Interpersonal Communication A Mindful Approach to Relati Cultural and Environmental Factors in Interpersonal Communication

mage by from Chapter Cultural and Environmental Factors in Interpersonal Communication One of the most important factors in our understanding of communication is culture . Every one of us has grown up in a unique cultural environment , and this culture has impacted how we communicate . Culture is such an ingrained part of who We are that we often don even recognize our ( culture . In this chapter , we re going to explore culture and its impact on interpersonal communication . 190

. i . i . CHIN ' KASHMIR . i VALLEY . i ) i KASHMIR ' A Figure Traditional costumes and contemporary style of dress are elements of culture . Traditional Dresses . By . This file is licensed under the Creative Attribution license . What is Culture ?

Define the term culture ' as it is used within this book . Understand a dominant culture . Differentiate between a and a . ca hen people the word culture , many different images often come to mind . Maybe you immediately think of going to the ballet , an opera , or an art . Other people think of traditional dress like that seen from Kashmir in Figure . However , the word culture has a wide range of different meanings to a lot of different people . For example , when you travel to a new country ( or even a state Within your country ) you expect to encounter different clothing , languages , foods , rituals , ete The word culture is a hotly debated term among academies . In 1952 , and Clyde compiled a list of 164 definitions for the word Culture is often described as the way we do In their book , the authors noted , Considering that concept of culture had a name for less than 80 years , it is not surprising that full agreement and precision has not yet been and predicted that eventually , science would land on a singular definition of culture as it was refined through the scientific process over time . Unfortunately , the idea of a single definition of culture is no closer to becoming a reality today than it was in For our purposes , we are going to talk about Culture as a group of people who through a process ' I

of learning are able to share perceptions of the World which influences their beliefs , values , norms , and rules , which eventually affect behavior . Let break down this definition . First , when we talk about culture , we are starting off with a group of people . One of the biggest new people studying culture have is that an individual can have their own personalized culture . Culture is something that is formed by the groups that we grow up in and are involved With through our lifetimes . Second , we learn about our culture . In fact , culture becomes such an ingrained part of who we are that we often do not even recognize our om culture and how our own culture affects us daily . ust like language , everyone is to learn culture . What culture we pick up is ultimately a matter of the group ( we are born into and raised . Just like a baby born to an family isn going to magically start speaking French out of nowhere , neither will a person from one culture adopt another culture accidentally . Third , what We learn ultimately leads to a shared perception of the world . All cultures have stories that are taught to children that impact how they view the world . If you are raised or Christian guardians , you will learn the creation in the Bible . However , this is only one of many different creation myths that have over time in different cultures The in Kenya say that the first two people were lowered to earth by God on a cloud . In ancient Babylon and , the gods slaughtered another god named , and out of his blood and clay , they formed humans . One myth among the Tibetan people is that they owe their existence to the union of an ogress , not of this world , and a monkey on Ri Mountain at . And the Aboriginal tribes in Australia believe that humans are just the of gods . Ultimately , which creation story we grew up with was a matter of the culture in which we were raised . These different myths lead to very different views of the individual relationship With both the world and with their God , gods , or Fourth , the culture we are raised in will teach us our beliefs , values , norms , and rules . Beliefs are assumptions and convictions held by an individual , group , or culture about the truth or existence of something . For example , in all of the creation myths discussed in the previous paragraph , these are beliefs that were held by many people at various times in human history . Next , we have values , or important and lasting principles or standards held by a culture about desirable and appropriate courses of action or outcomes . This definition is a bit complex , so let break it down . When looking at this definition , it important first to highlight that different cultures have different perceptions related to both courses of action or outcomes . For example , in many cultures throughout history , for one cause ) has been something deeply valued . As such , in those cultures , putting one self in harm way ( course of action ) or ( outcome ) would be seen as both desirable and appropriate . a given culture , there are generally guiding principles and standards that help determine what is desirable and appropriate . In fact , many religious texts describe martyrdom as a holy calling . So , within these cultures , martyrdom is something that is valued . Next , within the definition of culture are the concepts of norms and rules . Norms are informal guidelines about what is acceptable or proper social behavior within a specific culture . Rules , on the other hand , are the explicit guidelines ( generally written down ) that govern acceptable or proper social behavior within a specific culture . rules , We have clearly concrete and explicitly communicated is of behaving , whereas norms are generally not concrete , nor are they explicitly communicated . generally do not know a norm exists within a given culture unless we violate the norm or watch someone else violating the norm . The final part of the definition of culture , and probably the most important for our , looking at interpersonal communication , is that these beliefs , values , norms , and rules will govern how people behave . 192

res In addition to a dominant culture , societies have various , economic , social , religious , ethnic , and other cultural groups that exert influence in society . Other develop people who share specific beliefs , ideologies , or life experiences . For , within the United States we commonly refer to a wide variety of different cultures Amish culture , African American culture , Buddhist Culture , and lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , queer , and asexual ( culture . With all of these different cultural groups , we must realize that just because individuals belong to a cultural group , that does not mean that they are all identical . For example , African Americans in New York City are culturally distinct from those living in Birmingham , Alabama , because they also belong to different geographical . Within the culture , the members who make up the different letters can have a wide range of differing cultural experiences within the larger culture itself . As such , we must always be careful to avoid about individuals because of the they belong to . bring their unique sense of history and purpose within a larger culture . Will also have their holidays and traditions . For example , one popular celebrated in the United States is Cinco de Mayo . Many citizens think that Cinco de Mayo is a Mexican holiday . However , this is not a Mexican holiday . Outside of , Mexico , it considered a relatively minor holiday even though children do get the day off from school . One big mistake many . citizens make is assuming Cinco de Mayo is Mexican Independence Day , which it is not . Instead , El de la ( The Cry of Independence ) is held annually on September 16 in honor of Mexican Independence from Spain in 1810 . Sadly , de Mayo has become more of an American holiday than it is a Mexican one . Just as an , de Mayo is the date ( May , 1862 ) observed to commemorate the Mexican Ar my victory over the French Empire at the Battle of that conclude the War ( also referred to as the Battle of Day ) raise this example because often the larger culture parts of a and tries to adapt it into the mainstream . During this process , the meaning a with the is often twisted or forgotten . If you need another example , just think of Day , which evolved from a religious celebration marking the death of Patrick on March 17 , CE , to a when Irish and drinks green beer . The last major term we need to explain with regards to culture is what is known as a . A , sometimes called a local culture , refers to cultural patterns of behavior influenced by cultural beliefs , values , norms , and rules based on a specific or within an organization . Members of a will usually share of what they know with everyone in the greater society but will possess a special cultural knowledge that is unique to the If you re a college student and you ve ever lived in a dorm , you may have experienced What we mean by a . It not uncommon for different dorms on campus to develop their own unique cultures that are distinct from other dorms . They may have their own exclusive stories , histories , mascots , and . Maybe you live in a that specializes in honor students or pairs . students with international students . Perhaps you live in a dorm that is allegedly haunted . Maybe you live in a dorm that values competition against other dorms on campus , or one that doesn care about the competition at all . All of these examples help individual dorms develop unique cultural identities . often refer to as local cultures because they do tend to exist among a small segment of people within a specific geographical location . There quite a bit of research on the topic of I ' I

classrooms as . Depending on the students and the teacher , could end up with radically different classroom environments , even if the content is the same . The importance of goes back to Abraham need for belonging . all feel the need to belong , and these give us that sense of belonging on a more localized level . For this reason , we often also examine that can exist in organizational settings . One common that has been discussed and researched is the Disney . Employees ( oops ! mean cast members ) who work for the Disney quickly realize that there is more to Working at Disney than a uniform and a name badge . Disney cast members do not wear uniforms everyone is in costume . a Disney cast member is interacting with the public , then they are on stage when a cast member is on a break away from the public , then they are From the moment a Disney cast member is hired , they are required to take Traditions One and probably Traditions Two at Disney University , which is run by the Disney Institute ( Here is how Disney explains the of Traditions Disney Traditions is your first day of work filled with the Heritage of The alt Disney Company , and a sprinkle of pixie As you can tell , from the ve ' beginning of the Disney cast member experience , Disney attempts to create a very specific that is based on all things Disney . Keg Takeaways Over the years , there have been numerous definitions of the word culture . As such , narrowing down to only one definition of the term is problematic , no matter how you define For our purposes , We define culture as a group of people who , through a process of learning , can share perceptions of the World , which influences their beliefs , values , norms , and rules , which eventually affect behavior . In the realm of cultural studies , We discuss three different culturally related terms . First , we have a dominant culture , or the established , religion , values , rituals , and social customs of a specific society . that dominant culture will exist and . A is a regional , economic , social , religious , ethnic , or other cultural groups that exerts influence in society . Lastly , we have or cultural patterns of behavior influenced by cultural beliefs , values , norms , and rules based on a specific or Within an organization . Think about your own dominant culture . VVhat does it mean to be a member of your national culture ?

hat are the established language , religion , behavior , values , rituals , and social customs within your society ?

Make a list of five groups that you currently belong to . How does each of these different groups who you are as a person ?

Many organizations are for creating , or attempting to create , very specific . Thinking about your college or university , how would you explain your to someone unfamiliar With your culture ?

194 The Function of Culture . Explain the concept of collective . Define the term stereotype and explain its implications for interpersonal communication . ma 32 LU ' Summarize the implications of ethnocentrism in interpersonal communication . Collective Henri originally coined the term collective self as that aspect of an which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group ( or groups ) together with the and emotional significance attached to that Jennifer Crocker and took ideas one step further and discussed them as an individual collective , or the aspect of an individual or that stems from their interaction with others and of their various social groups . Based on their research , Crocker and found four different factors related to an individual collective private collective esteem , membership esteem , public collective esteem , and importance to identity . The first factor of collective is the individual private collective esteem , or the degree to which an individual positively evaluates their group . Every individual belongs to a wide range of groups , and we can evaluate these groups as either positive or negative . Imagine you ve been brought up in a community where gang membership is a very common practice . You have been forced into gang life at a very early age . Over time , you may start to see a wide array of problems with gangs , so you may start to devalue the group . In this case , you would have low private collective esteem . The second factor of collective is membership esteem , which is the degree to which an individual sees themself as a good member of a group . Maybe you ve belonged to a religious organization your entire life . Over time , you start to yourself wondering about the organization and your place within the organization . Maybe you see yourself as having ideas and opinions that are contrary to the organization , or maybe your behavior when not attending religious is not what the organization would advocate . In this case , you may start to see yourself as a bad member of this organization , so your membership esteem would be lower than someone who sees as a good member of this organization . The third factor of collective is public collective , or the degree to which of a group evaluate a group and its members either positively or negatively . Maybe you re a lesbian college student at a very progressive institution where students overwhelmingly support rights . In this case , the collective views the group that you belong to positively . The final factor of collective is importance to identity , or the degree to which group membership is important to an individual . As mentioned earlier , we all belong to a wide range of cultural groups . Some of these groups are near and dear to us , While others are ones we don think about very often , so they just aren very important to us . For example , if you re someone who has always lived in Charleston , South Carolina , then being a member of the Southerner cultural group may '

be a very important part of your identity . If you ended up leaving the south and moving to Oregon , this southerner label take on even more meaning for you and become an even stronger marker because your immediate cultural group no longer surrounds you . There been a wealth of research conducted on the importance of collective on individuals . For example , if you compare your cultural groups as being better than other cultural groups , then you will experience more positive emotions and However , the opposite is also true . Individuals who compare their cultural groups to those cultural groups that are perceived as off , tend to experience more negative emotions and lower . As you can imagine , an individual who is a member of a group that is generally looked down upon by society will have a constant battle internally as they battle these negative emotions and subsequent lower because of within a cultural group . You may be wondering how this ultimately impacts interpersonal communication . Research has examined how an individual collective impacts their interpersonal The researchers found that during interactions in multicultural persons felt that their heritage culture was being positively evaluated , they were more likely to perceive the interaction as intimate , they disclosed more and perceived their interaction partner as more disclosing , they enjoyed the interaction more , and they were more likely to indicate that they felt personally 12 Furthermore , individuals with high collective generally had more favorable interactions with people of differing cultures . On the other hand , individuals who had low levels of public collective tended to recall less intimate social interactions with people from different cultures . As you can see , cultural is an essential factor in our intercultural interactions with other people . For this reason , understanding how we view our cultural identities becomes very important because it can predict the types of intercultural interactions we will ultimately have . Stereotyping Stereotypes are a set of beliefs about the personal attributes of a social Many people immediately hear the word stereotype and cringe because it often filled with negative connotations . However , not all stereotypes are necessarily wrong or bad . Some stereotypes exist because they are Often groups have real differences , and these differences are not bad or wrong just are . Let look at a real stereotype that plays out . people hear the words flight attendant , they generally associate females with the term . In fact , in the only 19 of flight attendants were male , and today 26 of flight attendants are Are all flight attendants female Obviously , not however , the majority of flight attendants are female . call these types of jobs because the jobs are held by one biological sex or the other when there is no real reason either sex can not be effective within job . However , many also hold the stereotype that flight attendants are all young . Although this was true , the ages of flight attendants has changed year olds ( year olds ( year olds ( year olds ( and year olds ( As you can see , the overwhelming majority of flight attendants are 35 years of age or older . Almost half of flight attendants today are over years of age . In this case , the stereotype of the young flight attendant simply doesn meet up with reality . Furthermore , there can be two distinctly different types of stereotypes that people hold cultural and personal . Cultural stereotypes are beliefs possessed by a larger cultural group about another social group , whereas personal stereotypes are those held by an individual and do not reflect a shared belief with their 196

cultural group ( In the case of cultural stereotypes , cultural members a belief ( or set of beliefs ) about another cultural group . For example , maybe you belong to the Yellow culture and perceive all members of the Purple culture as lazy . Often these stereotypes that we of those other groups ( Purple People ) occur because we are taught them since we are very young . On the other hand , maybe you had a bad experience with a Purple Person being lazy at work and in your mind decide all Purple People must behave like that . In either case , we have a negative stereotype about a cultural group , but we learn these stereotypes is very different . Now , even though some stereotypes are accurate and others are inaccurate , it does not mitigate the problem that stereotypes cause . Stereotypes cause problems because people use them to categorize people in snap judgments based on only group membership . Going back to our previous example , if you run across a Purple person in your next , you see that person as lazy without having any other information about that person . hen we use blanket stereotypes to make a priori ( before the fact ) judgments about someone , we distance ourselves from making accurate , informed decisions about that person ( and their cultural group ) Stereotypes prejudice us to look at all members of a group as similar and to ignore the unique differences among individuals . Additionally , many stereotypes are based on ignorance about another person culture . Try this exercise picture someone named Mel . OK , now picture someone named Hillary . VVhat did the people you pictured look like ?

The immediate impressions we get in our minds occur because of stereotypes we associate with these words . One of our authors a cousin named Melanie , who is often called Mel by the family , and our coauthor had a close friend in , who was a male , named Hillary . simple exercise demonstrates often and it is for stereotypes to enter into our heads . Culture as Normative Another function of culture is that it helps us establish norms . Essentially , one culture is normative , or we assume that our culture rules , regulations , and norms are correct and those of other cultures are deviant , which is highly ethnocentric . The term ethnocentrism can be defined as the degree to which an individual views the world from their om culture perspective while evaluating other cultures according their own culture preconceptions , often accompanied by feelings of dislike , mistrust , or hate for cultures deemed inferior . All of us live in a world where we are raised in a dominant culture . As a result of being raised in a specific dominant culture , we tend to judge other cultures based on what we ve been taught within our own cultures . also tend to think our own culture is generally , moral , ethical , legal , etc . a culture appears to waiver from what our culture taught is right , moral , ethical , legal , we tend to judge those cultures as inferior . One of our coauthor favorite examples of the problem of ethnocentrism comes from the television show Raad he Quest . In one episode , one of the contestants , Ellen , is walking around in , Morocco , wearing very short shorts . In an Islamic country where a woman wearing revealing clothing is a violation of Islamic law , Ellen was violating the culture dress code . To this end , some of the villagers in took it upon themselves to correct Ellen nonverbal behavior by throwing rocks at her . Of course , Ellen just couldn understand why these male villagers were throwing rocks at her . Although throwing rocks at another person should be viewed as universally inappropriate , Ellen ethnocentric behavior and complete lack of understanding of Muslim countries were also inappropriate . Ellen was walking around in a foreign country and was completely unaware that she presented herself in public was seen as an insult to Allah and society . Admittedly , this episode aired 2001 , so we were just a few short months before and the public awakening to a whole range of issues occurring in the ' I

Why America ?

term America is thought to been a mistake made by a cartographer in 1507 named Martin , a cleric in the cathedral village of , France . Martin created what is considered to be the birth of America by creating a map charting what was the known world at the time . You can view this map on the Library of Congress website ( looking at this map , look to the bottom side of the map you will see the scription This label was assigning credit for South America to instead of Christopher Columbus . Middle East . At the same time , isn 100 a horrible thing either . Shortly after , a flag shortage occurred in the United States because people wanted to display our unity and pride during those horrible days after the atrocities that occurred on . soil . Patriotism is a more mild form of . The fact that we view ourselves as American is even somewhat ethnocentric because there are three rather countries that are all in North American and 13 in South America . By , were all Americans . However , citizens have clung to the title American without ever giving thought to those other countries that exist on these two continents . Here another interesting fact . I was recently the Internet looking for uses of the Word American for this chapter . Here is one I found from a protestor in Alabama , live in America . We speak I give the speaker the of the doubt and believe she meant we speak English , which is true for the majority of citizens in the United States ( according to US . Census data from 2021 , However , more people in North and South America do not speak English when compared to those who do . Keg Takeaways Collective is an individual or that stems from their interaction with others and evaluation of their various social groups . Some groups we hold tightly to , we only see ourselves peripherally ' with others . Research has shown that there are four parts to collective private collective esteem ( positive or negative evaluation you have a group ) membership esteem ( the degree to which you see yourself as a good member of a group ) public collective esteem ( how the public views the group you belong to ) and importance to ( importance of group membership to you ) Stereotypes are beliefs that we hold about a person because of their membership in a cultural group . Although some stereotypes are accurate , many stereotypes that we may possess are based on faulty information or of entire groups of people . stereotypes become problematic because we often how we approach and communicate with people different cultures because of the stereotypes we possess . 198

Think about a group you belong to and consider collective esteem have for group . How do you view group in all four of esteem private collective , public collective , and importance to identity ?

List the various stereotypes that you can think of for the different groups Cay Male , Transgendered Male , African American Male , Hispanic Female , Male , and Pakistani Female . How do think these stereotypes would impact your interpersonal interactions with people from these different groups Think about ethnocentrism in your own life . do you think ethnocentrism helps you have collective , and when do you think it leads to Characteristics and Communication . Differentiate between Edward Hall and context cultures . Explain the importance of research in cultural studies . ma ( DEC LU ' Summarize the importance of Stella face and facework in interpersonal relationships . In any major area of academic study , there are luminaries that one should understand . A luminary is an expert sheds light on a subject and inspires and influences others work in that area . In this section , we re going to examine three important luminaries that have helped shape our understanding of culture and intercultural communication Edward Hall , and Stella . Edward Hall One of the earliest researchers in the area of cultural differences and their importance to communication was a researcher by the name of Edward Hall . His book Beyond Culture is still considered one of the most influential books for the field of intercultural ' According to Hall , all cultures incorporate both verbal and nonverbal elements into communication . In his 1959 book , he Silent Language , Hall states , culture is communication and communication is In the previous chapter , we talked about the importance of nonverbal communication . VVe also mentioned that nonverbal communication isn exactly universal . Some gestures can mean wildly different things in different parts of the World . President George Bush once held up his hand in a for Victory salute to an Australian audience only to find out later that this was the equivalent of the middle in the United States . President Nixon did the same thing existing an airplane in Brazil his famous OK sign with his thumb and forefinger forming a circle , but this is the middle finger in that culture . Obviously , these two incidents have gone down in the annals of presidential history as cultural faux pas . Still , they illustrate the importance of knowing and understanding gestures in differing cultures because '

We do not all interpret nonverbal behavior same way . One of Halls essential contributions to the field of intercultural communication is the idea of and cultures . The terms culture ( and culture ( were created by Hall to describe how communication differ across cultures . In essence , in , meaning is expressed through explicit verbal messages , written and oral . In , on the other hand , intention or meaning can best be conveyed through implicit , including gestures , social customs , silence , nuance , or tone of Table further explores the differences between and cultures . In Table , we broke down issues of context into three general categories communication , cultural orientation , and business . Communication Type of Communication A A A A Implicit Communication Communication Focus Focus on Verbal Communication Focus on Nonverbal ti ) 11 Context of Message Less Meaningful Very Meaningful Politeness Not Important Very Important Approach to People Direct and Confrontational Indirect and Polite Cultural Orientation Emotions No Room for Emotions Emotions Have Importance Approach to Time Monochromatic Polychromatic Time Orientation Past Flexible and Transient Grouping Strong Distinctions Between In and ' A A ' Based on Social System Tradition and Social Business Style Individualistic Approach ) Business Approach Competitive Cooperative Learning Knowledge is Transferable is Situational Change over Tradition Tradition over Change Table Cultures You may be Wondering , by this point , how and cultures differ across different countries . Figure illustrates some of patterns of context that exist in today 200

Another very researcher in area of culture is a by of . Starting in , became interested in how people from different cultures approach work . His interests culminated in his 1980 publication Consequences International in Values where he explained some basic cultural Over the years , has his theory of culture , the most recent update to his occurred in In research of workers around the globe , he has noticed a series of six cultural differences low power distance , collectivism , masculinity , low uncertainty avoidance , orientation , and indulgence restraint . Let briefly look at each of these . Low High Power Distance The first of original dimensions of national cultures was power distance , or the degree to those people and organizations with less power within a culture accept and expect that power is unequally distributed within their culture . To determine power differences within a culture , originally was able to examine cultural value survey data that had been collected by IBM . Over the years , and his fellow researchers regularly collected additional data from around the world to make his conceptualization of six cultural differences one of the ' studied concepts of culture . it to power distances , these differences often manifest in many ways Within a singular culture class , education , occupations , and health care . With class , cultures three clear low , middle , and upper . However , the concepts of what is low , middle , upper can have large differences . For example , the median for the average . household is discussing household , we use the median ( number ) because it the accurate representation of income . According to a 2013 report the Census department ( using income data 2012 ) here is income inequality in the looks Households in the lowest quintile had incomes of ( or less in 2012 . Households in the second quintile had incomes between , those in the third quintile had incomes ) and , and those in the fourth quintile had incomes between an ( Households in the highest quintile had incomes of or more . The top percent had incomes of 191 , 157 or Low High Context , GE ( SWEDEN STATES FRANCE UNITED KINGDOM ITALY UNITED EMIRATES Figure and However , income isjust one indicatory of power distance within a culture . Others are who gets ' I

educated and what type of education they receive , who gets health care and what type , and what types of occupations do with power have versus those who do not have power . According to most recent data , the countries with the highest power distances are , Panama , and the Philippines . The countries with the lowest power distances are Austria , Israel , Denmark , New Zealand , and Switzerland ( part ) Notice that the does not make it into the top or the bottom . According to data , the is 16 from the bottom of power distance , so we are in the bottom third with regards to power distance . it comes to it , despite the issues we have in our country , the power disparity is not nearly as as it is in many other parts of our world . Individualism Collectivism United States is number one on individualism , according to data . 27 Americans are considered individualistic . In other words , we think about ourselves as individuals rather than the collective group . Most Asian countries are considered collectivistic cultures because these cultures tend to be . Collectivistic cultures tend to think about actions that might affect the entire group rather than members of the group . In an individualistic culture , there is a belief that you can do what you want and follow your passions . In an individualistic culture , if someone asked what you do for a living , they would answer by saying their profession or occupation . However , in collectivistic cultures , a person would answer in terms of the group , organization , or corporation that they serve . Moreover , in a collectivistic culture , there is a belief that you should do what the group . In other words , collectivistic cultures focus on how the group can grow and be productive . Masculinity Femininity The notion of masculinity and femininity are often misconstrued to be tied to their biological sex counterparts , female and male . For understanding culture , acknowledges that this distinction ultimately has a lot to do with work goals . On the masculine end of the spectrum , individuals tend to be focused on items like earnings , recognition , advancement , and challenge . also refers to these tendencies as being more assertive . Femininity , on the other hand , involves characteristics like having a good working relationship with one manager and coworkers , cooperating with people at work , and security ( both job and familial ) refers to this as being more relationally oriented . Admittedly , in research , there does tend to be a difference between females and males on these characteristics ( females tend to be more relationally oriented and males more assertive ) which is why went with the terms masculinity and femininity in the place . Ultimately , we can these types of cultures in the following way A society is called masculine when emotional gender roles are clearly distinct men are supposed to be assertive , tough , and focused on material success , whereas women are supposed to be more modest , tender , and concerned with quality A society is called when emotional gender roles overlap both men and women are supposed to be modest , tender , and concerned with quality of life emphasis in original . The top most masculine countries are , Hungary , Austria , and Venezuela ( the 202

is number 19 out of 76 ) Whereas , feminine countries are represented Sweden , Norway , Netherlands , and Denmark . As you can imagine , depending on the type of culture live in , you will have wildly different social interactions with other people . There also a difference in the approach to marriage . In masculine cultures , women are the caretakers of the home , While men are to be healthy and wealthy . As such , Women are placed in a subservient position to their husbands are often identified socially by their husbands . For example , an invitation to a party would be addressed to . and ohn In feminine cultures , men and Women are upheld to the same standards , and their relationships should be based on mutual friendship . Low High Uncertainty Avoidance The next category identified by involves the concept of avoidance . Life is full of uncertainty . VVe can not escape it however , some people are more prone to becoming fearful in situations that are or unknown . Uncertainty avoidance then involves the extent to which cultures as a Whole are fearful of ambiguous and unknown situations . People in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance can view this ambiguity and lack of knowledge as threatening , which is one reason why people in these cultures tend to have higher levels of anxiety and neuroticism as a Whole . In fact , the latest edition of the book examining these characteristics , and his colleagues title the chapter on uncertainty avoidance as is Different is Dangerous , calling out the threat factor people in high uncertainty avoidance cultures feel . Cultures at the high end of uncertainty avoidance include Greece , Portugal , and Belgium Flemish whereas , cultures at the low end of uncertainty avoidance include Singapore , Jamaica , Denmark , Sweden , and Hong Kong . The United States ranks out of 76 countries analyzed ( Singapore was number 76 ) From an interpersonal perspective , people from high uncertainty cultures are going to have a lot more anxiety associated with interactions involving people from other cultures . Furthermore , there tend to be higher levels of prejudice and higher levels of ideological , political , and religious fundamentalism , which does not allow for any kind of debate . Orientation In addition to the previous characteristics , noticed a fifth characteristic of cultures that he deemed and orientation . orientation focuses on the future and not the present or the past . As such , there is a focus on both persistence and thrift . The emphasis on endurance is vital because being persistent today will help you in the future . The goal is to work hard now , so you can have the payoff later . The same is true of thrift . VVe want to conserve our resources and spend to build that financial cushion for the future . oriented cultures , on the other hand , tend to focus on both the past and the present . In these cultures , there tends to be high respect for the past and the various traditions that have that culture great . Additionally , there is a strong emphasis on saving face , which we will discuss more in the next section , fulfilling one obligations today , and enjoying one leisure time . At the end of the spectrum are countries like China , Hong Kong , and Japan whereas , countries like Pakistan , Czech Republic , Spain , and the Philippines are examples of . The United States ranked 31 out of 39 , with Pakistan being number 39 . oriented countries were more satisfied with their contributions to Being attentive to daily human relations , deepening human bonds in family , neighborhood and friends or acquaintances when compared to their counterparts . 32 ' I

Indulgence . Restraint characteristic of cultures is a new one reported on in 2010 edition of Cultures and Organizations . sixth cultural characteristic is called indulgence restraint , examines issues of happiness and wellbeing . According to and his , Indulgence stands for a tendency to allow relatively free of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun . Its opposite pole , restraint , a conviction that needs to be curbed and regulated by strict social The top on the Indulgence end are Venezuela , Mexico , Puerto Rico , El Salvador , and , Whereas those on the restraint end are Pakistan , Egypt , Ukraine , and . The is towards the indulgence end of the spectrum and ranks at 15 along with Canada and the Netherlands . Some interesting associated with indulgence include experiencing higher levels of positive emotions and remembering those emotions for more extended periods . Furthermore , individuals from more indulgent cultures tend to be more optimistic , their restrained counterparts tend to be more cynical . People in more indulgent countries are going to be happier than their restrained counterparts , and people within indulgent cultures show lower rates of cardiovascular problems commonly associated with stress Finally , individuals from indulgent cultures tend to be more and outgoing as a Whole , whereas individuals from restrained cultures tend to be more neurotic . From years of research examining both extraversion and neuroticism , we know that individuals more successful interpersonal relationships than those who are highly neurotic . Ultimately , research examining these differences have shown that people from indulgent countries are more open to other cultures , more with their lives , and are more likely to communicate with friends and family members via the Internet While interacting with more people from other cultures via the Internet as Well . Research Spotlight ' In 2017 , Daniel and set out to examine the concept of trait affection in relation to theoretical framework . Affectionate communication is as a person use of intentional and overt communicative behaviors to convey feelings of closeness , care , and fondness in the form of verbal statements , nonverbal behaviors , an ( social ) i ) For this study , the researchers studied 606 participants in four different countries , Poland , and the United States . it came to trait affection given , the United States participants reported giving more affection than any of the three other countries . The other countries did not differ from each other with regard to trait affection given . hen it came to trait affection received , all four groups differed from one another . The order of affection received was ( in order of the most trait affection received ) United States , Denmark , Poland , and Iceland . Finally , the researchers examined affection given and received with regards to work . The results also indicated that trait affection given was associated with the an ( uncertainty avoidance dimensions of cultures . Similarly , trait affection received was ( with the ( and uncertainty avoidance dimensions of , 2017 ) Trait affection given and received A test of theoretical framework . journal of Intercultural Research , 46 ( 10 204

( Stella In 1988 , intercultural communication research Stella developed to help explain the importance of face within interpersonal The basic idea behind negotiation theory is that , conflict , and culture are all intertwined . In the most recent version of theory , Stella outlines seven basic factors of theory . People in all cultures try to maintain and negotiate face in all communication situations . concept of face is especially problematic in emotionally vulnerable situations ( such as embarrassment , request , or conflict situations ) when the situation identities of the communicators are called into question . cultural variability dimensions of ( and power distance shape the , movements , contents , and styles of facework . shapes members preferences for facework versus oriented facework . large power distance shapes members preferences for facework versus facework . The cultural variability dimensions , in conjunction with individual , relational , and situational factors influence the use of particular facework behaviors in particular cultural scenes . Intercultural facework competence refers to the optimal integration of knowledge , mindfulness , and communication skills in managing vulnerable conflict situations appropriately , effectively , and First and foremost , communication and face are highly intertwined concepts , so when coming to an intercultural encounter , it is important to remember the interrelationship between the two . As far as theory goes , she takes this idea one step further to understanding how face and communication enable successful intercultural conflict management . theory ultimately concerned with three different types of face ( concern for our face ) face ( concern for another person face ) and ( concern for both and the relationship ) As you can see from last assumption in her theory above , individuals who are competent in facework can recognize when facework is necessary and then handle those situations appropriately , effectively , and adaptively . As such , facework should be viewed as a necessary component for understanding any form of interpersonal interaction but is especially important when examining interpersonal interactions that occur between people from differing cultural backgrounds . Keg Takeaways cultures are cultures where the emphasis is placed on the words that come out of an indiVidual mouth . cultures , on the other hand , are cultures where understanding a message is dependent on the cultural context and a communicator nonverbal behavior . research created for understanding and differentiating cultures . was originally based on data collected by IBM , and he found that cultures could be differentiated by power distance , I

What is Face ?

The concept of face is one that is not the easiest to nor completely understand . Originally , the concept of face is not a Western even though the idea of saving face is pretty common in every day talk today . According to Chin Hu , the concept of face stems from two distinct Chinese words , lien and . Lien represents the of society in the integrity of ego moral character , the loss of which makes it impossible for him to function properly within the community . Lien is both a social sanction for enforcing moral standards and an internalized On the other hand , stands for the kind of prestige that is emphasized in this country America a reputation achieved through getting on in life , through success and However , David Ho argues that face is more complicated than just lien and , so he provided the following Face is the respectability deference which a person can claim for himself from others , by virtue of the relative position he occupies in his social network and the degree to which he is judged to have adequately in that position as well as acceptably in his general conduct the face extended to a person by others is a function of the degree of congruence between judgments of his total condition in life , including his actions as well as those of people closely associated with him , and the social expectations that others have placed upon him . In terms of two interacting parties , face is the reciprocated compliance , respect , deference that each party expects from , and extends to , the other More , face is essentially a person reputation and feelings of prestige within multiple spheres , including the workplace , the family , personal friends , and society at For our purposes , we can generally break face down into general categories face gaining and face losing . Face gaining refers to the strategies a person might use to build their reputation and feelings of prestige ( talking about accomplishments , active social media presence ) whereas face losing refers to those behaviors someone engages in that can harm their reputation or feelings of prestige ( getting caught in a lie , failing ) masculinity femininity , term orientation , and indulgence restraint . Face is standing or position a person in the eyes of others . During an interpersonal interaction , individuals strive to create a positive version of their face for the other person . um Compare and contrast two countries and their levels of context . Why do you think context is such an important cultural Think about a group that you belong to . Think through six categories used to evaluate differing cultures and apply , 206

ideas to your . Does your differ from the dominant culture ?

Imagine you re having an interaction with an individual from India . During the middle of the conversation , you have a feeling that your interactional partner is losing face . VVhat could you do at that point to help rebuild that person face ?

would you want to do this at all ?

Improving Communication Skills . Explain the importance of cultural intelligence . Learn about . Identify several different ways to create better intercultural interactions . ma 22 ( DEC LU ' Become Culturally Intelligent One of the latest in the business world is cultural intelligence , which was initially introduced to the scholarly community in 2003 Christopher and Soon In the past decade , a wealth of research has been conducted examining the importance of cultural intelligence during interpersonal interactions with people from other cultures . Cultural intelligence ( is defined as an individual capability to function effectively in situations characterized by cultural Four Factors of Cultural Intelligence In their original study on the topic , and Ang argued that cultural intelligence is based on four distinct factors cognitive , motivational , and behavioral dimensions . Before continuing , take a minute and complete the Cultural Intelligence Questionnaire in Table First , cognitive involves knowing about different cultures ( intercultural knowledge ) Many types of knowledge about a culture can be relevant during an intercultural interaction rules and norms , economic and legal systems , cultural values and beliefs , the importance of art within a society , etc All of these different areas of knowledge involve facts that can help you understand people from different cultures . For example , in most of the United States , when you are talking to someone , eye contact is important . You may have even been told by someone to look at me when I talking to you if you ve ever gotten in trouble . However , this isn consistent across different cultures at all . Hispanic , Asian , Middle Eastern , and Native American cultures often view direct contact when talking to someone superior as a sign of disrespect . Knowing how eye contact functions across cultures can help you know more about how to interact with people from various cultures . Probably one of the best books you can read to know more about how to communicate in another culture is Terri Morrison and Wayne book Kiss , Bow , or Shake Hands The Bestselling Guide to Doing Business in More than 60 ' I

Countries . Second , we have motivational , or the degree to an individual desires to engage in intercultural interactions and can easily adapt to different cultural environments . Motivation is key to effective intercultural interactions . You can have all the knowledge in the world , but if you are not motivated to have successful intercultural interactions , you will not have them . Third , involves being consciously aware of your intercultural interactions in a manner that helps you more effective interpersonal experiences with people from differing cultures ( intercultural understanding ) All of the knowledge about cultural differences in the world will not be beneficial if you can not use that information to understand and adapt your behavior during an interpersonal interaction with someone from a differing culture . As such , we must always be about cultures but also be ready to adjust our knowledge about people and their cultures through our interactions with them . Behavioral Lastly , behavioral is the next step following , which is behaving in a manner that is consistent with what you know about other VVe should never expect others to adjust to us culturally . Instead , culturally intelligent people realize that it best to adapt our behaviors ( verbally and ) to bridge the gap between people culturally . hen we go out of our way to be culturally intelligent , we will encourage others to do so as well . As you can see , becoming a truly culturally intelligent person involves a lot of work . As such , it important to spend time and build your cultural intelligence if you are going to be an effective communicator in today world . Engaging Culturally Mindful Interactions Admittedly , being culturally competent takes a lot of work and a lot of practice . Even if you re not completely culturally competent , you can engage with people from other cultures in a mindful way . As discussed in Chapter , Shauna Shapiro and Linda introduced us to the model of , intention , and First , it comes to engaging with people from other cultures , we need to be in the moment and not think about previous interactions with people from a culture or possible future interactions with people from a culture . Instead , it essential to focus on the person you are interacting with . You also need to be aware of your stereotypes and prejudices that you may have of people from a different culture . Don try to find evidence to support or negate these stereotypes or prejudices . If you focus on finding , you re just trying to satisfy your thoughts and feelings and not mindfully engaging with this other person . Also , if you find that your mind is shifting , recognize the shift and allow yourself to on your interaction with the other person . Second , go into an intercultural interaction knowing your intention . If your goal is to learn more about that person culture , that a great intention . However , that may not be the only intention we 208

Instructions Read the following questions and select answer that ( with your perception . Do not be on ( if some of the items appear similar . Please use the scale below to rate the degree to which each statement applies to you . Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree Disagree When I interacting with someone from a differing culture , I know when I use my knowledge of that persons culture during my interactions . When I interact with someone from a culture I know nothing about , I have no problem adjusting my perspective of their culture while we talk . During intercultural interactions , I am well aware of the cultural knowledge I utilize . I always check my knowledge of someone from another culture to ensure that my understanding of their culture is accurate . During my intercultural interactions , I try to be mindful of how my perceptions of someone culture are either consistent with or differ from reality . I pride myself on knowing a lot about other peoples cultures . I understand the social , economic , and political systems of other cultures . I know about other cultures religious beliefs and values . I understand how daily life is enacted in other cultures . 10 . I know the importance of paintings , literature , and other forms of art in other cultures . 11 . I enjoy reaching out and engaging in an intercultural encounter . 12 . I would have no problem socializing with people from a new culture . Although intercultural encounters often involve stress , I don mind the stress because meeting people from new cultures makes it worth it . 14 . I would have no problems myself to the routines of another culture . 15 . I enjoy being with people from other cultures and getting to know them . 16 . I know how to interact verbally with people from different cultures . 17 . I know how to interact with people from different cultures . 18 . I can vary my rate of speech if an intercultural encounter requires it . 19 . I can easily alter my behaviors to suit the needs of an intercultural encounter . 20 . I can alter my facial expressions if an intercultural encounter requires it . To compute your scores follow the instructions below Add items ( Intercultural Understanding ) Add items ( Intercultural Knowledge ) Add items ( Intercultural Motivation ) Add items ( Intercultural Behavior ) II ' lI

Interpretation Scores for of four factors ( intercultural understanding , intercultural knowledge , intercultural motivation , and intercultural behavior ) be ad ( le ( together to get a composite score . Each of the four factors exists a continuum from ( culturally intelligent ) to 25 ( highly culturally intelligent ) An average person would score between . Based On Van Dyne , Ang , 2008 ) Development and validation of the The Cultural Intelligence Scale . In Ang Van Dyne ( Handbook intelligence , measurement , and application ( NY . Table Cultural Intelligence Questionnaire when interacting with someone from another culture . For example , you be interacting ith someone from another culture because you to sell them a product you represent . If your main intention is sales , be aware of your intention and don try to deceive yourself into thinking its something more altruistic . Lastly , go into all intercultural interactions with the right attitude . Remember , the goal of being mindful is to be open , kind , and curious . Although we often discuss mindful in terms of how we can be open , kind , and curious with ourselves , it also important to extend that same framework when we are interacting with people from other cultures . So much of mindful relationships is the right attitude during our interactions ith others . If you need a refresher on building the right attitude during your interactions , go back and look at Daniel COAL Jon Seven Attitudes for Mindfulness discussed in Chapter . Overall , the goal of mindful intercultural interactions is to be present in the moment in a way . When you face judgments , recognize them , and ask yourself Where they have come from . Interrogate those judgments . At the same time , don judge yourself for having these ideas . If we have stereotypes about another a specific culture , it important to recognize those stereotypes , call them out , understand Where they came from in the first place , and examine them for factualness . For example , imagine you re talking to someone from the Republic of . Chances are , you ve probably never heard of the Republic of , but it a real country in . But let say all you know about the people from the Republic of is that they like football . During your interaction , you say , So , what your favorite football team ?

In this moment , you ve taken the one stereotype you had and used it to help engage in an interaction . However , if the person comes back and says , I really don care . Sports just ai en my How do you respond ?

First , recognize that you attempted to use a stereotype that you had and call it out for what it was . That doesn make you a bad person , but We learn from these encounters and broaden our world views . Second , call out the stereotype in your mind . Before that moment , you may not have even realized that you had a stereotype of people from the Republic of . Labeling our stereotypes of other people is important because it helps us recognize them faster , the more We engage in this type of mindful behavior . Third , 210

figure out where that stereotype came from . Maybe you had been in New Zealand and saw a match on the television and saw the national football team . In that one moment , you learned a tiny bit about an entire country and pocketed it away for future use . Sometimes its easy to out where our stereotypes evolved from , but sometimes these stereotypes are so ingrained in us through our own culture that it hard to really figure out their origin . Lastly , it time to realize that your stereotype may not be that factual . At the same time , you may have found the one resident of the Republic of who doesn like football . We can often make these determinations by talking to the other person . At the same time , it important also to be mindfully open to the other person stereotypes of people within your own culture . For example , someone from the Republic of may have a stereotype that Americans know nothing about football ( other than American football ) If you re a fan of what we in the call soccer , then you con that stereotype or at least provide that person a more nuanced understanding of your own culture . Sure , American football still is the king of sports in the , but media trends for watching football ( soccer ) are growing , and more and more Americans are becoming fans . Keg Takeaways Cultural intelligence involves the degree to which an individual can communicate competently in Varying cultural situations . Cultural intelligence consists of four distinct parts , motivation , understanding , and behavior . Having strong intercultural relationships can be very rewarding . thinking about your om intercultural relationships , some ways to have more rewarding intercultural relationships can include understanding your culture better , being interested in other people and their cultures , respecting other people cultures , becoming culturally intelligent , tolerating ambiguity during interactions , being aware of and overcoming your own ethnocentrism , and being a good example of your om culture . The Cultural Intelligence Center has created a widely used measure for cultural intelligence . Please take a second and complete their measure ( were your strengths and weaknesses ?

would you most want to improve your Visit National Center for Cultural Competence at ) Read some of the material on their website . Look for their ideas and compare to what you ve learned in this section . James Mason created a cultural competence tool for service agencies ( Take a look at their tool , which is freely available online . do you think of their tools for evaluating cultural competence ?

Do you think cultural competence and cultural intelligence are similar , different , or identical ?

21 ' In this chapter , we started by discussing what word culture means while also considering the concepts of and . looked at the critical functions that culture performs in our daily lives . Next , we discussed intersection of culture and communication . Lastly , we ended this chapter discussing how you can improve your intercultural communication skills . End of Chapter Behavioral Orientation Belief Cultures Masculine Cognitive Membership Esteem Collective Collectivism Cultural Intelligence Motivational Culture Norms Culture as Normative Ostracized Dominant Culture Power Distance Ethnocentrism Private Collective Esteem Face Public Collective Feminine Restraint Cultures Rules Importance to Identity Orientation Indigenous Peoples Stereotype Individualism Uncertainty Avoidance REAL WORLD GAS Roy and originally met in graduate school . On the first day that walked into grad school , she was glad to see someone else near her age , which was older than the average student in the class . Even though was and was African American , the two immediately felt drawn to each other . Before they knew it , and Roy were inseparable . husband started to get jealous of until he met Roy and realized that Roy was gay . Over the years , the two graduated and went to different ) that were close to each other . Roy still would get together regularly and go shopping , go to the movies , have dinner , etc . The two of them considered themselves as highly culturally intelligent people . was a Dean of Diversity at a liberal arts college , and Roy taught cultural studies at a large research university . The two often had pet names for each other that people outside of their relationship could view as racist or homophobic , but they knew the spirit behind their pet names was meant in jest and not ignorance , ethnocentrism , or fear . I ( 212

One day Roy al ' were hanging how iii 21 store when Roy found 2111 Ma Roy the mask , walked up behind , and shouted , turned around laughingly slapped Roy on , You racist Cracker ! looked at 2111 older woman standing iii the row Completely startled , and she just busted out laughing Roy joined right iii . In this , was Roy culturally intelligent ?

In this , culturally intelligent ?

this END OF CHAPTER belongs to 21 very distinct South American tribe . Bravery is very important her tribe . From 2111 early age , all boys girls are taught that bravery is akin to being 21 ber of the tribe . Furthermore , people who brave are often from the tribe . For this tribe , does bravely represent ?

21 . 21 rule . 21 21 value ( I . 21 belief 21 worth . African Americans Bisexuals , Gays , and Lesbians Irish , Southerners are all examples of what ?

cultures cultures . As 21 transgendered individual , Melanie realizes that many people in her dominant culture do understand , agree with , nor support transgendered individuals causes . facet of collective does this represent ?

private Collective esteem public Collective importance to identity other esteem . The degree to which 2111 Views the world from their culture perspective while evaluating other Cultures cording to their culture preconceptions often by feelings of dislike , mistrust , or hate for cultures deemed ethnocentrism ) es prejudice discrimination annoyance 213

. Iu culture is by expensive houses , 11 , rich food , and all the luxuries one could desire . Which of cultural differences culture represent ?

high power distance 01 ) indulgence 214 References , 1952 ) Culture A critical review of concepts and definitions . Harvard Press . Ibid . Baldwin , 2006 ) Redefining culture Perspectives across the disciplines . Lawrence . Wrench , 2001 ) Intercultural communication Power in context . Tapestry Press . 12 . Lemming , A . 2009 ) A dictionary of creation myths . Oxford University Press . 2008 ) Conformity and Readings in cultural anthropology . son . Kevin . Disney traditions Web log post . 1981 ) Social identity and relations . Cambridge University Press . 255 . Crocker , I . 1992 ) A collective scale of ones social identity . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 18 ( 10 , 2006 ) Emotional and effects of social comparison formation in later life How are they moderated by collective ?

Psychology and Aging , 21 ( 11 , 2006 ) On the risk of being a cultural leon Variations in collective across social interactions . Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority , 12 ( 12 Ibid . 537 . 13 , Del Boca , 1981 ) Conceptual approaches to stereotypes and stereotyping . In Hamilton ( Ed . Cognitive processes in stereotyping and behavior ( 21 . 14 Lee , 1995 ) Stereotype accuracy Toward . American Psychological Association . 15 , Evans , 2009 , Ihe changing demography of US . attendants . Population ence Bureau . website 16 , 2001 ) Intercultural communication A practical guide . University of Texas Press . 17 Hall , 1977 ) Beyond culture . Anchor Press . 18 Rogers , Hart , Mike , 2002 ) Edward Hall and the history of intercultural cation The United States and . Communication Review ( 24 ) 19 Hall , 1981 ) The Silent Language . Anchor Books . Reprint of The Silent Language by Hall , 1959 , 186 . 20 Nam , A . 2015 ) and communication . In Bennett ( Ed . The SAGE encyclopedia competence ( 377381 ) Sage . 378 . 21 , 1987 ) Communication with . Management International Review , 27 ( 22 , 1980 ) Cultures consequences International in values . Sage . 23 , 2010 ) Cultures and organizations Software ofthe mind ( 24 , Proctor , Smith , 2013 ) census bureau current population reports , Income , poverty , and health insurance coverage in the United States 2012 . Government Printing . 25 Ibid . 26 , 2010 ) Cultures and organizations Software ofthe mind ( 215 '

27 Ibid . 28 Ibid . 29 , I . 2005 ) Cultures and organizations Software ofthe mind ( 120 . 30 Ibid . 31 Ibid . 32 , I . 2005 ) Cultures and organizations Software ofthe mind ( 230 . 33 , 2010 ) Cultures and organizations Software ofthe mind ( 34 Ibid Kindle Locations 48094811 . 35 , 2017 ) Trait given and received A test of theoretical framework . of Intercultural Communication Research , 46 ( 36 , 2017 ) Trait given and received A test of theoretical framework . of Intercultural Communication Research , 46 ( 168 . 37 , 1988 ) Intercultural A theory . In Kim ( Theories in intercultural communication ( Sage . 38 , 2005 ) The matrix of face An updated theory . In . Ed . Theorizing about intercultural communication ( Sage . 39 , A . 1998 ) Facework competence in intercultural An updated theory . International Relations , 22 ( 98 ) 40 , Ang , 2003 ) Cultural intelligence Individual interactions across cultures . Stanford Press . 41 Ang , Van Dyne , 2008 ) Preface and . In Handbook Theory , measurement , and applications ( Sharpe . 42 Morrison , A . 2006 ) Kiss , bow , or shake hands he bestselling guide to doing business in more than 60 countries . Adams Media . 43 Ang , Van Dyne , 2008 ) Conceptualization of cultural intelligence , ness , and nomological network . In Handbook of cultural intelligence Theory , measurement , and applications ( 355 ) Sharpe . 44 Shapiro , 2017 ) The art and science Integrating mindfulness into and the helping professions ( American Psychological Association . 45 Hu , 1944 ) The Chinese concepts of American Anthropologist , 46 ( 662926 46 Ibid . 45 . 47 Ibid . 45 . 48 Ho , 1976 ) On the concept of face . American , 81 ( 49 , 2013 ) Gaining and losing face in China . The China Culture Corner . Retrieved from para . END OF CHAPTER ANSWER KEY ) 216