media have emerged as the creators and carriers of cultural attributes ( 2007 , 94 ) Globalization can also be viewed as an community in which governments and corporations have lost the ability to control and isolate populations , ultimately allowing for more cultural diversity and equality . Globalization today transforms virtually everything about subject matter , the locales for research , its understanding of the concept of culture , and the goals that anthropologists bring to their work . Within this context of great change , anthropology is uniquely capable of making sense of this new global community and its rapidly shifting beliefs and behaviors . and Cultural Hybridity Migration impacts individuals and cultures in diverse ways . It prompts the dissemination and diffusion of cultural ideas and artifacts from one cultural context to another , the development of new cultural forms and practices , and hybridity , in which cultures intermingle in unpredictable ways . Cultural hybridity refers to the exchange and innovation of ideas and artifacts between cultures as a product of migration and globalization . It is a of different cultural elements resulting from the interactions of people and their ideas . While individuals and small groups convey their cultures as they migrate , the movement and dispersal of large ethnic groups can bring about far more rapid structural changes . This movement , which might be caused by warfare , institutionalized violence , or opportunities ( most commonly education and employment ) is called . Related to is , the construction of social , economic , and political networks that originate in one country and then cross or transcend boundaries . While and can both be related to migration , also refers to the cultural and political projects of a as it spreads globally ( 1995 ) One example of this is transnational corporations , which are anchored in one country with satellites and subsidiaries in others . communities typically have a sense of identity that has been shaped or transformed by the migration experience . They are characterized by cultural hybridity and often take these new cultural forms with them into their new homelands , generating cultural revival . The African resulting from the transatlantic slave trade brought a wide array of cultural elements to the United States , including new foods ( such as okra and yams ) new instruments and musical forms ( such as the drums , the banjo , and the development of African slave ) and new language ( words such as jazz , gumbo , and tilapia ) Besides the common experience of being formed through migration , communities share other characteristics . These include a collective memory about the ancestral homeland a social connection to the country of origin , typically through family still living there a strong identity as a distinct group and kinship with members in other countries ( Migration Data Relevant 2021 ) communities are inherently political ( 2001 ) as their movements connect in a variety of , socially , religiously , and politically . Some of the are the African that was driven by the transatlantic slave trade from the to the century , the Irish during Ireland Great Famine of the , and the Jewish , which began under the Roman Empire and continued through the establishment of Israel as a Jewish homeland in 1948 . Today , India is the source of the largest in history , with some 18 million Indians living outside of their country of origin . These mass movements , which are becoming more common as a result of globalization , affect cultures worldwide .

FIGURE An immigrant solidarity rally in , Minnesota , in 2017 . About people gathered to protest against President Trump immigration ban and the increasing militarization of the border . credit Solidarity March with Immigrants Refugees by Fibonacci Commons , BY ) American anthropologist and South Asian scholar has done in India and in US . immigrant communities exploring and postcolonial identities . In her research with Indian communities in the United States ( 2007 ) she focused on ways in which education could better connect with immigrant families , thus strengthening both . The percentage of children in the United States population who are immigrant children , as those who have at least one parent , increased by 51 percent between 1994 and 2017 ( Child Trends 2018 ) Immigrant families constitute a portion of the population within American schools today . Based on her research , argues that there needs to be a realignment in American education that better acknowledges immigrant identities . As an example of the urgency of this need , she cites the California textbook controversy , in which the Hindu American Foundation ( HAF ) sued the California State Board of Education for using social studies textbooks that contained what the HAF and many Indian parents deemed to be biased and discriminatory views of . advises that instead of presenting the migrant experience as fractured between voluntary and involuntary immigrants or focusing on between immigrants and other minorities ( such as racial minorities ) American educational pedagogy , curricula , and practices should present identity formation itself as one of the richest experiences of being a citizen . An educational approach that emphasizes immigrant identity , not as a hybrid of pieces and parts , but as a legitimate and practical way of functioning within a globalized world could better prepare all students in the United States for a future in which we focus on what links us together rather than what divides us . Peasantry and Urbanization LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Explain how industrialization and internal migration are connected to the creation of a peasant class . Articulate the characteristics of peasantry from an anthropological perspective . Describe cultural changes associated with internal migration . in Anthropology Peasants , a rural , agricultural class with limited , are the product of both urban development and migration . Prior to the emergence of capitalism and the industrial state , were the most populous class within state societies . The development of the industrial economy prompted an ongoing process of internal migration , the domestic movement ofpeople from rural to urban areas for economic opportunities , education , and employment . For many peasants , internal migration was used to meet immediate family needs , whether taking agricultural goods to urban may be weekly , monthly , or temporarily moving to work for cash at agricultural tasks for larger farms and companies . The coffee , sugar , and fruit industries , for example , absorbed many small , rural whose families needed money .

Cultural anthropologist Robert ( 1956 ) was one of the anthropologists to identify peasants as a distinct social group , referring to their local identity and culture as a little tradition ( 70 ) meaning a culture that is less and involves a changing mixture of customs based on oral traditions . He the primary characteristics of peasant cultures as attachment to the land from which they make a living , dependence on urban areas that control the value of their small surplus , and traditionalism in regard to social practices . Later studies built on these earlier ideas about peasantry . Eric Wolf ( 1966 ) referred to peasant groups as closed corporate communities ( 86 ) meaning communities that are more detached from urban centers and less prone to cultural changes as a result of migration . He also saw them as distinct from farmers in that they produce a more limited surplus and are involved in more asymmetrical ( exploitative ) market transactions . Instead of being simple subsistence farmers , peasants are aware of the wider capital markets and are directly affected by the value of their products , even though they have no power over these forces or control over the they earn . Sometimes , frustration over this sense of powerlessness leads to attempts to affect political change . In 1994 , on the same day that the North American Free Trade Agreement , or , came into effect between the United States , Mexico , and Canada , the rebellion broke out in , Mexico . This movement was led by Indigenous peasants who implicitly understood that the treaty , which made it possible for agricultural products to move among the United States , Mexico , and Canada without tariffs , meant that they could no longer sell their small agricultural surpluses for a living wage . Now , they would be competing with giant corporations that were able to local markets with cheaper products . As the reach of globalization continues to expand , connecting local communities ever more tightly with global forces , some scholars now speak of a class . This term is used to refer to rural who migrate to urban areas but retain many of the cultural attributes of their ancestral traditions . These might include a patriarchal family structure , a tendency to favor local traditions over global innovations , or a more conservative political outlook ( see 2008 ) Internal Migration Continuum Indian anthropologist Tame ( 2017 ) studied the push and pull phrase used to describe circumstances and forces that push migrants away from their homeland and pull them toward a new the internal migration of different hill tribes of Kurung , a district in the state of , India , to the foothills region of the neighboring district of Pare . Although there were several ethnic groups involved in this study , the majority of migrants to Pare are ethnically . The , the largest ethnic group in their district , are rural who raise paddy rice , supplemented with cucumbers and maize . Traditionally , they practiced polygyny and had large families with many children . study shows that the primary motivation for voluntary internal migration in this region is to access new economic opportunities , prompting people to move from more peripheral geographical areas to urban centers . Although the motivation for migration is primarily economic , these result in a series of cultural changes . On tribal lands in the hill country of Kurung , the most common form of subsistence is . This is a form of cultivation that requires families to practice a settlement pattern , moving occasionally when land resources are depleted . argues that this experience with periodic movement makes voluntary migration somewhat less disruptive to their lives . These are people who are accustomed to occasional . Recent internal migration to the urban area of Pare is motivated by various factors . A rise in local political instability , increasing , and a lack of employment opportunities for those seeking hard cash push many people , particularly young people , to migrate to the nearby urban area of Pare . People are also pulled by a range of employment opportunities in urban industries that are unavailable in Kurung , by relatives who have already migrated , and by increased access to educational and health facilities in the city .

FIGURE A man in , India . The are one of many people whose society has been deeply affected by migration from rural areas into urban centers . credit Tribal Man India by , BY ) As with any form of migration , culture change and adaptation have been a part of the migrant experience of the people of Kurung . Among the migrants , found a set of cultural shifts that are common in migration across cultures . One is an imbalance of generations , with older family members remaining in the rural hills while younger family members migrate to the city . Also evident is a change in family structure . Migrants establish urban households consisting ofjust the nuclear family instead of the larger extended family common in rural households , as larger families are now considered too costly to house and feed . Also typical of migration are myriad changes in regard to food , dress , language , and alcohol consumption . Traditional curry is cooked in bamboo tubes in the hills region , but migrants in the city no longer use bamboo and do not consume as much boiled food as their rural relatives . Instead , the urban diet is marked by fast food and the use of larger quantities of cooking oil . In addition , found higher alcohol consumption and addiction among the migrants . Migrants have also begun to abandon the traditional dress that marks them as a tribal and people and to use their own tribal languages less frequently , preferring the more commonly spoken Hindi and language of English . All of these changes are typical as individuals and groups move from rural to urban areas . Internal migration is the primary cause of the diminishment of cultural and linguistic diversity worldwide . Inequality along the Margins LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify contemporary types of migration . Describe the major migrant routes and some of the risks migrants face . Identify and give an example of circular migration . Describe the global impact of refugees . Give an example of a pandemic .

Contemporary Types of Migration Because of emerging global forces of all , economic , environmental , and has been a recent rise in migration within geographical regions and across countries . Four of the most common types of contemporary migration are listed below . Each derives from different causes and is associated with different push and pull factors ( 2019 ) In some situations , these types of migration may overlap , such as in the aftermath ofa natural disaster . Labor migration is the movement of people for the purpose economic stability . It may be an internal migration from one town to another within the same country of origin , or it may involve travel across countries in search of opportunities . In 2017 , the United Nations International Labour Organization estimated that there were 164 million labor migrants worldwide ( Global Migration Data Analysis Centre 2021 ) Forced migration or displacement , also called , is migration due to persecution , or violence and involves refugees and those seeking asylum . The UN Refugee Agency ( estimated that as of the end of 2019 , there were some million forced migrants or displaced persons worldwide . More than ( 68 percent ) of those displaced persons came countries Syria , Venezuela , Afghanistan , South , and ( 2020 ) One out of every 108 people was displaced in 2018 ( 2019 ) Forced labor , human trafficking , and modern slavery are a set of linked terms as the recruitment , transportation , transfer , harboring of persons by means of threat or use of force or coercion for the purpose of exploitation ( UN 2020 ) his includes sexual slavery and forced labor . As of 2016 , some 25 million people were involved in forced labor and some million in modern slavery worldwide , while an estimated million were in marriages ( While a large proportion of the victims are women , human involves men and children as well . The Counter Tra Data Collaborative ( estimates that nearly 80 percent of international human journeys pass through airports and other border control points . Environmental migration is displacement caused natural disasters , such as earthquakes , hurricanes , or droughts . It can be permanent or temporary and is a rapidly growing area of migration due to global climate change . In 2018 , million people were due to environmental conditions by 2019 , the number had risen to million ( Anthropologists who study migration are often in ethnographic research , exploring not only migrant populations but their communities of origin as well . Understanding the social and cultural attributes of communities of origin helps researchers gauge the level and types of adaptation caused by migration . Also , communities of origin typically remain part of migrants wider social networks and are vital to their and success . It is not uncommon for re and other members of the migrants home communities to follow them to their new settlements and reestablish a sense of community and a set of help networks there . This process of serial migration from the same community of origin is known as chain migration . Labor Migration and Migrant Routes While migration , in its widest sense , is any movement that a household , many migratory patterns are associated with socioeconomic need , mainly shifting employment opportunities . Labor migration can be permanent or circular . Circular migration is a repeated pattern of movement between locations , usually mapped to the availability of work . One type of circular migration is seasonal migration , which is migratory movement that coincides with seasonal labor needs , such as planting , harvesting , service , and construction work . Some seasonal workers migrate , with or without their families , for temporary , often work . Other seasonal workers have relationships with their employers and legal work permits ( also called Employment Authorization Documents , or , in the United States ) and will return to the same work sites year after year , sometimes maintaining ajoint household with other families at the work site . These individuals will often maintain a family household in their country of origin and send home , or transfers of money from workers to their home countries , usually for their families . Today , one in nine people worldwide depends on from migrants ( Global Migration Data Analysis Centre

2021 ) Many people migrate in search of work and a better life without legal permits or assurance . The made in search of opportunities can be with dangers , hardships , and even death . Some regions of the world have migrant trails , which are the routes of most worldwide migration . The most congested migration routes are the eastern Mediterranean route , with a of migrants from the Middle East and North Africa to Europe , crossing through Turkey the Mediterranean Sea route , with migration from the Middle East and North Africa to Europe , across the Mediterranean Sea the Southeast Asian route , with migrants primarily moving southward from the Asian mainland into Indonesia and Malaysia and the Central American route , which brings migrants from South and Central America into North America . These migrant trails have a huge impact on the social , political , and economic life of all of the countries that are a part of the route , bringing both and challenges . Those in the United States are most familiar with the Central American route , which begins as far south as South America and extends as far north as Canada . The most contested part of the trail , however , is the portion along the Rio Grande , the river that separates Mexico and the United States . In his remarkable study of undocumented migrants entering the United States across the border with Mexico , The Land Graves ( 2015 ) anthropologist Jason De Leon reveals a less visible side of undocumented migration . He describes a type of game between migrants and those attempting to stop them , resulting in widespread suffering and high human and costs . De Leon conducted a ethnography , doing research in various locations in both Mexico and the United States and consulting various groups along the migration route , including illegal migrants and border patrol agents as well as smuggling groups and drug .

PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Jason De FIGURE Anthropologist Jason De Leon ( credit Michael Wells , Undocumented Migration Project ) Personal History Jason De Leon is a anthropologist and American who grew up in several cities in the United States , including , Texas , near the border and Long Beach , California , where he graduated from Wilson High School . He earned his bachelor degree in anthropology from the University of California , Los Angeles and his master and doctoral degrees from Pennsylvania State University . His doctoral work focused on ancient tool production and trade in the Valley of Mexico . Area Although De Leon training includes a specialization in archaeology , his holistic research approach is , combining archaeology with ethnographic research , physical anthropology analyses , and linguistic anthropology . His work is in nature and , involving not just Mexico and the United States but also numerous other countries of migrant origin . His interests include undocumented migration , and human smuggling . He seeks out the stories not only of people , such as migrants and their families , smugglers , and border guards , but also of their material items they bring , wear , and use to survive their dangerous journeys . Accomplishments in the Field De Leon is the executive director of the Undocumented Migration Project ( UMP ) a organization founded in 2009 that focuses on the anthropological study of clandestine movements between Latin America and the United States . UMP sponsors an educational exhibit called Hostile Terrain 94 ( a participatory art project that displays the handwritten toe tags of some migrants who have died while trying to cross the Desert in the southwestern United States since the , showing the locations where each of the individuals died along . It is a poignant reminder of the many dangers of migration , both human and environmental . De Leon received the prestigious MacArthur Foundation Fellowship ( for his work on undocumented migrants . This award , given for talent , creativity , contribution to ones , and potential ,

allows scholars to focus on future research in an area of great importance . In addition , De Leon 2015 book , The Land of the Open Graves Living and Dying on the Migrant Trail , has received various awards and commendations . FIGURE Art on the Mexican side of the wall that divides the city of in Mexico from the United States . credit Wall Art in by Jonathan , BY ) Importance of Their Work Anthropologists often work in places and more geographically bounded settings . The research De Leon expands our understanding of the lives of those who migrate and the various ways that movement ties together people , places , and cultures . In his article On Not Looking Away , digital and multimedia advisor Skinner ( 2019 ) reports on the tragic deaths of Mexican migrants Oscar Martinez Ramirez and Angie Valeria , his daughter , both drowned and washed up on the shores of the Rio Grande . We are choosing to ignore this evidence of atrocity , to actively look away , Skinner writes . But De Leon is not looking away . Through his research , he is bringing to light the stories of those who migrate in search of hope and better lives . As global movements become more common because of political , economic , and environmental challenges , studies such as De Leon illustrate the growing importance of migration for our species . Since 1994 , the US Border Patrol has had a policy of prevention through deterrence that attempts to prevent undocumented migrants from reaching the border . Legal international in cities such as Tucson , Arizona , and El Paso , Texas , were heavily with fencing and additional patrol agents to make undocumented crossing exceptionally . As a result , migrant entry points shifted away from urban areas and into more hostile terrain , such as the Desert region of Arizona . While this has not lowered the frequency of these crossings , it has made thejourney much more dangerous and far less visible to residential populations and humanitarian groups . In addition to the threat of harsh and rugged landscapes , there are the dangers of extreme weather , dehydration , bandits , and even wild animals . De Leon concludes , The Border Patrol has intentionally set the stage so that other agents can do most of the brutal work ( 61 ) During his study , De Leon and his team located the body of , a woman originally from , Ecuador . She had left her family , including her children , in Ecuador in order to seek employment in the United States , hoping to send money home to them . She was in debt for more than , most of it to the trail guide ( called a coyote ) who was supposed to guide her on . Such trail guides often extort large sums of money from vulnerable migrants and then leave them to make their way alone . had made ajourney of more than miles from , Ecuador , all the way to the Desert in Arizona , when she died of exhaustion and exposure , technically having reached the United States . In the period between 2000 and 2014 , migrants were found dead in Arizona Desert , approximately 800 of whom remain today . In 2020 , there were an estimated 227 migrant deaths in the

graveyard , making it the deadliest year on record for that corridor trail ( Snow 2021 ) De Leon work continues today through a series of exhibitions and workshops entitled Hostile Terrain 94 . FIGURE Migrant routes ( left ) the border wall at , Arizona , in February 2019 and ( right ) an immigrant camp of asylum seekers in , Mexico , near , Texas , in January 2020 . credit ( left ) Border Wall and Concertina Wire by US Customs and Border Commons , Public Domain ( right ) Congressional Hispanic Caucus Visit to , Mexico 05 ' by Jimmy Commons , Public Domain ) This humanitarian crisis is far from being resolved . In 2020 , undocumented migrants were apprehended and expelled by the US . Border Patrol ( US Customs and Border Protection 2020 ) Immigrants , both documented and undocumented , make up a majority of the and meatpacking workforce in the United States today . Once employed , these immigrants , who are frequently separated from their families , face hazardous working conditions , language barriers , long hours , low pay , and substandard housing . Because of their legal status , many also struggle with inadequate access to health care and rising discrimination . anthropologist Snipes and her team ( Snipes et al . 2007 ) conducted focus group interviews among 69 male and female Mexican immigrant in the Valley of Washington State . They were particularly interested in the ways the and experienced stress . Their interviewees distinguished between physical and mental stressors and cited the most common causes of stress as work , personal illness , lack of work , family illness , and family stress . Snipes et al . noted that many stressors were linked by a common theme of inconsistent work and the ( injustice and unfairness ) of low pay and poor working conditions . One noted , Sometimes there are many people wanting to work in the . You complain about something like not having water , or the bathrooms being dirty , and they tell you right away , If you don like it go ajob somewhere else ( 366 ) Another common theme was the stress of living in a different culture . Several commented that cultural differences , such as language barriers , communication from schools regarding their children , or complaints from neighbors when they had rowdy family , contributed to their experience of stress . As this example shows , at the intersection of culture and migration , many factors affect an individual ability to adapt to new living conditions . Refugees Beyond the Refugees are persons who are forced to cross international boundaries to seek residence . Pushed out of their countries , most commonly because ofwar , famine , or persecution , they typically arrive under extreme circumstances with little food , clothing , or material possessions . They are frequently separated from their relatives and have little chance of employment or reestablishing their household . Because of their status as stateless persons ( persons forced to leave their countries ) and their inability to procure proper travel documentation , refugees are protected under the 1951 United Nations Refugee Convention , which derives from Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , passed . The Universal Declaration of Human Rights establishes an international legal right for people to seek asylum , which is legal protection extended by one country to citizens of another . The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees heads the UN Refugee Agency , a global organization that directs troops and aid workers to set up refugee camps and organizes international efforts to ease the suffering of refugees .

FIGURE ( left ) An aerial view of the Za atari refugee camp in Jordan , a camp settlement for Syrian refugees , in 2013 ( right ) a Syrian refugee family wai ing for asylum . credit ( left ) An Aerial View of the Za Refugee Camp by US Department of Commons , Public Domain ( right ) Refugees by Russell Department for International Commons , BY ) In her ethnographic study of Congolese refugees in the capital city of , cultural anthropologist Georgina Ramsay ( 2016 ) on the ways in which refugees protect themselves , both physically and psychologically , by what they call avoiding poison . In 2012 , there were approximately refugees living in as a result of ongoing political instability , warfare , and corruption in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Housed initially in a refugee settlement away from urban areas , the group of refugees interviewed by Ramsay to move to for greater opportunities and more security , as the refugee settlements were troubled by crime and violence . As one informant told Ramsay , There are bad people everywhere in the camp ( 115 ) government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo allowed resettlement in if the refugees procured a legal permit and a way to make a living independent of government funding or humanitarian . Given their displacement from their own ethnic communities and social networks , refugees faced unreliable social communities , in which their relationships were recently formed , as well as fear and the looming of having to return to the settlements if they lost theirjobs or housing arrangements . Many either relied on or supplemented their wages with from relatives living elsewhere in an effort to create greater security in the urban environment . The poison feared by this group of refugees is a symbolic agent administered by unknown assailants ( 113 ) most often sprinkled into the food they prepare , and capable of making them sick both physically and psychologically . The administering of this poison is not always intended as a personal attack rather , the refugees believe that their life outside of their cultural homelands makes them vulnerable . They believe that they are most vulnerable during cooking and eating . In their home communities , cooking and eating were normally times of social interaction and sharing , but cooking and eating are now highly privatized acts for them . Families eat only with each other , within their own homes , and do not accept any shared food , even when they are hungry . The result is an intentional physical distancing from each other and a strengthening of social bonds . While this approach clearly weakens the refugees ability to build a large and sustainable community in , it does afford them a sense control ( agency ) over their lives . This sense of social agency over the threat of poison , giving the refugees an ability to control some aspects of their lives , is an example of the adaptive nature of culture under very challenging circumstances . Pandemic as Global Migration People and goods are not the only things that migrate . Along with human migration , there is a host of secondary movements that can affect the human population globally . Diseases are a prime example . Diseases that may have once been contained in a single region can move , along with their human and animal hosts , into new geographic areas , where they can become even more virulent . When diseases spread more than expected among a given group of people , they are referred to as epidemics . An outbreak ofa disease over a very broad area , typically crossing international boundaries , is called a pandemic . Some early pandemics in Europe were the plague of Athens in 430 ( possibly typhus or typhoid fever or Ebola ) the plague from 165 to 180 CE ( possibly smallpox ) and the Black Death from 1347 to 1351 ( caused by a bacterium carried by and infected rodents ) In the Americas , Mexico and Central America suffered from various documented

pandemics , starting with the arrival of the Spanish in Mexico in 1519 , which set off a widespread smallpox outbreak that extended into South America . There have been other pandemics , including the epidemic from 1545 to 1548 , likely a form of enteric fever , and the Spanish , detected in the United States in 1918 ( 2003 et al . 2018 ) The most serious recent pandemic in the United Stated had been the swine pandemic until . In the last few months of 2019 , the viral , known as , began a global migration from , Province , China , to every continent of the world . Carried between geographically distant locations by human hosts traveling for all sorts of work , study , tourism , visitation , and well as within towns and communities by people shopping , attending religious services and schools , or even visiting friends and families , quickly became a global emergency . First reported to the World Health Organization ( WHO ) on December 31 , 2019 , was officially declared a global pandemic on March 11 , 2020 . Throughout 2020 , the disease continued to spread rapidly , overwhelming medical facilities , ravaging countries economies , and forcing people to alter the structures of most social institutions , including schools , churches , weddings , and even funerals . By October 2021 , some 248 million people had been infected , including several world leaders , and more than million people had died from the disease . FIGURE United States vice president Kamala Harris receives a vaccine in January 2021 . credit Kamala Harris Getting Her Second Vaccination by Lawrence Commons , Public Domain ) The virus spreads through airborne transmission when someone inhales droplets expelled by an infected person coughing , sneezing , or even exhaling . As with measles and tuberculosis , the only fully effective form of containment outside of a vaccine and the development of antibodies is quarantine . When the WHO declared a global pandemic , the most important advice was to limit all unnecessary movements and gatherings , wear masks , and practice physical distancing . But given the global nature of our lives today , it was very to halt either the movement ofpeople or the spread of the disease . On January 20 , 2020 , the reported case in the United States was diagnosed in Washington State , in a man in his thirties who had just returned from . By that point , the virus had already spread to , Japan , Thailand , and South Korea . On January 24 , the European cases were reported in France . The disease continued to quickly spread all over the world , including on international transport , such as cruise and cargo ships . In December 2020 , there were several cases reported in Antarctica . Only 14 countries reported no cases as of April 2021 , all except two of them island nations or territories in the and Atlantic Oceans with strict travel policies , Tonga , Helena , the Islands , the Federated States of , the Cook Islands , and American . The two nations , North Korea and , are believed to have unreliable data . As a result of migration , the disease transformed peoples lives everywhere . But migration can also bring relief from pandemics . The same that led to the initial spread of the disease have also brought , food , medical supplies , and vaccines to communities worldwide . In addition , scientists and researchers worked tirelessly in multinational efforts to sequence the

genome so that vaccine development could proceed rapidly . Globally , several countries developed lifesaving vaccines and began working together to disperse them to communities in need . As our world becomes increasingly interdependent , it is critical that we understand the important role of migration in so many aspects of our survival . ETHNOGRAPHIC SKETCHES Migration in El Experience of Marjorie Snipes , chapter author We often think of rural communities as being separate from global forces , but this is not always true . In El , a small Indigenous community in the northwestern Andes of Argentina , diverse forms of migration , dependent on internal and external factors , are part ofpeople lives . I conducted in El , Argentina , during the and early ( Snipes 1996 ) This small highland community is located at about feet above sea level and nestled in a rugged river valley along the Rio Grande de San Juan , the international boundary between Argentina and Bolivia . At that time , the community had a population of about 200 people , most practicing , with each family raising corn , wheat , alfalfa , and broad beans and tending herds of goats and sheep . In order to provide ample and keep animals away from their gardens , they were transhumant , moving their herds to higher altitudes during the spring and summer seasons , away from the primary households with their gardens and accompanied by seasonal shepherds . After the herds moved from their winter corrals , families cleaned them out and used the manure to fertilize the gardens . Through transhumance , families from this dual subsistence system , producing most of their daily food needs . Although not dependent on money for their daily food , participate in the global economy in various ways . Historically , the community is part of a vast trade network that connects small highland communities of northern Argentina and southern Bolivia through itinerant trade . Extensive trade networks have been an integral part of life for centuries ( see and Mayer 1974 Murra 1975 ) Annually , traders come through El from the altiplano of Bolivia , a high plains region at an average altitude of feet above sea level . Because of the harsh climate at that altitude , the Bolivian communities rely almost exclusively on herding ( llamas and alpacas ) having little to no ability to raise needed crops . In the springtime each year , Bolivian traders pass through El with pack animals ( usually llamas ) loaded with wool ropes , bags , and dried meat that they produce during the winter months , seeking fresh vegetables for trade . Although traders negotiate each transaction based on their particular family needs , all parties are well aware of the current market value of their animal and vegetable products , as families listen daily to radio broadcasts on trade . I tried my hand at negotiating with , a young trader from San Antonio de , Bolivia , for a small , handwoven rope . When I asked him the cost of the rope , he looked at me with kind amusement and asked me what I offered to exchange . Pesos ! I said ( Bolivian money ) He told me the rope was worth 10 pesos ( approximately 10 at that time ) but that he needed corn and wheat and that one arroba ( approximately 25 pounds ) of grain was worth around 12 . In other words , I would have to pay the higher cost because he would need to take the money and try to buy an arroba of grain . Most highlanders are more aware of current trade values than even those living in cities . Other forms of migration affect life in El . In order to earn cash for manufactured items , many highland families periodically send a family member to work away from the community . The , the annual lowland sugarcane harvest , can usually temporarily absorb anyone willing to work , and young people occasionally seek out urban employment opportunities , such as domestic service in private households . Migration is an enduring part of the fabric of life , binding communities to each other and , ultimately , to each ofus .

ACTIVITY Migration Interviews For this activity , you will compile three ethnographic accounts of migration . Choose three diverse research informants to interview about their personal histories of moving , as a child an adult , from one home location to another . Some may have moved from one country to another , from one city to another , or even from one house or family to another . Log each of their movements separately , giving the years and duration of the period spent living there , why they moved , how things shifted in their lives as a result of the migration , and their feelings emotions about moving . You may choose to add your own account to this study as well . Once you compile each of the accounts , summarize your and compare the accounts to each other , making conclusions about the impact of migration on your participants lives .

Key Terms asylum legal protection extended by one country to citizens of another . chain migration the process of sequential migration from the same community of origin . circular migration repeated pattern of movement between locations , usually associated with work . cultural hybridity the exchange and innovation within cultures that is a product of migration and globalization . the movement and dispersal of large ethnic groups from their homelands because of warfare , institutionalized violence , or opportunity ( usually education or employment ) displacement migration due to persecution , or violence involves refugees and those seeking asylum . environmental migration displacement caused by natural disasters , such as earthquakes , hurricanes , or droughts . epidemic a disease that spreads more than expected among a given group of people . forced labor the recruitment , transportation , transfer , harboring of persons by means of threat or use of force or coercion for the purpose of exploitation . forced migration migration due to persecution , or violence involves refugees and those seeking asylum . human the recruitment , transportation , transfer , harboring of persons by means of threat or use of force or coercion for the purpose of exploitation . A form of Summary Migration is an important characteristic of human behavior . People migrate for all sorts of reasons , moving from place to place in search of economic opportunities , refuge from political or social oppression , educational opportunities , health resources , of family needs , or simply the pleasure of travel itself . From our earliest ancestral beginnings , humans have moved from place to place , sometimes on a seasonal basis and sometimes permanently . The earliest migrated within and out of Africa , settling parts of Europe , Asia , and eventually Australia , adapting to their new environments and diversifying biologically as a species . The last major continental settlement was North and South America . Archaeological evidence shows early human occupations in the Americas as early as modern slavery . immigrant an individual who moves permanently from one country to another . internal migration the domestic movement of people from rural to urban areas . labor migration the movement of people for the purpose of employment economic stability . migrant a person who moves from their place of origin to reestablish a household . migration movement from one place to another that a household , whether temporarily or permanently . modern slavery the recruitment , transportation , transfer , harboring of persons by means of threat or use of force or coercion for the purpose of exploitation . pandemic an outbreak ofa disease over a broad area . peasants a rural , agricultural class with limited . enduring relationships between former and their former colonies that continue to have negative effects on the former colonies after independence . transfers of money from workers back to their home countries , usually for their families . the construction of social , economic , and political networks that originate in one country and then cross or transcend state boundaries . years before present . These humans may have arrived by several possible routes , including across the Bering land bridge and along the coastline of North and South America . Historically , global forces have also contributed to migration , including seafaring explorations , colonialism , and the transatlantic slave trade that led to a ( dispersal ) of millions of African peoples into the Western Hemisphere . Today , many of these historical forces continue to impact our lives as migrants seek opportunities and better , safer lives . Finance , media , and ideologies increasingly entangle the global world today . Anthropological research has shown the reach of globalization into small communities where peasants and Indigenous peoples , once mistakenly

thought to be simple rural farmers or subsistence producers , negotiate the market value of their labor and products , sometimes against large countries or corporations and often facing unfairness and injustice . This disparity typically leads to internal migration from rural areas into urban zones . As with any form of migration , culture change and adaptation have always been a part of the migrant experience . Because of emerging global forces of all kinds , there has been a rise in voluntary and involuntary migration within geographical regions and across countries , leading to inequality along the margins . Contemporary migrations include labor migration , forced migration or displacement , forced labor , human trafficking or modern slavery , and environmental migration , typically caused by global climate change . There are numerous migrant routes worldwide connecting countries in Critical Thinking Questions . What is the role of migration in human evolution ?

What do the theories about the of the Americas reveal about early human migration ?

Why is there so much debate about the of the Americas ?

Using Arjun concept of , explain the ways in which global movements connect local populations . How did colonialism function as a global movement ?

Bibliography both formal and informal ways . One of the most violent routes is the Central American route , which connects South America , Central America , and Mexico to the United States . Refugees are among those in greatest need of humanitarian aid today . People and goods are not the only things that migrate . Along with human migration , there are secondary movements that can affect the human population globally . Diseases move along with people . Historically , there have been many epidemics within populations and pandemics across regions and countries . In 2019 , began migrating globally , eventually affecting every country and causing deaths , chronic illnesses , and economic devastation . As our world becomes increasingly interdependent , it is critical that we understand the important role of migration in so many aspects of our survival . What examples of evidence of postcolonial identities are in your communities ?

What is forced migration , and what impacts might it have on a cultural group ?

In what ways do peasants contribute to the global economy , and how might it affect them ?

Refugees are a unique kind of migrant . Describe the ways in which refugees participate in migration . 10 . How did global migration contribute to the spread of ?

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