Introduction to Anthropology Textbook Chapter 1 What Is Anthropology

CHAPTER What Is ?

I , Figure Artist depiction of a woman hunting , created in 1565 . Contrary to some long held beliefs , women have always played a role in hunting game . credit Illustration of activities of and Men and women hunting with bows and arrows on snowshoes women hunt as , more than men by Illustration of activities of and of Congress Prints and Photographs Division ) CHAPTER OUTLINE The Study of Humanity , or Anthropology Is Vast The Approach Four Approaches within the Guiding Narrative Overcoming Ethnocentrism Western Bias in our Assumptions about Humanity Holism , Anthropology Distinctive Approach Comparison and Cultural Relativism Reaching for an Insider Point of View INTRODUCTION Imagine a research project that contains these three members Randy Haas discovered the grave of a teenager buried with a hunting tool kit in the Andes mountains of Peru . Haas found that this hunter from long ago was a young woman . This discovery has upset the notion that hunting was the exclusive activity of men throughout human evolutionary history . Daniel Miller is part ofa global team researching how people use smartphones in various parts of the world , including Brazil , Chile , China , Ireland , Italy , Japan , East Jerusalem , and . The team is exploring how smartphones take on different functions in different cultural . Focusing on Ireland ,

Miller that smartphones become a kind of personal avatar , expressing and enacting the social identity of the user . in Central and East Africa . This monkey lives in . They are social animals and live in groups of individuals . credit Schmidt Monkey by National Zoo , Michelle Brown spends long days observing blue monkeys , monkeys , and baboons in a conservation park in . She records the behavior of these primates as they food , communicate , and with one another . She collects urine and feces to analyze hormone levels , intestinal parasites , and DNA . She wants to understand how primates compete as individuals and groups for access to various foods in their environment . What kind of research project could encompass such a diversity of topics and methods ?

Since this is the chapter of an anthropology textbook , you can probably guess . Though they conduct research on vastly different topics , all three are anthropologists . How could the work of these researchers be united in one academic discipline ?

The reason , as we will see , is that anthropology is vast . Anthropology , the study of humanity , is guided by a central narrative and set of research commitments . Anthropology aims to overcome bias by examining cultures as complex , integrated products of environmental and historical conditions . Anthropologists use many different research strategies in their efforts to represent people from cultures very different from their own . Anthropology explores controversial topics that may challenge individual assumptions and values . The goal is to understand the full experience of humanity , including elements that may seem unfamiliar or uncomfortable . Anthropology teaches a set of skills for setting aside personal perspectives and keeping an open mind while learning about the diversity of human practices and ideas . As discussed further at the end of this chapter , this does not mean abandoning individual personal values , but rather temporarily while learning to understand the perspectives of others . The Study of Humanity , or Anthropology Vast LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to the study of anthropology in the broadest sense . Summarize the guiding narrative of anthropology . Restate and explain the central commitments of anthropology . Anthropology is a vast of vast , in fact , that anthropology is interested in everything . Anthropology is unique in its enormous breadth and its distinctive focus . Consider other disciplines . In the arts and sciences , each discipline focuses on a discrete of social life or physical phenomena . Economists study economics . Religious scholars study religion . Environmental scientists study the environment .

Biologists study living organisms . And so on . Anthropologists study all of these things . Put simply , anthropology is the study of humanity across time and space . Anthropologists study every possible realm of human experience , thought , activity , and organization . Human as we are , we can only engage in social and natural worlds through our human minds and human bodies . Even engagement with nonhuman realms such as astronomy and botany is conditioned by our human senses and human cognition and thus varies across different societies and different time periods . You may be thinking , If anthropology is the human aspect of absolutely everything , then does anthropology encompass the other social disciplines , such as political science , religious studies , and economics ?

This is not the case . Certainly , anthropologists are frequently , meaning that while their research and teaching are focused within the discipline of anthropology , they also engage with other disciplines and work with researchers and teachers in other . But the way that scholars in the other social disciplines approach their subject matter is different from the way anthropologists approach those same subjects . The distinctive approach of anthropology relies on a central narrative , or story , about humanity as well as a set of scholarly commitments . This central story and these common commitments hold the discipline together , enabling anthropologists to combine insights from diverse into one complex portrait ofwhat it means to be human . Anthropology is everything , but its notjust anything . Anthropology is the study of humanity guided by a distinctive narrative and set of commitments . The Heart of Anthropology Central Narrative and Commitments Anthropologists are great storytellers . They tell many , many stories about all aspects of human life . At the heart of all of these stories is one fundamental story the story of humanity , a rich and complex narrative . A narrative is a story that describes a connected set of features and events . Narratives can be or . The narrative of anthropology is a true story , a factual narrative about the origins and development of humanity as well as our contemporary ways of life . The central narrative of anthropology can be summarized this way . Human beings have developed biological and social features that have worked together in a wide variety of environmental and historical conditions to produce a diversity of cultures . Three features of this narrative are especially important to anthropologists . These features form three central commitments of anthropology . In academic study , a commitment is a common goal recognized by the scholars in a discipline . Central Commitment Exploring Sociocultural Diversity As the narrative suggests , humans in a diversity of conditions create a diversity of cultures . Rather than trying to out which way of life is better , morally superior , more , or happier or to make any other sort of judgment call , anthropologists are committed to describing and understanding the diversity of human ways of life . Setting aside judgments , we can see that humans everywhere create culture to meet their needs . Anthropologists discover how different cultures devise different solutions to the challenges of human survival , social integration , and the search for meaning . What are you wearing today ?

Perhaps a and jeans with sneakers , or a tunic and leggings with . What about your professor ?

Are they wearing a bathrobe and slippers , or perhaps a cocktail dress with stilettos ?

You can be ( almost ) certain that will never happen . But why not ?

You might assume that what Americans wear for class is completely normal , but this assumption ignores the question of what makes something normal .

FIGURE professionals wearing local fashions to promote the national textile industry . credit Ladies by Erik ( HASH ) BY ) In many countries , for instance , university students typically wear dress shirts with slacks or skirts to class . Many students would not dream of wearing ripped jeans or tight leggings to class , considering such casual dress disrespectful . American students put much more emphasis on comfort than on presentation , an overall trend in American dress . Even in settings , it is now acceptable for Americans to wear casual clothing on Fridays . In the West African country of , casual Friday never caught on , but office workers have developed their own distinctive Friday dress code . As the local textile industry became threatened by Chinese imports , workers began wearing sewn from locally manufactured cloth on Fridays , creating a practice of National Friday Wear . So which way is better , the American way or the way ?

Anthropologists understand that neither way is better and that each addresses a need within a particular culture . Casual Friday is great for Americans who crave comfy , while National Friday Wear is great for who want to boost their local economy and show their cultural pride . Anthropologists recognize not only diversity across different cultures but also the diverse experiences and perspectives within a culture . Do you ever buy used clothing at thrift shops , or do you know people who do ?

An old green men trench coat bought at a vintage clothing store may be a favorite ofa college student . The mother of that student may not feel the same way and offer to buy their child a new coat much to the distress of the owner of the coat ! To people who have grown up in the 1930 and , used clothing was associated with the hard times of the Great Depression . For the newer generations , used clothing is a way to unique , affordable clothing that can stretch the boundaries of mainstream style . Although people in a culture share a general set of rules , they interpret them differently according to their social roles and experiences , sometimes stretching the rules in ways that ultimately change them over time .

The Study of Humanity . Anthropology is Vast FIGURE trader in her secondhand clothing shop ( credit Market Woman Market 03 by Adam , BY ) In , most used clothing is imported from the United States and Europe in large bales that local vendors purchase and sell in market stalls . A person from the United States or Europe is locally referred to as an . Used clothing is called , or a foreign person has died , the assumption that no living person would give away such wearable clothing . Many love to pick through the piles of in the market , thrilled to recognizable brands and unusual styles . Some , however , associate with poverty . The stalls that sell are often called boutiques , referring to the subservient posture adopted by customers through the piles of clothing on the ground . is suitable in some situations but certainly not in others . A particular movie included a scene where a man trying to woo a much younger woman . When the man gave his would be girlfriend a bag full of as a gift , it caused the audience to burst our laughing . The gift was humorous and inappropriate to the audience . As with clothing , different cultures come up with different solutions to common challenges such as housing , food , family structure , the organization of work , and meaning in life . And people in every society discuss and argue about their own cultural norms . Anthropology seeks to document and understand the diverse range of solutions to common human challenges as well as the diversity of perspectives within each culture . Central Commitment Understanding How Societies Hold Together Just as the various parts of our bodies all work together ( the brain , the heart , the liver , the skeleton , and so forth ) the various parts of a society all work together as well ( the economy , the political system , religion , families , Frequently , anthropologists discover that changes in one realm of society are related to changes in another realm in unexpected ways . When farmers in began growing cocoa for export during the colonial period , the agricultural shift dramatically altered gender relations as men monopolized cash crops and women were relegated to vegetable farming for their families consumption and local trade . As men from the of the cocoa trade , relations between men and women became more unequal . Anthropologists have a favorite word for the way that all elements of human life interrelate to form distinctive 11

cultures holism . Sometimes those parts reinforce one another , encouraging stability sometimes they contradict one another , promoting change . Consider the caste system in India . Cultural anthropologist Susan describes how the beliefs and practices associated with caste in India have provided cultural integration and stability while also demonstrating a great deal of local variability and working as a force of social change ( 1999 ) Most Indians are familiar with two forms assigned by birth , the jati ( birth group ) and the Varna ( order , class , or kind ) There are thousands groups in the various regions of India , many to a single region . By contrast , there are four known across India Brahmins ( associated with priests ) associated with rulers and warriors ) associated with traders ) and ( associated with servile laborers ) Another group , called untouchables or , are outside the scheme . As described in the , the four are ordered in an interdependent hierarchy reminiscent of human anatomy . The Rig Veda describes how the gods the first man , dividing his body to create four groups of humanity When they divided the , into how many parts did they arrange him ?

What was his mouth ?

What his two arms ?

What are his thighs loins and feet called ?

The was his mouth , his two arms were made the , king and warrior , his two thighs loins the , from his feet the servile class was born . 1999 ) Ancient texts envision caste as a means of social order as people in each caste perform different functions and occupations , all working together in harmony . Note , however , that such texts were written down by members of groups , often scholars . Anthropologists and historians who study the practices of caste argue that the caste system was never such a unitary and dominant force across the country but rather a , regional , and constantly changing set of identities . In the colonial period , the British made the caste system more rigid and antagonistic , offering education to select caste groups . In the century , many groups have resisted their oppression by converting to Christianity or Islam and forming political parties to pressure the government for more opportunities for social advancement . Anthropologists are curious about how different cultures create different categories of people and use those categories to organize the activities of social life . In many farming societies , for instance , men do certain kinds of agricultural work and women do others . In societies where land must be cleared in order to sow crops , men often chop down trees and clear the brush while women do the planting . In societies that utilize industrial farming , migrants or people of a ethnicity or assigned racial category are often recruited ( or forced ) to perform the manual labor required to grow and harvest crops . In industrial capitalist societies , one group of people owns the factories and another group works the machines that produce the industrial products . Relations between groups can be cooperative , competitive , or combative . Some cultures promote the equality of social groups , while many others reinforce inequality among groups . Holism is not the same as harmony . Anthropologists are interested in how society holds together but also in the conditions that can cause , change , and disintegration . You may have heard the word polarized used to describe the sense that two different groups in American society are moving farther and farther apart in their values , opinions , and desires . Some suggest that the contradictory perspectives of these two groups threaten to tear American society apart . Others suggest that Americans are united by deeper values such as freedom , equal opportunity , and democracy . Using holism to understand this issue , an anthropologist might consider how the perspectives of each group relate to that groups economic experiences , political convictions , religious or moral values . A comprehensive use of holism would explore all of these aspects of society , looking at how they interact to produce the polarization we see today and suggesting what might be done to bring the two groups into productive dialogue . Central Commitment Examining the Interdependence of Humans and Nature As our narrative suggests , anthropologists are interested in the natural environment , the way humans have related to the natural world over time , and how this relationship shapes various cultures . Anthropologists consider how people in different cultures understand and use the various elements of nature , including land , water , plants , animals , climate , and space . They show how people interact with these elements of nature in complex ways .

Archaeologists working in prehistoric sites all over the world have documented how prehistoric people understood celestial objects and used them to navigate their waterways , create calendars and clocks , regulate farming activities , schedule religious ceremonies , and inform political leaders . This area of study is called . In Canyon in the American Southwest , archaeologists have discovered that buildings in the major settlement areas were aligned so that certain windows would provide perfect vantage points to view the sun and moon at pivotal times of the year , such as solstice and equinox . The Sun Dagger , consisting of two petroglyphs ( stone etchings ) on Butte , is precisely positioned under a rock crevice so as to indicate the and when the sun shines through the crevice . Unfortunately , tourist foot traffic at the site has altered the width and direction of the crevice so that the Sun Dagger no longer marks these celestial events accurately . Summer Selma FIGURE The Sun Dagger at Butte ( credit National Park Commons , Public Domain ) The people of Canyon may have been particularly attuned to the features of their environment as they constructed their complex civilization in the challenging environment of the high desert . With scarce rainfall and brief growing seasons , their survival depended on accurate of opportune planting and harvesting times . With the onset of a drought , farming became more and more precarious . Eventually , the ancient peoples of were forced to abandon the area . Some anthropologists study how people interact with the plants in their area . The of ethnobotany examines how people in different cultures categorize and use plants for food , shelter , tools , transportation , art , and religion . also conduct research on plants used in healing to discover the relationship between cultural practices and the pharmaceutical properties of these plants . Some examine the cultural use plants such as mushrooms and peyote in religious ritual . For instance , anthropologist studied the controversial use of marijuana among youth in New Guinea ( 2006 ) Young people told that marijuana helped them work harder , overcome shame , and understand ancestral stories . Critics of the practice told that marijuana dried the blood of people who used it , making their offspring weak and feeble . Marijuana use has generated similar controversies in other countries , including the United States , with some arguing that the drug provides relaxation and pain others claim it interferes with cognitive abilities and motivation . Our relationship with nature is reciprocal . Nature shapes humanity , and humanity shapes nature . Exploring

how nature shapes humanity , anthropologists speculate about how aspects of the environment have shaped the emergence and development of human biology , such as our ability to walk , the shape of our teeth , and the size of our brains . Dramatic climactic shifts over the past several million years have forced periods of rapid biological and cultural adaptation , resulting in new species and new skill sets such as language and toolmaking . In more recent archaeological time periods , environmental characteristics have shaped religious beliefs , gender relations , strategies , and political systems . Environmental forces can trigger the beginning or the end of a society . Some archaeologists study how natural events such as volcanic eruptions and droughts have led to mass migrations and the collapse of empires . Our reciprocal relationship with nature also works the other way around that is , humans shape nature . Our environments are shaped by the methods of our societies as well as the way we acquire and trade resources such as oil , natural gas , diamonds , and gold . Many anthropologists explore how contemporary ways of life change the natural world at local , regional , and global levels . Farming dramatically impacts ecosystems with the clearing , wetlands , and forests . Fishing can deplete certain species , changing the whole ecosystem of rivers and coastal waters . Responding to population pressures , people construct dams to channel water to emergent cities . The redirection of water transforms regional ecosystems , turning wetlands into deserts and deserts into cities . Scholars use the term to describe the contemporary period of increasing human impact on the ecosystems of our planet . pollution , mining , deforestation , ranching , and agriculture are causing dramatic environmental disruptions such as climate change and mass extinction of plant and animal species . Many anthropologists are studying these problems , focusing on how people are working locally , regionally , and globally to promote more sustainable ways of living in our natural world . The Approach Four Approaches within the Guiding Narrative LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to Identify and the four of anthropology . Describe the work of professional anthropologists in each . Provide an example of how the four work together to explore common issues . Let recall the central narrative of anthropology Human beings have developed biological and social features that have worked together in a wide variety of environmental and historical conditions to produce a diversity of cultures . Researching this argument is a vast endeavor requiring many complementary approaches and techniques . Anthropology comprises four main approaches , the four of our discipline . Each specializes in exploring a different aspect of the common narrative . Combining insights from the four gives us a rich and complex understanding of issues such as gender , inequality , race , and the environment . Let take a look at each and then examine how the combine in the study of racial categories and relations . Biological Anthropology Biological anthropology focuses on the earliest processes in the biological and sociocultural development of human beings as well as the biological diversity of contemporary humans . In other words , biological anthropologists study the origins , evolution , and diversity of our species . Some biological anthropologists use genetic data to explore the global distribution of human traits such as blood type or the ability to digest dairy products . Some study fossils to learn how humans have evolved and migrated . Some study our closest animal relatives , the primates , in order to understand what biological and social traits humans share with primates and explore what makes humans unique in the animal world . The Dutch van spent six years observing orangutans in Sumatra , discovering that these reclusive animals are actually much more social than previously thought ( 2004 ) Moreover , van observed that orangutans use a wide variety of tools and pass down skills to their young . By studying these

primates , van and other biological anthropologists gain insight into the origins of human intelligence , technology , and culture . These researchers also warn that habitat loss , illegal hunting , and the exotic pet trade threaten the survival of our fascinating primate cousins . Biological anthropologists frequently combine research among primates with evidence from the human fossil record , genetics , neuroscience , and geography to answer questions about human evolution . Sometimes their insights are startling and unexpected . Anthropologist argues that snakes have played a key role in the evolution of human biology , particularly our keen sense of sight and our ability to communicate through language ( 2009 ) snake detection theory posits that primates developed specialized visual perception as well as the ability to communicate what they were seeing in order to alert others to the threat of venomous snakes in their environment . She points to the fear of snakes shared by both humans and primates and has documented the prevalence of snake phobia in human myth and folklore . research highlights how relations are central to humanity , shaping both biology and culture . Not all biological anthropologists study primates . Many biological anthropologists study fossilized remains in order to chart the evolution of early , the evolutionary ancestors of modern humans . In this of study , anthropologists consider the emergence and migration of the various species in the family tree as well as the conditions that promoted certain biological and cultural traits . Some biological anthropologists examine the genetic makeup of contemporary humans in order to learn how certain genes and traits are distributed in human populations across different environments . Others examine human genetics looking for clues about the relationships between early modern humans and other , such as Neanderthals . Forensic anthropology uses the techniques of biological anthropology to solve crimes . By analyzing human remains such as decomposed bodies or skeletons , or tissue samples such as skin or hair , forensic anthropologists discern what they can about the nature of a crime and the people involved . Key questions are who died , how they died , and how long ago they died . Often , forensic anthropologists can discover the age , sex , and other distinctive features of perpetrators and victims . Looking closely at forms of bodily trauma and patterns of blood or bullets , they piece together the story of the crime . They work on investigative teams with law enforcement and medical experts in ballistics , toxicology , and other specialties . Forensic anthropologists often present their as witnesses in murder trials . Not all of these crimes are contemporary . Sometimes , forensic anthropology is used to understand historical events . Excavating the historic colony of early English settlers in North America , archaeologist William Kelso found a human skull in the midst of food remains . Noticing strange cut marks on the skull , he called upon Douglas , a forensic anthropologist working for the Smithsonian Institution , to help him out what the markings meant . determined that the markings were evidence of intentional chopping to the skull with a sharp blade . He concluded that the skeleton belonged to a girl who had been cannibalized by other settlers after she died . This interpretation corroborates historical evidence of severe starvation in the colony during the harsh winter of . Archaeology Archaeologists use artifacts and fossils to explore how environmental and historical conditions have produced a diversity of human cultures the study of archaeology . Artifacts are objects made by human beings , such as tools or pottery . Fossils are the remains preserved in the environment . Archaeologists have developed careful methods of excavation , or removing fossils and artifacts from the ground , in order to learn as much as possible about how people lived in times before and after the development of writing . They are interested in how people met basic needs such as clothing and shelter , as well how they organized their societies in family groups , trade networks , and systems of leadership . Many archaeologists seek to understand how humans lived in relation to the natural world around them , altering the environment at the same time that the environment was shaping their evolution and social development . A group of archaeologists led by Tom spent seven years excavating a set of sites in northern Peru , charting the development of human society in this area over a period of years ( 2017 ) They traced the society from the early ways of life to the emergence of cities and early states , discovering how people there developed , farming , and herding strategies that led to increased sociocultural complexity . The team

collected data on the plants and animals of the area as well as the buildings , tools , cloth , and baskets made by the people . They concluded that the people who lived in this area placed a high value on cooperation and living in harmony with nature . Some archaeologists focus on more topics in more recent time periods . Archaeologist Eric examined the graves at pet cemeteries in the United Kingdom from 1881 to 1981 ( 2020 ) Looking at the on the gravestones of the pets , noted a change from earlier Victorian ways of thinking of pets as friends to later , more modern ways of pets as members of the family . He noted , too , that expressed an increasingly common belief that pet owners would be reunited with their pets in the afterlife . Cultural Anthropology Cultural anthropology is devoted to describing and understanding the wide variety of cultures referred to in anthropology central narrative . Cultural anthropologists explore the everyday thoughts , feelings , and actions ofpeople in different cultures as well as the cultural and historical events that they consider important . Examining social discourse and action , cultural anthropologists seek to understand unspoken norms and values as well as larger forces such as economic change and political domination . Cultural anthropologists also study how different societies are structured , including the roles and institutions that organize social life . Cultural anthropologists often live for many months or years in the societies they study , adopting local ways of living , eating , dressing , and speaking as accurately as possible . This practice is called . Anthropologists who undertake might write an ethnography , an study of the culture they have been studying . Classic of the early century often portrayed the cultures of Western peoples as harmonious and unchanging over time . a pioneer of the method , spent nearly two years studying trade and magic among the peoples living in what is now the island chain northeast of New Guinea . His ethnography , of the Western ( 1922 ) describes how undertook canoe voyages from island to island for the ceremonial exchange of white shell bracelets and red shell necklaces among different island groups , an exchange system known as the kula ring . Curiously , these highly valued objects had no use whatsoever , as no one ever wore them . Rather , the exchange of bracelets and necklaces functioned as a means of enhancing social status ( for the givers ) and reinforcing trade relationships . argues that this form of exchange took the place of warfare . Exploring the kula ring in great detail , also learned about many other aspects of culture , such as the making of tools and canoes , farming practices , gender roles , sexuality , and magical beliefs and practices . Nowadays , cultural anthropologists tend to focus more on issues involving and change , such as suicide bombing in Afghanistan ( Edwards 2017 ) a creationist theme park in Kentucky ( 2018 ) sperm donation in Denmark ( Mohr 2018 ) and garbage pickers in Rio de ( 2018 ) Often , anthropologists explore overlooked and marginalized perspectives on controversial issues , shedding light on the cultural complexities and power dynamics involved . Anthropologist Tracey was interested in why some people were resisting the creation ofa conservation park on the Italian island of ( 2010 ) The central highlands of are home to many endangered species and old growth forests , as well as local herding peoples who resisted the appropriation of their homeland . research three competing perspectives those of global environmentalists , the national government of Italy , and the local people of . The global environmentalists view the Sardinian highlands as a delicate ecosystem that should be protected and controlled by environmental experts . The Italian government sees in the same land an opportunity to develop and demonstrate the Italian commitment to environmentalism . The local peoples of treasure their homeland as the foundation of their way of life , an intimate landscape imbued with history and cultural value . As the controversy drew these three perspectives together , led global environmentalism combined with national government to undermine the legitimacy of local knowledge and authority . describes how stereotypes as ignorant and culturally backward were used to their resistance to the conservation park , drawing our attention to forms of ecological racism that lurk in the global environmental movement .

Linguistic Anthropology As you might guess , linguistic anthropology focuses on language . Linguistic anthropologists view language as a primary means by which humans create their diverse cultures . Language combines biological and social elements . Some linguistic anthropologists study the origins of language , asking how language emerged in our biological evolution and sociocultural development and what aspects of language might have given early an evolutionary advantage . Other linguistic anthropologists are interested in how language shapes our thinking processes and our views of the world . In addition to its cognitive aspects , language is a powerful tool for getting things done . Linguistic anthropologists also study how people use language to form communities and identities , assert power , and resist authority . anthropologists frequently conduct the same kinds of , immersive research that cultural anthropologists do . Christopher Ball spent a year living and traveling with the , an indigenous group in Brazil ( 2018 ) He describes the many routine and ritualized ways of speaking in this community and how each ind of talk generates types of social action . Chief speech is used by leaders , while bringing the spirits is used for healing the sick . Ceremonial language is used for giving people names and for conducting exchanges between different indigenous groups . Ball , like many linguistic anthropologists , also examined speeches , such as the ones delivered by leaders to protest a dam on a nearby river . Ball also analyzed the forms of language used by state and development workers to marginalize and subordinate indigenous groups such as the . is central to the way we conceptualize ourselves and our lives . Have you ever been asked to write an essay about yourself , perhaps as part of a school assignment or college application ?

you might have used different phrases and concepts than ifyou been chatting with a new acquaintance . The purpose and intended audience of our language use shapes the way we represent ourselves and our actions . Anthropologist Carr examined an addiction treatment program for homeless women in the midwestern United States , looking at the role of language in the therapeutic process ( 2011 ) After observing therapy sessions and meetings , she describes how addiction counselors promote a certain kind of healthy talk that conveys deep cultural notions about personhood and responsibility . As patients master this healthy talk , they learn to demonstrate progress by performing very scripted ways of speaking about themselves and their addiction . How the Four Fields Work Together The Example of Race With their unique methods and emphases , the four of anthropology may seem like completely different disciplines . It true that anthropologists from the four don always agree on the best approach to sociocultural enquiry . Biological anthropologists often see themselves as hard scientists committed to studying humanity through the method . Cultural anthropologists rely on the softer methods of observation , participation , and interviews . Someone who studies the genetic distribution of blood types and someone who studies an addiction treatment program may have a time common ground . Increasingly , however , urgent concerns such as inequality and climate change have highlighted the importance of an integrated approach to the study of humanity . The issue of racial inequality is an excellent example . Beginning with an approach from the cultural side of our discipline , many anthropologists explore what we think we know about the concept of race . How many racial categories do you think there are in the world ?

How can you tell a person racial identity ?

What do you know about your own racial category ?

Biological anthropologist Benn Torres and cultural anthropologist Gabriel Torres Colon teamed up to explore how people use genetic ancestry testing to construct notions of collective history and racial belonging ( 2020 ) For instance , ifyou learn through genetic testing that your ancestors most likely came from , you might begin to feel a certain with that country and with the continent as a whole . You might begin to feel that you have less in common with the people of your country of citizenship and more in common with the people ofyour country of ancestry , a racial connection perhaps felt as more fundamental than the sociocultural connection to your home culture . While concerned about the potential for spreading misconceptions about racial categories , Torres and Colon also note that solidarity across national boundaries can foster transnational movements for . Such research shows how we actively

18 What Is Anthropology ?

construct our concepts about race using biological information about ourselves , all the time believing that those concepts are embedded in nature . FIGURE This map shows the predicted skin colors of people based on the levels of ultraviolet radiation in the areas where they live . attribution Copyright Rice University , under BY license ) Importantly , biological anthropology demonstrates that our common notions of race are inaccurate . Biological anthropologists such as Fuentes ( 2012 ) and Nina ( 2006 ) have looked carefully at the global distribution of human traits such as skin color , facial features , hair texture , and blood type , among other markers , in order to determine if humans are indeed grouped into discrete categories based on race . Short answer biologically speaking , there are no real racial categories . Each human trait varies along a spectrum , and the various traits are mixed and matched among people in ways that make racial distinctions impossibly inaccurate . As an example , take the issue of skin color , which is the most common way people assign race . demonstrates that skin color varies along a spectrum , from pinkish beige to dark brown , with people throughout the world having skin of every possible shade between those two . Originally , humans evolving on the African continent had dark skin to protect them from the direct ultraviolet light of the sun . As some early humans migrated north into environments with less direct sunlight , their skin lightened to allow the absorption of vitamin from the much weaker sunlight . Today , if we look at people with deep historical connections to particular geographical areas , we that skin color shifts gradually with location . Imagine setting out on a road trip from , the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo , just a few degrees south of the equator in central Africa , and traveling all the way up to the city of in Norway , north of the Arctic Circle . This trip would take you through , Algeria , Spain , France , Germany , Denmark , and Sweden . If you were paying attention to the skin color of the indigenous peoples in each location , you would notice a gradual shift from deep brown in to lighter brown in Algeria to dark beige in southern Spain to lighter beige in Sweden . You might also notice other changes , such as more green and blue eyes and more red and blond hair , as you head into northern Europe . At no point in your trip could you identify a boundary between groups . Rather , you would see a gradual spectrum of change . Whether looking at visible characteristics such as skin color or invisible genetic markers such as blood type , biological anthropologists have demonstrated time and time again that there is no way to divide the human population into racial categories . Any way you draw the lines , there will be more variation within categories than between categories . Does this mean that race does not exist ?

In terms of biology , that is exactly what it means . But in terms of social reality , unfortunately not . Race does not exist in nature , but race does exist in our minds , our practices , and our institutions . Archaeological excavations of the material lives of various groups in the United States , including people from China and Ireland as well as enslaved peoples from Africa , show how notions of race shaped their whole ways of life the buildings in which they lived , the clothing they wore , the property they Access for free at

owned , and the structure of their families ( 2007 Singleton 1985 2016 ) In contemporary societies , cultural anthropologists studying forms of racial inequality in societies all over the the United States , the Dominican Republic , Brazil , Japan , Kenya , and uncovered the different ways that each of these societies constructs racial categories and uses various criteria to assign ( and often reassign ) race to a particular person . Moreover , illuminate the severity of racism in the everyday lives of people of color in the United States and elsewhere . After three years of on the West Side of Chicago , anthropologist Laurence Ralph documented the suffering of people in this Black neighborhood as they contend with discrimination , economic deprivation , gang violence , and political ( 2014 ) Ralph emphasizes that the people he observed dream of a better life for themselves and their children , in spite of these struggles , and describes how many turn to social and political activism in an attempt to make their neighborhood a better place for everyone who lives there . Linguistic anthropologists are interested in how race is constructed and expressed through language . Morgan studied the underground scene in Los Angeles , exploring how Black and musicians craft linguistic codes that reference their experiences violence , urban unrest , gang activity , and ( 2009 ) Like Ralph , Morgan highlights the creativity and resilience ofBlack American communities in the face of enduring racism in American society . Taken together , these various anthropological approaches to race provide more insight and understanding than any one approach ever could . Overturning the biological myth of race is essential to understanding the complex reality of human diversity , but it is not enough . It would be a mistake to pretend that racial categories do not because the concept of race has no basis in biology . The combined work of archaeologists , cultural anthropologists , and linguistic anthropologists demonstrates how the mythic notion of race has been used to exploit and marginalize certain people throughout history and into the present . We also see how people respond to racial subjugation with creativity and resilience , inventing cultural forms of resistance and mobilizing their communities through social activism . Overcoming Ethnocentrism LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to the concept of ethnocentrism and explain the ubiquity of ethnocentrism as a consequence of . Distinguish certain forms of ethnocentrism in terms of their historical relationship to forms of empire and domination . Identify primitivism in European and American representations of African peoples . Identify orientalism in European and American representations of Asian and Middle Eastern peoples . Have you ever known somebody who seems to think the world revolves around them ?

The kind of friend who is always talking about themselves and never asks any questions about you and your life ?

The kind who thinks their own ideas are cool and special and their own way of doing things is absolutely the best ?

You may know the word used to describe that kind of person egocentric . An egocentric person is entirely caught up in their own perspective and does not seem to care much about the perspectives of others . It is good to feel proud ofyour personal qualities and accomplishments , of course , but it is equally important to appreciate the personal qualities and accomplishments of others as well . The same sort of centric complex operates at the level of culture . Some people in some cultures are convinced that their own ways the world and of doing things are absolutely the best and no other ways are worth consideration . They imagine that the world would be a much better place if the superior beliefs , values , and practices of their own culture were spread or imposed on everyone else in the world . This is what we call . and Ethnocentrism We are all brought up in a particular culture with particular norms and values and ways things . Our

parents or guardians teach us how to behave in social situations , how to take care of our bodies , how to lead a good life , and what we should value and think about . Our teachers , religious leaders , and bosses give us instruction about our roles , responsibilities , and relationships in life . By the time we are in our late teens or early twenties , we know a great deal about how our society works and our role in that society . Anthropologists call this process of acquiring our particular culture . All humans go through this process . It is natural to value the particular knowledge gained through our own process because we could not survive without it . It is natural to respect the instruction of our parents and teachers who want us to do well in life . It is good to be proud of who we are and where we came from . However , just as egocentrism is tiresome , it can be harmful for people to consider their own culture so superior that they can not appreciate the unique qualities and accomplishments of other cultures . When people are so convinced that their own culture is more advanced , morally superior , orjust plain better than any other culture , we call that ethnocentrism . When people are ethnocentric , they do not value the perspectives of people from other cultures , and they do not bother to learn about or consider other ways of doing things . Beyond the sheer rudeness of ethnocentrism , the real problem emerges when the ethnocentrism of one group causes them to harm , exploit , and dominate other groups . Historically , the ethnocentrism of Europeans and has been used to justify subjugation and violence against peoples from Africa , the Middle East , Asia , and the Americas . In the quest to colonize territories in these geographical areas , Europeans developed two main styles of ethnocentrism , styles that have dominated popular imagination over the past two centuries . These styles each identify a cultural self as European and a cultural other as a stereotypical member of a culture from a region of the world . Using both of these styles of ethnocentrism , Europeans strategically crafted their own coherent in contrast to these distorted images of other cultures . Primitivism and Since the century , views of Africans and Native Americans have been shaped by the obscuring lens of primitivism . Identifying themselves as enlightened and civilized , Europeans came to Africans as ignorant savages , intellectually inferior and culturally backward . explorers such as Henry Stanley described Africa as the dark continent , a place of wildness and depravity ( Stanley 1878 ) Similarly , European missionaries viewed Africans as simple heathens , steeped in sin and needing Christian redemption . Elaborated in the writings of travelers and traders , primitivism depicts Africans and Native Americans as exotic , simple , highly sexual , potentially violent , and closer to nature . Though both African and Native American societies of the time were highly organized and , Europeans often viewed them as chaotic and violent . An alternative version of primitivism depicts Africans and Native Americans as noble savages , innocent and simple , living in peaceful communities in harmony with nature . While less overtly insulting , the noble savage version of primitivism is still a racist stereotype , reinforcing the notion that Western peoples are ignorant , backward , and isolated . Europeans developed a somewhat different style toward people from the Middle East and Asia , a style known as orientalism . As detailed by literary critic Edward Said ( 1979 ) orientalism portrays peoples of Asia and the Middle East as irrational , fanatical , and out of control . The oriental cultures of East Asia and Middle East are depicted as mystical and alluring . The emphasis here is less on biology and nature and more on sensual and emotional excess . Middle Eastern societies are viewed not as lawless but as tyrannical . Relations between men and women are deemed notjust sexual but patriarchal and exploitative . Said argues that this view of Asian and Middle Eastern societies was strategically crafted to demonstrate the rationality , morality , and democracy of European societies by contrast . In his critique of orientalism , Said points to the very common representation of Muslim and Middle Eastern peoples in mainstream American movies as irrational and violent . In the very minute of the 1992 Disney Aladdin , the theme song declares that Aladdin comes from a faraway place where the caravan camels roam where they cut off your ear if they do like your face it barbaric , but hey , it home . Facing criticism by groups , Disney was forced to change the lyrics for the home video release of the ( 2021 ) Many thrillers such as the 1994 True Lies , starring Arnold , cast Arabs as villains scheming to plant bombs and take hostages . Arab women are frequently portrayed as

sexualized belly dancers or silent , oppressed victims shrouded in veils . These forms of representation draw from and reproduce orientalist stereotypes . Both primitivism and orientalism were developed when Europeans were colonizing these parts of the world . Primitivist views of Native Americans their subjugation and forced migration . In the next section , we explore how current versions of primitivism and orientalism persist in American culture , tracing the harmful effects of these and the efforts of anthropologists to dismantle them . Western Bias in Our Assumptions about LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to and recognize cultural bias . Analyze forms of cultural bias in our own interactions and institutions . Describe how the four fields of anthropology can work together to expose and overturn the misconceptions of cultural bias . ethnocentrism is everywhere in American our movies , advertising , museums , amusement parks , and news media . Though the styles have shifted somewhat in the past century , both primitivism and orientalism still persist as two discernible styles . Primitivism and in Popular Culture Think for a minute about the last time you saw an image of an African person . Was it , perhaps , an image of girl in tattered clothing in an advertisement from a development agency requesting a charitable donation ?

Or maybe it was a news media photograph of a child soldier wielding an in a zone in the Democratic Republic of the Congo or another African country . Africa is still popularly represented as a dark place full and crisis . Africans are frequently as simple children who need the support and tutelage of White Western helpers . But is it true , you may say , that poverty and violent are widespread in Africa ?

Is the representation accurate to some degree ?

The most troubled places on the African continent are the places where European colonialism was most brutal and violent . In what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo , the Belgian king Leopold II oversaw a reign of terror against the local peoples , encouraging their enslavement for the lucrative rubber trade . Elsewhere in Africa , European colonial governments stole land from local peoples and confined them to reservations , forcing them to work on European plantations in order to pay taxes to the colonial government . Colonial fomented by some ethnic groups and repressing others . Where you see violence and in Africa today , the roots can often be traced to the colonial period . Is this painful history included in American representations of Africa ?

Moreover , there are many bright spots in Africa , places such as and , with growing economies and stable democracies . Would it surprise you to learn that has a space program ?

That there are more mobile phones than people in Kenya ?

That several electric cars are manufactured in Africa ?

Similar distortions are applied to Native Americans , frequently represented as victims of history , poor and helpless , in need of outside help . The primitivist gaze shapes the representation of Native Americans in museums , which often feature dioramas of humble people with stone tools , buckskin clothes , and , either living a simple life close to nature or engaged in tribal warfare , their bodies painted with vibrant colors . Of course , Native Americans do not live this way now , but these are the images that come to mind in the popular imagination . It is of course important for Americans to learn about the cultures of Native peoples before and during their contact with European settlers , but it is equally important to understand the legacies of history in the contemporary living conditions and activities of Native communities . Rather than seeing Native peoples as passive victims , popular culture should also depict the dynamic and creative responses Americans to the forms of cultural violence enacted against them .

FIGURE One example of a healthy Native American dish is Navajo mutton stew with blue corn and dry bread . credit Mutton Stew with Blue Corn and Dry Bread by , BY ) For instance , did you know that a Native food movement is surging across the United States , both on Native reservations and in American cities ?

Native food activists such as and Sean Sherman are reviving and reinventing the balanced , healthy cuisines of their ancestors , featuring dishes such as braised elk leg and maple red corn pudding . Sherman and his partner , Dana Thompson , have founded the group North American Traditional Indigenous Food Systems ( devoted to preserving Native . The group offers opportunities for tribes to set up Native cuisine restaurants , and to communities with high unemployment . Watch this Video ( to learn more about Sean Sherman and the Native Food movement . Like primitivism , orientalism has endured in American and European cultures . In the two decades following the attacks on American targets on September 11 , 2001 , the most prominent example of orientalism in American culture has been the stereotype that all Islamic peoples are fanatical and violent . The indiscriminate application of this stereotype to Islamic peoples across the Middle East was a major contributor to the 2003 American invasion , a country that had nothing at all to do with the September 11 attacks . To promote the invasion , politicians used the orientalist notion that Iraq was a violent and irrational country stockpiling weapons of mass destruction ( which turned out to be false ) As the war raged on , the Iraqi people came to be categorized as either unlawful combatants or helpless victims of a cruel dictator . American argued that Iraqis needed the help of American troops to save them from their subjugation and teach them democracy . For many Europeans and Americans , these forms of ethnocentric bias distort views living in large geographical regions of the globe . Misunderstanding other cultures this way can result in policies and military actions that do not achieve desired results . Moreover , ethnocentric bias promotes and reinforces inequality among social groups within multicultural societies . When people with certain ethnic or racial identities are seen as helpless or violent , they face discrimination in their pursuit , employment , and justice . The Bias of Common to both primitivism and orientalism is the notion that European and cultures are more advanced and civilized than other cultures . Since at least the century , thinking has been dominated by the idea that the various cultures of the world can be evaluated on a scale of sociocultural sophistication from least advanced to most advanced . Typically , Native American and African cultures were considered the most primitive , while those of Asia and the Middle East were thought of as slightly more developed but certainly not as civilized as the societies of Europe , which were ranked at the top as the epitome of human progress .

Early anthropology played a role in promoting this ethnocentric way of thinking . anthropologists detailed various hypothetical schemes charting the developmental stages that each culture would go through in its pursuit of the European ideal of civilization . One very prominent scheme was proposed by the British anthropologist Edward . suggested that each culture progressed from savagery to barbarism to civilization . Since the change from one stage to another could not be witnessed by the researcher , such evolutionary schemes were largely based on hypothetical conjecture , sometimes called theorizing from the While some anthropologists played a role in this way of thinking , others worked to expose it as misguided and inaccurate . The writings of American anthropologist Franz Boas highlighted the fact that no culture is isolated in its process change . Instead , each culture develops through interactions with other cultures , as new ideas and inventions diffuse from one culture to the next . Moreover , cultural change is not structured by an overall trajectory of progress as by the European example rather , cultures change in many ways , sometimes adopting new ways of doing things and other times reviving and reclaiming older ways . Through these varied patterns of change , each culture forges its own unique history . While the evolutionary schemes of anthropology have been disproven , the underlying notion of sociocultural progress toward a ideal is still a widespread form of ethnocentric bias outside of anthropology . Many people still refer to some countries as developed and modern and others as undeveloped and backward . Think for a minute Which countries are generally thought of as modern ?

Which ones are frequently referred to as undeveloped ?

What is really meant by these labels ?

These labels are rooted in values . Championing capitalism and technology , many Europeans and Americans view the generation of material wealth as the primary measure of the success of any society . The divide between the more and less advanced countries of the world is largely a distinction between the richer and poorer countries . European and American societies , which have become wealthy through the development of global trade and industrial capitalism , are considered the most successful . Societies that have not achieved the levels of wealth and technology associated with industrial capitalism are sometimes labeled Societies that have not industrialized at all are sometimes called premodern or simply As with older evolutionary schemes , this way of thinking relies on the notion that each society pursues economic development in isolation . The poorer countries of the world are told ifyou work hard and apply the correct economic policies , then you too can become rich like the United States , the United Kingdom , and Germany . But how did those countries become rich in the first place ?

Certainly not in isolation . The emphasis on cultural interaction also applies to economic change . To a large degree , European and American societies became wealthy by dominating other societies and keeping them poor . European countries constructed a system of global capitalism designed to make them very rich by extracting raw materials and human labor from their colonies . In fact , that was the whole impetus for colonialism . The cultural anthropologist Sidney is one of many who have studied how this happened . explored how European merchants designed a very lucrative system of production and consumption based on sugar ( 1985 ) As European consumers began developing a taste for sugar in the century , European merchants developed sugar plantations in the New World using the labor of enslaved people transported from West Africa . Sugar produced on these plantations was exported to Europe and the rest of the world , earning a hefty profit for the European merchants who designed the system . Local people living in the places where sugar was produced did not benefit much from this trade , and enslaved people suffered and died for it . Similar systems were developed for the production of other global commodities such as cocoa , coffee , tea , and cotton . Some commodities required enslaved labor and others involved small farmers , but the basic structure of the trade was the same . The economies of many South Asian and African countries were designed entirely around the export of primary commodities , the production of which was controlled by European merchants who reaped the from this global trade . Many postcolonial countries still rely on the export of these primary commodities . What do these historical processes mean for understanding the world today ?

European merchants and governments crafted strategic ways of thinking about the parts of the world they wanted to invade and colonize . To justify the development of the slave trade , the plantation system , and colonial rule , Europeans labeled many as backward peoples needing the civilizing of European domination . This form of bias persists in contemporary notions applied to the poorer peoples and parts of the world . In reality , the colonial system was a global mechanism for European merchants and governments to extract wealth from other parts of the world . European merchants took great care to maintain control over these forms of highly trade , edging out local merchants and forbidding local competition . Even today , we see the remnants of this system in domination of global trade . If the world seems divided between rich and poor , it is not because some countries work hard and others are It is because the global system was founded on forms of inequality that endure into the present . PROFILES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Franz Boas FIGURE Franz Boas ( credit by Canadian Museum of Commons , Public Domain ) Personal History Franz Uri Boas was born in Germany to a Jewish family ( Peregrine 2018 ) After completing a in physics and mathematics , he worked as a geographer on an expedition to the Canadian Arctic , living and working with the Native peoples on Island . With his newfound passion for Native American culture , Boas returned to Germany to work at a museum and began conducting ethnographic and linguistic research among Native groups . In 1887 , he came to the United States and established the anthropology department at Clark University in Massachusetts . He spent most of his career as an anthropology professor at Columbia University and curator at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City . Areas Though he promoted a holistic approach integrating the four of anthropology , Boas was primarily a cultural anthropologist specializing in the Native peoples of the Northwest coast America . Between 1886 and 1900 , he conducted 29 months of in the region , focusing on the

peoples of Vancouver Island . He recorded myths , songs , and folklore in Native languages and described cultural activities such as food collection and artistic styles . Focusing on the linguistic and psychological aspects of this rich ethnographic data , Boas sought to understand Native perspectives and values . As the leading anthropologist of his time , he established an American tradition of recording ethnographic observations in meticulous detail and promoted the goal of reaching for an insider point of view . Accomplishments in the Field Boas profoundly disagreed with ethnocentric and racist theories circulating in the social sciences in the late and early centuries . Some anthropologists of the day some cultures as primitive or savage , arguing that each culture developed in isolation along a common trajectory toward civilization . Rejecting this model , Boas used his ethnographic data to show that cultures do not develop in isolation toward a common goal . Rather , each culture has its own unique historical trajectory , and cultures are constantly changing by sharing new ideas and practices . Importance of His Work Boas was by the use of anthropological methods to support the theories and practices of White supremacy . In the century , some American researchers measured the skulls of various ethnic groups , arguing that people who had immigrated to the United States from northern Europe had larger skulls and were therefore intellectually superior . In 1907 , Boas conducted a survey for the Immigration Commission measuring the skulls of American immigrants and their children . Comparing the head shapes and children , Boas discovered that the children had larger skulls due to environmental factors in their new homeland , such as diet and medical care . His dealt a strong blow to race theory . Throughout his career , Boas spoke out against racism , arguing that biological differences have nothing to do with culture , language , or achievement . Holism , Distinctive Approach LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to and give examples of holism . Analyze how different elements of society cohere with and reinforce one another . Identify how different elements of society can contradict one another , motivating social change . In 2020 , the pandemic swept across the globe . Nearly 210 million people had fallen sick with the and more than million had died as of August 2021 . Medical researchers are still studying the effects of this illness on the lungs and brains of people who have recovered . Some have discovered psychological effects as well , such as increased risks for depression , anxiety , and schizophrenia . Beyond the medical realm , the effects of the pandemic reached into every aspect ofour societies and our everyday lives . In societies all over the world , people were forced to remain at home , sheltering in place from the dangers of the disease . Businesses closed their doors to the public , and many shut down permanently , unable to pay their bills . By May 2020 , nearly 50 million Americans had reported losing theirjobs due to the pandemic . The epidemic ballooned into an epidemic of grief as people mourned the loss of the those who had died and worried about those who had fallen sick . Stressed out by so many disruptions , some adults turned to alcohol and drugs , and addiction rates soared . Incidents of domestic violence escalated . Racial violence against Asian Americans increased as some Americans blamed China for the emergence and global spread of the disease . People everywhere reported feeling lonelier and more cut off from their friends and family members . And yet there were also some positive consequences . Because people were not driving as much , air quality improved in many urban areas , giving relief to many people who suffer from asthma . Looking up into the night sky , some people were able to see stars for the very time . Some people reported valuing their friends and family members even more now that they could not spend time with them in person . New social media technologies spread , such as Zoom , and many people learned to use existing technologies such as FaceTime and Skype . People also became aware of the valuable contributions made by essential workers in drugstores , hardware stores , and grocery stores as well as hospitals and nursing homes .

How did a virus cause so many changes ?

The various elements of society are entwined in a complex whole . Dramatic changes in one area , such as epidemic disease in the realm of public health , can trigger a chain of effects throughout other social realms , such as the family , the economy , religion , and the political system . You recall the word holism from our earlier discussion about anthropology commitment to understanding how the many parts of society work together . is a distinctive method of analysis that the relationships among different realms of culture . Society as an Integrated Whole Throughout the , infant death rates in certain rural areas in Africa decreased dramatically . While thrilled with this positive trend , researchers did not initially know how to explain it . Were mothers and fathers doing something different to promote the health of their babies ?

Were African governments providing better health services for infants ?

Were aid agencies providing more resources ?

None of these things seemed to be true in any way . The one thing that had changed in the areas with lower infant mortality was the spread of mobile phones . Could that have something to do with lower infant mortality ?

And if so , how ?

Researchers hypothesize that it wasn the possession or use of mobile phones that was making the was the capability to use mobile money transfers and other . If a baby had a fever in the middle of the night , the mother could now immediately text members of her extended family to organize the necessary funds to take the baby to a hospital for treatment . Quicker treatment meant a better chance for recovery . Something that does not appear to be directly related to infant health may in fact have a great impact on it . Recall from the beginning of this chapter our discussion of the very broad scope of anthropology . While other disciplines focus on one realm of society , such as medicine or technology , anthropology ranges across all realms of human thought and activity . Using the technique of holism , anthropologists ask how seemingly disparate elements of social life might be related in unexpected ways . In American and European cultures , the most common form of marriage is a union of two people . In the United States , many marriages end in divorce and most people then remarry , resulting in a cycle of remarriage called serial monogamy . In other cultures , however , a man may have more than one wife . It might be tempting to think that the dominant form of marriage in a culture is related to morality or gender relations . It turns out , however , that one very significant on marriage patterns is the strategy of a particular culture . In farming cultures , the marriage ofone man to two or more women provides an abundance of children to help out with the work of weeding , watering , fertilizing , and guarding the crops ( 1970 2007 Goody 1976 ) In cultures where children contribute to food production , the marriage of one man to multiple women is more prevalent . This is always the case , of course , as there are other factors that the form of marriage practiced in a culture , but the useful work of children does contribute to the popularity of this form of marriage . In the contemporary United States , by contrast , most people work not on farms but in , shops , and factories . Children are not valued as sources of household labor , and they are not legally permitted to work for wages . In fact , children can be viewed as a drain on the household , each one requiring a massive investment of resources in the form of health care , childcare , special equipment , educational opportunities , and expensive toys . In this context , the increased fertility of multiple wives might impoverish the household . Moreover , our , capitalist economy requires a and highly mobile work force . American workers can lose theirjobs , and they must be prepared to move and retrain in order to further work . Many Americans experience periods and in their work lives , conditions that affect the livelihood of their households as well as their relationships with their marriage partners and children . Such a context contributes to smaller family size and fragile marriage bonds . The cycles of stability and disruption in American work life are mirrored in the cycles of marriage and divorce involved in serial monogamy . These arejust two examples anthropologists are committed to taking such a broad view of the cultures they study . Often , the various realms of society are related in ways that are not at apparent to the researcher . By specializing too narrowly on only one realm , the researcher might miss the wider forces that shape the object of study .

Sources of Contradiction , Conflict , and Change Holistic analysis considers not only how the various features of culture hold together but also how change in one feature can generate cascading changes among others . Often , anthropologists begin their analysis by focusing on one change in the lives ofa particular cultural group and then chart the of that change through various other realms of culture . Ahmad conducted research among South Asian women who migrate to the Middle East as housekeepers ( 2017 ) She writes about how these women adapt to a new culture and living situation in Kuwait and the disruptions they face when they return to their families and home cultures . On thejob in Kuwait , these domestic workers must learn to speak Arabic , operate household gadgets , prepare an entirely different cuisine , respect Islamic norms and practices , and perform their appropriate gender role as female members of a household . They face the cultural requirement that women should be , or soft and malleable , as they develop emotionally charged relationships with the various members of the household . These requirements bring about profound personal transformations for these women as they deal with the contradictions ofbeing both successful wage earners and subordinated cultural others . The motivation to migrate is primarily the need to pay for schooling , marriages , medical care , and other family expenses . While the women are working in Kuwait , their families become economically dependent on the money they send back home even as their emotional relationships with their family members become weaker and more . When they return home , profoundly changed by their experiences in Kuwait , their natal families nonetheless expect them to behave exactly as they did before they left , observing the same gender and norms that govern the household . This creates a sense of internal for these women . Unable to truly reintegrate with their natal families , many either seek out new connections in their home communities or migrate back to Kuwait . Some begin learning more about Islam by attending special da wa classes , where they meet other women in the same situation . Finding ethical inspiration in Islamic teachings , many do convert , against the objections of their natal families and their employers . All cultures are constantly changing , with small changes in one realm snowballing into larger and larger changes within and beyond that culture . The Me Too movement is another good example . What began in 2006 as a call by American activist Burke for solidarity and empathy with victims of sexual harassment has now spread into many sectors of American society and across the globe . Initially focused on celebrities and the movie industry , the Me Too movement has raised awareness of widespread sexual harassment and assault in the fashion industry , churches , the industry , sports , medicine , politics , and the military . Activists press for legal changes to protect workers , especially whistleblowers who come forward with allegations of inappropriate sexual behavior . Evaluations and chauvinistic behavior in these institutional realms have sparked scrutiny of the more informal cultural norms of American romance and dating . The Me Too movement challenges the way Americans think about the gender roles of men and women , appropriate speech and gestures , and the distinction between public life and private life . The movement has prompted processes of dialogue and change in at least 28 other countries , including Afghanistan , China , and the Philippines . The global campaign has been interpreted differently in each of these cultural as the intentions of American activists intersect with local norms of gender and sexuality . Indeed , some critique the Me Too movement as ethnocentric . Though the calls for reform resonated with French feminists , Me Too activism sparked a backlash among many other French people , with some men and even women arguing that French men should have the right to make sexually provocative comments and rub against women in public places . While many anthropologists actively support the Me Too movement , our methods of comparison call on us to set aside our personal values ( at least temporarily ) in order to understand how people in various cultural interpret and act on the campaign against harassment and assault . This method of suspending personal values is key to understanding how all the elements of a particular culture interact with one another , including pressures from the outside .

Comparison and Cultural Relativism LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to the concept of relativism and explain why this term is so important to the study of anthropology . Distinguish relativism from the anything goes approach to culture . Describe how relativism can enlighten our approach to social problems . Recall our earlier discussion of cultural styles of clothing . American clothing style is related to American values . clothing style is related to values . We have seen how different realms of culture are interrelated , together to form distinctive wholes . Anthropologists use the term cultural relativism to describe how every element of culture must be understood within the broader whole of that culture . Relativism highlights how each belief or practice is related to all of the other beliefs and practices in a culture . The anthropological commitment to relativism means that anthropologists do the merits of particular beliefs and practices but rather seek to understand the wider that produce and reinforce those elements of culture . Even when studying controversial topics such as piracy and guerilla warfare , anthropologists set aside their personal convictions in order to explore the complex web of cultural forces that determine why we do the things we do . Relativism Is Not Anything Goes Critics of the notion of relativism , believing so strongly in their own cultural norms that they can not set them aside , even temporarily . They argue that relativism is amoral , a refusal to condemn aspects of culture considered to be wrong and harmful . For them , relativism means anything For anthropologists , cultural relativism is a rigorous mode of holistic analysis requiring the temporary suspension for the purposes of exploration and analysis . Anthropologists do not think that violent or exploitative cultural practices are just , but they do think that the reasons for those practices are a lot more complex than we might imagine . And frequently , we that interventions of ethnocentric outsiders can do more harm than good . Morality , Activism , and Cultural Relativism A striking example of the application of cultural relativism in anthropology is the controversy surrounding female genital cutting ( sometimes called female genital mutilation . is a cultural practice in which an elder cuts a younger woman genitalia , removing all or part of the clitoris and labia . The practice is common in parts of Africa and the Middle East . is not only extremely painful it can also lead to infection , urination problems , infertility , and complications in childbirth . The World Health Organization and the United Nations condemn the practice as a form against children , a danger to women health , and a violation human rights . These organizations view as a form of discrimination against women , enforcing extreme inequality among the sexes . Efforts to ban have focused on educating parents and children about the medical harms associated with the practice . Local governments are encouraged to enact laws banning and impose criminal penalties against the elders who perform it .

FIGURE women attending a church dedication ceremony . credit by , BY ) Despite decades of campaigning against , however , the practice remains widespread . If condemning has not been effective in reducing it , then what can be done ?

Anthropologist has taken a more relativist approach , attempting to understand the larger cultural norms and values that make such an enduring practice . Setting aside her personal opinions , spent long periods in African communities where is practiced , talking to people about why is important to them . She learned that has different functions in different sociocultural . Among the people of northern Kenya , many people believe that mens and women bodies are naturally androgynous , a mix of masculine and feminine parts . In order for a girl to become a woman , it is necessary to remove the parts of female genitalia that resemble a man penis . Likewise , in order for a boy to become a man , the foreskin must be removed because it resembles the folds of female genitalia . Other societies value for different reasons . Some Muslim societies consider a form of hygiene , making a girl clean so that she can pray to Allah . Some communities see as a way of limiting premarital sex and discouraging extramarital affairs . In the colonial period , when was banned by the colonial government , some girls practiced on themselves as a form of resistance to colonial authority . As is promoted and carried out by senior women in most , the practice becomes a way for senior women to solidify power and exert in the community . People in communities practicing are often aware of the efforts of outside groups to ban the practice . They know about medical complications such as the risk of infection . But the denunciations of outsiders often seem unconvincing to them , as those denunciations tend to ignore the cultural reasons for the endurance of . People who practice do not do it because they despise women or want to harm children . argues that parents weigh the risks and of , often deciding that the procedure is in the best interest of their child future . Personally , remains critical of and works on a project with the Population Council designed to dramatically reduce the practice . Cultural relativism does not mean permanently abandoning our own value systems . Instead , it asks us to set aside the norms and values of our own culture for a while in order to fully understand controversial practices in other cultures . By , was able to learn two important things . First , while campaigns to eradicate frequently target mothers , providing them with educational material about the medical risks involved , learned that the decision to go ahead with the procedure is not made by parents alone . A large network of relatives and friends may pressure a parents to arrange for the cutting in order to ensure the girl chastity , marriageability , and fertility . Secondly , learned that people who practice do it because they want the best for their girls . They want their girls to be respected and admired , considered clean and beautiful , for marriage and childbearing . argues that outside organizations should reconsider their efforts , focusing more on

communities than on individual parents . Awareness campaigns will be more effective if they resonate with local norms and values rather than condemning them as part of the whole culture of . Some researchers urge activists to connect with local feminists and women groups in an effort to empower local women and localize the movement against . Some alternative approaches press for more incremental forms of change , such as moving the practice to more sanitary conditions in clinics and hospitals and reducing the severity of the procedure to smaller cuts or more symbolic nicks . As this example illustrates , cultural relativism is not an amoral anything goes approach but rather a strategy for forming relationships and gaining deeper understanding . Once this foundation has been established , anthropologists are often able to revise their activist goals and more effectively work together with people from another culture in pursuit of common interests . Reaching for Point of View LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this section , you will be able to the notion of insider point of view . Critique the notion of insider point of view , explaining how it is never perfectly achievable . List and describe the distinctive methods anthropologists deploy in their attempts to represent an point of view work on demonstrates the importance of setting aside your own values and opinions in order to see an issue from the point of view of those directly involved . This often means working across , whether studying another group or another culture . Anthropologists across the four apply this technique . Cultural anthropologists talk to people and participate in social activities in order to understand cultural life . Archaeologists rely on artifacts and fossils to reconstruct the sociocultural life of peoples in earlier times and different places . Through these different methods , anthropologists all aim for the same thing they want to understand the perspectives of the people who practice a particular culture , sometimes called an insider point . The Challenge of Representing Others The anthropological goal of representing an insider point of view is controversial . Is it truly possible to step outside your own identity to really understand a different perspective ?

How can a researcher from a particular culture possibly understand exactly how it feels to be a member of another culture ?

Even anthropologists who study their own cultures may themselves researching people from different classes , ethnicities , or gender categories . Is it possible to accurately represent the perspectives of people whose lives are so different from your own ?

Is it ethical ?

Is it valuable ?

For decades , White European and American anthropologists conducted research and wrote as if the challenge of representing cultures very different from their own was really no problem at all . Empowered by White privilege and ethnocentrism , many earlier anthropologists believed that intensive was enough to give them insight into the perspectives of the people they studied . Too frequently , those anthropologists reduced the complexity of the cultures they studied to just one point of view , as if the people in that society all interpreted their cultural rules the same way and never disagreed or changed the rules over time . In her book about Japanese culture , The Chrysanthemum and the Sword ( 1946 ) anthropologist Ruth Benedict describes Japanese people in terms of common personality traits , such as reverence for the emperor and a moral sense guided by shame . Critics have argued that her conclusions are skewed by her overreliance on very few informants , all of them Japanese people to internment camps during World War 11 . As we have explored in this chapter , every culture comprises multiple perspectives that often contradict one another , generating sociocultural and change . Recognizing this situation , contemporary anthropologists often conduct research among several different and geographical locations , integrating insights from these various arenas into a comprehensive and dynamic view of cultural complexity . Then there is the question bias , often operating unconsciously among researchers and the

people they study . Consider the situation above in which a White American anthropologist conducts research in an African country previously colonized by Europeans . European colonialism left behind a legacy of White privilege in postcolonial African countries . Earlier anthropologists did not often recognize how power dynamics might shape their research and writing , distorting their representations of the peoples they studied . In the 19605 , anthropologists began to think more carefully about these issues , realizing that an insider point of view is never perfectly achievable . As human beings , our own perspectives are conditioned by our own , our own ways of seeing and thinking about the world around us . If an insider point is never really possible , should we give up on this aspirational goal of the discipline ?

In such a scenario , researchers would only study and write about people from the same sociocultural categories as themselves . So , for example , Americans would only research and write about other Americans . But are all Americans really members of the same sociocultural category ?

Could an Asian American from Manhattan research and write about a poor Black community in the Deep South ?

Could a Latino man write about a group of people consisting of all genders ?

American culture is not unique in its complex array of identities . In all cultures , people have multiple identities as members of multiple sociocultural categories . While you may be an insider within your culture in some respect , you may be an outsider by some other measure . The ethical question of who can represent who is riddled with . Moreover , resigning ourselves to studying our own people , whoever they might be , is tantamount to giving up on research and the insight , empathy , dialogue , and transformation that frequently result from it . Anthropological insights have been key to rethinking American notions of sexuality , family , and race , among so many other pressing issues . We need the skills of research now more than ever . While perfect representations of different communities and cultures may be impossible , many anthropologists now deploy innovative methods designed to address the problems of history and power at the heart of the discipline . The aim is not to achieve perfect ethnography but to work ethically and collaboratively to produce what contemporary cultural anthropologist Nancy has termed good enough Collaborative Methods of Representation Faced with the challenges of representation , many anthropologists practice methods of collaboration with the individuals and groups that they study . Collaborative ethnography has a very long history in cultural anthropology , traceable all the way back to early of Native Americans . Often , anthropologists began their research by employing a local person as a translator or assistant , a role that usually evolved into something much more cooperative .

FIGURE Francis La ( credit Francis by National Anthropological Archives , Smithsonian Commons , Public Domain ) Researching the Omaha peoples in the early century , anthropologist Alice Fletcher began working with a young Omaha man , Francis La . Through their collaboration , La became an ethnographer himself . While most anthropologists of the day merely acknowledged their local collaborators ( if they did even that ) La became a full coauthor of ethnography , The Omaha Tribe ( 1911 ) Today , anthropologists collaborate with the people they study in a number of ways . Some involve local people as readers and editors of their work , sometimes including community responses in the published ethnography . Some conduct focus groups to generate local feedback on particular chapters . Some anthropologists hold community meetings or forums to talk about the major themes and implications of their work . And some , like Fletcher , collaborate with members of the local community as equal on books and articles . Such methods strengthen ethnography by ensuring accuracy , promoting multiple perspectives , and striving to make anthropological work more relevant to the communities being studied . Collaboration also draws attention to the personal side of ethnography . Instead of extracting ethnographic facts from the process of , many contemporary anthropologists focus on describing particular people , insightful conversations , and cooperative practices encountered in their research . Through this kind of representation , culture is represented as a constellation of personal perspectives , each one shaped by the position of each person in that community . Anthropologists also now acknowledge that ethnography is shaped by the personal background and identity of the researcher as well as the motivations and intended audience of the research . Collaborative anthropologists frequently describe their research in the first person , openly acknowledging how their personal and cultural biases their research . Anthropologist Luke Lassiter takes a collaborative approach in his study of the song and dance of contemporary communities of southern Oklahoma ( 1998 ) Lassiter describes how he became interested in song as a boy through his involvement in the Order of the Arrow , an of the Boy Scouts . Moving beyond the representations of Native American culture in Boy Scout teachings , Lassiter went on to attend powwows , where he met singers and learned more about culture . He developed a close friendship with renowned singer Billy Evans Horse , who taught Lassiter how to sing songs and encouraged him to pursue his interest in culture in graduate school . Instead of his own

description of song and dance , Lassiter highlights the individual experiences and opinions of his local collaborators as how songs are created , passed down , and interpreted in the community . Collaborative anthropology is not only more ethical and accurate it is also more socially conscious and political . When anthropologists collaborate as equals , they often become socially involved and politically committed to the welfare of the communities they study . There are various terms for this , among them engaged anthropology , public anthropology , anthropological advocacy , and applied anthropology . When those communities face struggles over land , food security , medical care , or human rights abuses , many anthropologists support their interests in a number of ways . Anthropologists often speak out publicly , write sympathetic , testify in court , participate in protests , and coordinate with organizations that can provide material aid . Anthropologist Stuart Kirsch was researching magic and sorcery in a village in New Guinea when he became concerned about pollution from local copper and gold mines nearby ( 2018 ) As the community he was studying mobilized to protect their environment , Kirsch became involved in their lawsuit against the Australian owners of the mine . He contributed to a social and environmental impact study and advised lawyers representing the affected communities . He spoke out to local media and scholarly publications , explaining the environmental problems caused by pollution from the mine . Working across Cultures toward Common Goals Stepping back for a moment , consider the problems facing us as humans on our shared planet . Climate change threatens the survival of humanity and the biodiversity of plants and animals . Forms of deeply entrenched inequality fuel racial , ethnic , and class within and between nations . These are global problems , transnational problems , problems . Human beings need to a way to communicate and cooperate across the sociocultural boundaries that divide us , always recognizing the power dynamics involved in that process . How can we do this ?

Anthropology teaches us that we may never understand exactly how it feels to be a member of a different culture or group within our own culture . But if we want to work together with people of different sociocultural backgrounds to solve these pressing global issues , we have to try . and collaboration are not perfect solutions to the challenges of understanding , but these methods give us a place to begin . And anthropological methods and insights can be transformative , making possible the kinds of empathy and dialogue necessary to solve our global problems . The goal of this anthropology textbook is to guide you in this process of transformation as you learn about the cultural lives of the various peoples with whom you share this planet . ACTIVITY Representation and Otherness List three characters from movies or television shows who represent people from cultures different from your own . What adjectives would you use to describe these characters ?

How are they made to appear ?

How do they act ?

Are they central or marginal characters ?

What role does each play in the plot or theme ?

What might be the consequences of representing cultural groups in this way ?

Do you see evidence of ethnocentrism , primitivism , orientalism as described in this chapter ?

Suggested Readings , Matthew . 2018 . How to Think Like an Anthropologist . Princeton Princeton University Press . Kirsten , ed . 2014 . Anthropology and Nature . Studies in Anthropology 14 . New York . Otto , Ton , and Nils , 2010 . Experiments in Holism Practice in Contemporary Anthropology . MA .

Key Terms the contemporary period of increasing human impact on the ecosystems of our planet . anthropology the study of humanity across time and space . the study of how people in the past understood and used celestial objects for navigation , calendars , politics , and the timing of ritual events . archaeology the of anthropology that relies on the excavation of artifacts and fossils to explore how environmental and historical conditions have produced a diversity of human cultures . artifacts objects made by humans , such as pottery or tools . biological anthropology the field of anthropology that focuses on the earliest processes in the biological and sociocultural development of human beings as well as the biological diversity of contemporary humans . Biological anthropologists study the origins , evolution , and diversity of our species . cultural anthropology the field of anthropology devoted to describing and understanding the wide variety of human cultures . Cultural anthropologists focus on such things as social thought , action , ritual , values , and institutions . cultural other a stereotype of a person from a different culture , used to create a cultural distinction between us and them . cultural relativism understanding every element of culture within the broader whole of that culture . Cultural relativism highlights how each belief or practice is related to all of the other beliefs and practices in a culture . the process of learning and acquiring a particular culture , often in childhood . ethnobotany the study of how people in different cultures categorize and use plants for food , shelter , tools , transportation , art , and religion . ethnocentrism the notion that one own culture is Summary Anthropology is an incredibly broad discipline , covering the entire scope of human experience , but its enormity is controlled by a common narrative and set of three central commitments . The common narrative states that human beings have developed biological and social features that have so superior that no other culture is worth consideration . Ethnocentric people often imagine that the world would be a much better place if the beliefs , values , and practices of their own culture were spread to or imposed on everyone else in the world . ethnography a written book or article about a particular culture . excavation the removal of fossils and artifacts from the ground in order to learn as much as possible about how people lived in times before and after the development of writing . a research method that requires cultural anthropologists to live for many months or years in the societies they study , adopting local ways of living , eating , dressing , and speaking as closely as possible . forensic anthropology the application of the techniques of biological anthropology to solve crimes . fossils the remains of organism preserved in the environment . holism how the elements of human life are bound together to form distinctive cultures . the evolutionary ancestors of modern humans . insider point of view a goal of anthropological research , representing the perspectives of people who practice a particular culture . linguistic anthropology the field of anthropology that explores the central role of language in human cultural life . Linguistic anthropologists study the origins of language , how language shapes thought , and how language operates as a tool of power . orientalism the depiction of some cultural groups , particularly people from the Middle East and Asia , as exotic , irrational , fanatical , and sensuous . primitivism the depiction of some cultural groups , particularly Africans and Native Americans , as exotic , simple , highly sexual , potentially violent , and closer to nature . worked together in a wide variety of environmental and historical conditions to produce a diversity of cultures . The three central commitments are exploring sociocultural diversity , examining how societies hold together , and studying the interdependence of humans and nature .

Anthropologists have developed four main approaches to pursuing anthropology common narrative , comprising the discipline four biological anthropology , archaeology , cultural anthropology , and linguistic anthropology . Each of these generates a particular type of knowledge about the human experience that can be integrated with knowledge from the other three into a deeper , richer understanding of humanity central challenges , such as racial injustice and climate change . Getting at that deeper understanding , anthropologists learn to recognize their own biases as forms of ethnocentrism such as primitivism and orientalism . Rather than categorizing societies according to levels of sophistication ( as European scholars did in the century ) contemporary Critical Thinking Questions . Have you ever taken a course in one of the other social disciplines , such as economics , political science , history , or religion ?

How would anthropology study the same subject matter in a different way ?

Which other social issues might from a approach ?

Propose one issue , and consider how each of the four might contribute to our understanding of that issue . Have you ever thought or said something ethnocentric ?

What is an appropriate response if someone else says something ethnocentric in a conversation ?

How can people learn to recognize and rethink ethnocentric notions ?

As mentioned in this chapter , one very dominant way of evaluating the sophistication of different societies is by measuring the amount of wealth generated by each one . Can you think of an alternative way of evaluating progress or development ?

Would that way reorder the global hierarchy ?

How might it change your way of Bibliography anthropologists use holistic techniques of examination and analysis , seeking to understand how the various elements within a culture together and how these elements can contradict one another , provoking change . Effective holistic analysis requires a commitment to the method of cultural relativism , which requires a researcher to set aside their own personal values in order to appreciate another culture on its own terms . An important contribution to a rich appreciation of another culture is the input and participation of cultural insiders . The ethical challenges of understanding and representing another culture have led anthropologists to develop collaborative ways of working with cultural insiders , aimed at addressing the power of and ethnography . thinking about your own society ?

Identify a contemporary problem in your own society . How would you pursue a holistic analysis of that problem ?

What are the various realms of culture that directly or indirectly relate to that problem ?

Is it really possible to set aside your own personal values when studying something you consider morally troubling or simply wrong ?

Identify a controversial topic in your own or another culture , ideally one that is personally meaningful to you . How would you practice cultural relativism when studying this topic ?

How would relativism change the way you interact with people in the course ofyour research ?

How would it change the kinds of questions you would ask in interviews ?

Make a list of possible ways you could collaborate with someone from another social or cultural group in an effort to represent the perspectives of cultural insiders . Ahmad , 2017 . Everyday Conversions Islam , Domestic Work , and South Asian Migrant Women in Kuwait . Duke University Press . Ball , Christopher . 2018 . Exchanging Words Language , Ritual , and Brazil Indigenous Park . Albuquerque University of New Mexico Press . Susan . 1999 . Caste , Society , and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age . The New Cambridge History of India , vol . no . Cambridge Cambridge University Press . James 2018 . Ark Encounter The Making ofa Creationist Theme Park . New York New York University Press .

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