Intercultural Communication for the Community College Conflict

CHAPTER CONFLICT Learning Outcomes When you have completed this chapter you should be able to do the following Identify and describe the five types of conflict . Explain your experiences with the Divide . Explain why face and facework important in conflict . Identify and understand the conflict styles . Identify the four ways to deal with conflict . Understand how and why individuals and cultures approach conflict in various ways . Explain the and Approach to managing intercultural conflict .

86 i CHAPTER CONFLICT Conflict is a normal part of all human relationships ( Canary , 2003 ) Almost any issue can spark , time , almost anyone can get into a . Conflict triggers strong emotions that can lead to unhealthy communication on the personal , societal , political , and levels . Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing , while others view it as something to be avoided . In the US , is not seen as desirable , yet people are encouraged to deal with it directly when conflicts do arise . ings are seen as the best way to work through problems . In contrast , open conflict is considered embarrassing or demeaning in many Asian countries , so differences are worked out quietly . Trusting community members , mediators , or even written exchanges , are the preferred ways to indirectly address the conflict . Conflict conflict is not simple because it not just a matter of disagreement . According to Hocker ( 2010 ) is an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive ble goals , scare resources , and interference from others in achieving their goals ( 11 ) Within this , there are several aspects of conflict that we must consider when exploring this and its application to intercultural communication . Conflict is an Expressed Struggle is a communication process that is expressed verbally and . Hocker assert that communication creates , communication reflects , and communication is the vehicle for the management of ( Hocker , 1998 ) In cultures that are verbally direct or low context , is easily because one party openly and verbally disagrees with the other . In cultures that are more indirect or high context , may exist for some time before being expressed . In fact , conflict may never be verbally expressed making nonverbal communication cues extremely important . Conflict is interdependent Parties engaged in do so because they are interdependent A person who is not dependent upon is , who has no special interest in what the other no with that other person ( 1979 ) In other words , each parties choices affect the other because conflict is a mutual activity . Consider the teenager who chooses to wear an obnoxious or offensive before catching the bus . People

CHAPTER i 87 with no connections to the teen and notice the are unlikely to engage in conflict . They have never seen the teen before , and probably won again . The decision to wear the does not impact them , therefore the reason to engage in conflict does not exist . The same scenario involving a teen and their parents would probably turn out differently . Because parents and teens are interdependent , the decision to wear an offensive could quickly escalate into a power struggle over individual autonomy that leads to harsh words and hurt feelings . Conflict is Perceptual Parties in have perceptions about their own position and the position of others . Each party may also have a different perception of any given situation . If I do not view something as a conflict , it may not seem to be an impediment to competent communication to me , and I will continue as if nothing has happened . Whereas if you view something as a conflict , it will be an impediment to competent communication to you , and will need to be addressed or negotiated or mediated before continuing on . Figure A Ukrainian woman stands in the wreckage of her home Conflict Involves Clashes in Goals , Resources . and Behaviors Conflict arises from differences . It occurs whenever parties disagree over their values , motivations , ideas , or desires . The perception might be that goals are mutually exclusive , or there not enough resources to go around , or one party is sabotaging another . When conflict triggers strong feelings , a deep value is typically

88 CHAPTER at the core of the problem . When the legitimacy of the conflicting values is recognized , it opens pathways to . Types of Interpersonal Conflict Conflict can be difficult to analyze because it occurs in so many different settings . Knowing the various types of conflict that occur in interpersonal relationships helps us to identify appropriate strategies for managing . Mark Cole ( 1996 ) states that there are types of interpersonal conflict affective , interest , value , cognitive , and goal . Rarely do the types of conflict stand alone . Most often , several types of are found intertwined within each other and within the context itself . How we choose to manage the conflict may depend on the types of conflict , the that they occur within , and the situation . Affective occurs when people become aware that their feelings and emotions are incompatible . For example , if a romantic couple wants to go out to eat , but one of the partners is a vegetarian while the other is on the Paleo diet , what do they do ?

The food choices that they have committed to may impact their feelings for each other causing them to question a future together . of interest arises when people disagree about a plan of action or when they have incompatible preferences for a course of action . Another way to understand this idea is to use the term conflict of roles . For example , you may run a business where you employ relatives . Firing an incompetent relative can cause with family relationships for a long time . A difference in ideologies or values between relational partners is called value . Our romantic eating preferences may be the result of strongly held religious or political views . Remember the old saying , Never talk about religion and Many people engage in value about religion and politics .

CHAPTER 89 Figure People at a march in support of and Human rights Cognitive is when people become aware that their thought processes or perceptions are in conflict . Our romantic partners may disagree about the meaning of a wink from a car salesman as they shopped for a new car . One of the partners believes that the wink was friendly and meant to build a relationship with the couple , but the other partner saw the wink as a sign that the couple would get a better deal if they looked at a car . Goal Goal occurs when eo le ree about a referred outcome or end state . Our in tic partners need transportation . For one , the cost of a new car reinforces the choice made to continue using public transportation to save the money not spent for a house . For the other , buying a new car means gaining access to the suburbs where they can afford to buy a new house now . The Divide

90 i CHAPTER CONFLICT As we learned in the cultural foundations chapter , all cultures have social norms . Cultures vary in the strength of their social norms along a continuum ( 2018 ) There is a tension between personal and societal constraint or in other words , somewhat like what called individualism and . research indicated that the degree of threat that cultures face from the outside world determines whether they evolve to be tight , loose , or somewhere in the middle . Countries such as China , Malaysia , and Pakistan have survived threats like war , famines , and by tightening Strict ment of social norms has been key to their survival , Figure Tight Boundary On the other hand , cultures that have faced fewer threats have had the luxury of being loose . Loose cultures such as the US , the Netherlands , Spain , and Brazil have social norms that are more lax and offer more personal freedom . Loose cultures are known for creativity and innovation , but they can also be chaotic and have slower responses to crises such as . Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict

CHAPTER I 91 Culture is always a factor in , though it rarely causes by itself . When differences surface between people , organizations , and nations , culture is always present , shaping perceptions , attitudes , and outcomes . Our cultural background , and how we were raised , largely determines how we deal with , but there are also other lesser known issues that are important to consider in this discussion as well . Ambiguity Ambiguity , or the confusion about how to handle or the , is often present in intercultural because of the and heterogeneous nature of culture . What appears on the surface of the may mask what is more deeply hidden below . Verbally indirect , high context cultures may be reluctant to use words to explore issues of importance that verbally direct , and low context cultures need to access the nonverbal codes that are largely outside of their awareness . Just remember that knowing the general norms of a group , does not predict the behavior of a member of a group . Individual differences and not just ture , can be crucial to understanding . Language Language issues can also add to the confusion . Not knowing each other languages very well could make resolution , but remaining silent could also provide a needed cooling off period with time to think . Name . Frame . Blame . and Tame Communication researcher Michelle ( 2003 ) explains another way that language impacts conflict with her name , frame , blame , and tame approach to dissecting . She believes that the Western approach to resolution often means labeling with language and analyzing with language the smaller component parts of an issue ( name , frame , blame ) before a resolution ( tame ) can be proposed . The Eastern approach to resolution often means reinforcing all aspects of the relationship ( tame ) before ever discussing the issue ( name , frame , blame ) at all . In the Eastern approach , language is more of a means of creating and maintaining identity than solving a problem . Face and Facework The term face is probably known to many of us , but it also an important concept in conflict . To lose face is to publicly suffer a diminished , and saving face is to be liked , appreciated , and approved by others . Brown ( 1987 ) use the concept of face to explain politeness , and to them politeness is value present in all societies hence the tie to intercultural . The term facework refers to the communication strategies that people use to establish , sustain , or restore

92 CHAPTER social identity during interaction ( Samp , 2015 ) 1959 ) claims that everyone is concerned about how others perceive them . varies from culture to culture and styles . For example , people from cultures tend to be more concerned with saving their own face rather than anyone else face . This results in a tendency to use more direct conflict management styles . In contrast , people from collectivistic cultures tend to be more concerned with preserving group harmony and saving the other person face during by making use of a less direct conversation style to protect others or make them look good Theory ( 2004 ) is based on several assumptions about the extent to which face negotiated within a culture and what existing value patterns shape culture of members preferences for the process of negotiating face in conflict situations . The Theory is not only by the individual and culture , but also the relationship and the situation of the people experiencing the . Figure Dealing With Two General Approaches to Managing Conflict Ways of naming and framing vary across cultural boundaries . People generally deal with conflict in the way

CHAPTER I 93 that they learned while growing up . For those accustomed to a calm and rational discussion , screaming and yelling may seem to be a dangerous . Yet , conflicts are subject to different interpretations , based on preference , context , and facework ideals . Cultures generally take two general approaches to managing . There is a choice made between directly or indirectly approaching and being emotionally expressive or emotionally restrained . Direct or Indirect Approach Direct Approaches are favored by cultures that think conflict is a good thing , and that should be approached directly because working through results in more solid and stronger relationships . This approach emphasizes using precise language , and articulating issues carefully . The best solution is based on solving for set of criteria that has been agreed upon by both parties beforehand . Indirect Approaches on the other hand are favored by cultures that view conflict as destructive for and prefer to deal with indirectly . These cultures think that when people disagree , they should adapt to the consensus of the group rather than engage in . Confrontations are seen as tive and ineffective . Silence and avoidance are viewed as effective tools to manage . Intermediaries or mediators are used when negotiation is unavoidable , and people who undermine group harmony may sanctions 01 ' Emotionally Expressive or Emotionally Restrained Approach Emotionally Expressive people or cultures are those who value intense displays of emotion during ment . Outward displays of emotion are seen as indicating that one cares and is committed to resolving the . It is thought that it is better to show emotion through expressive nonverbal behavior and words than to keep feelings inside and hidden from the world . Trust is gained through the sharing of emotions , and ing is necessary for credibility . Emotionally Restrained people or cultures are those who think that disagreements are best discussed in an emotionally calm manner . Emotions are controlled through internalization and few , if any , verbal or bal expressions will be displayed . A sensitivity to hurting feelings or protecting the face or honor of the other is paramount . Trust is earned through what is seen as emotional maturity , and that maturity is necessary to appear credible .

94 I CHAPTER Direct Discussion Engagement Accommodation Dynamic Indirect Emotional Restrained Emotional Expressive Figure International styles ( Conflict Styles Miscommunication and misunderstanding between people within the same culture can feel overwhelming enough , but when this occurs with people of another culture , we may feel a serious sense of stress . Because of this , intercultural experts have developed style inventories based on the two general approaches discussed above . The Intercultural Style Inventory or ( Hammer , 2005 ) measures people approaches to along two different indirect and restrained . Discussion Style The discussion style combines direct and dimensions . As it is a verbally direct approach , people who use this style are comfortable expressing disagreements . User perceived strengths of this approach are that it confronts problems , explores arguments , and maintains a calm atmosphere during the . The weaknesses perceived by others is that it is difficult to read between the lines , it appears logical but unfeeling , and it can be uncomfortable with emotional arguments . Discussion style can often be found in Northern Europe , Australia , New Zealand , and various in the United States .

CHAPTER i 95 Engagement Style The engagement style emphasizes a verbally direct and approach to dealing with . This style views intense verbal and nonverbal expressions of emotion as demonstrating a willingness to resolve the . User perceived strengths to this approach are that it provides detailed explanations , instructions , and information . This style expresses opinions and shows feelings . The weaknesses perceived by others are the lack of concern with the views and feelings of others along with the potential for dominatingly rude behavior . Individual viewpoints are not separated from emotion . Engagement style is often used in Mediterranean Europe , Russia , Israel , Latin America , and various in the United States . Accommodating Style The accommodating style combines the indirect and approaches . People who use this approach may send ambiguous message because they believe that by doing so , the conflict will not get out of control . Silence and avoidance are also considered worthy tools . Strengths to this approach are sensitivity to feelings of the other party , control of emotional outbursts , and consideration to alternative meanings of ambiguous messages . Weaknesses are difficulty in voicing your own opinion , and appearing to be ted or dishonest . tend to avoid direct expression of feelings by using intermediaries , such as friends or who informally act on their behalf when dealing with conflict . Mediation tends to be used in more formal situations when one person believes that will encourage growth in the relationship . Accommodating style is often used in East Asia , North America , and South America . Dynamic Style The dynamic style uses indirect communication along with more emotional expressiveness . These people are comfortable with emotions but tend to speak in metaphors and often use mediators . Their credibility is grounded in their degree of emotional expressiveness . User perceived strengths to this approach are using third parties to gather information and resolve conflicts , being skilled at observing nonverbal behaviors , and being comfortable with emotional displays . Weaknesses as perceived by others are appearing too emotional , sonable , and possibly devious , while rarely getting to the point . Dynamic style is often used in the Middle East , India , Africa , and various in the United States . Caution When Applying the It is important to recognize that people , and cultures , deal with in a variety of ways for a variety of different reasons . Preferred styles are not static and rigid . People use different conflict styles with different

96 CHAPTER partners . Economic , political , gender , ethnicity , religion , and social issues may all how we handle . The is just a guide for the understanding of intercultural . Dealing with Conflict How people choose to deal with conflict in any given situation depends on the type of conflict and their relationship to the other person . Cognitive conflicts with close friends may be more discussion based in the United States , but more accommodating in Japan . Both are focused on preserving the harmony within the relationship . However , if the cognitive takes place between acquaintances or strangers , where a relationship is not as important , the engagement or dynamic styles may come out . Considering all the variations in how people choose to deal with conflict , it good to know the different characteristics of each one . Destructive and Productive Destructive leads people to make sweeping generalizations about the problem . Groups or escalate the issues with negative attitudes . The conflict starts to deviate from the original issues , and thing in the relationship is open for examination or . Participants try to jockey for power while using threats , coercion , and deception as polarization occurs . Leaders display militant , traits to rally their followers . Productive features skills that make it possible to manage conflict situations effectively and . First the participants narrow the conflict to the original issue so that the problem is easier to understand . Next , the leaders stress mutually satisfactory outcomes and direct all their efforts to cooperative . Research from Alan and colleagues found that during disputes , individuals selectively remember information that supports themselves and contradicts their partners , view their own tion more positively than their partners , and blame partners for failure to resolve the conflict ( Roberts , Leonard , Dun , 2000 ) and colleagues also found that participant thoughts are often locked in simple , and negative views . Only in of cases did respondents attribute to their and to themselves ( et , 2000 )

CHAPTER 97 it St Figure People working through cooperative Competitive and Cooperative escalation . When conflicts escalate and an er , our minds are with ne thou of all the and resentments we feel towards others et al , 2000 . parties set up and mutually expectations . Coercion , deception , suspicion , rigidity , and poor communication are all hallmarks of a competitive atmosphere . Coo , trust , and en communication . If both parties are committed to the resolution process , there is a sense of joint ownership in reaching a conclusion . Because it is ve difficult to turn a into a coo , a cooperative relationship must be encouraged from the very beginning before the starts to escalate , A coo atmos here , trust , and en communication , If both are committed to the resolution , there is a sense in a sion . Consequently , the most important thing you can do to enhance cooperative and productive is to practice critical . Business consultants in the United States offer various versions of the Step Resolution Model that is a good place to start . The seven steps are . State the Problem . Ask each of the conflicting parties to state their View of the problem as simply and

98 CHAPTER clearly as possible . Restate the Problem . Ask each party to restate the problem as they understand the other party to view it . Understand the Problem . Each party must agree that the other side understands both ways of looking at the problem . Pinpoint the Issue . Zero in on the objective facts . Ask for Suggestions . Ask how the problem should be solved . Make a Plan . Follow up . A quick review of the previous seven steps betrays its western roots with the unspoken assumption that individuals will be verbally direct and emotionally or advocates of the of . This model is not effective for use in all cultures and shouldn be regarded as such . Cultural Variations arid a Culturally Relative Model The strongest cultural factor that influences your conflict approach is whether you belong to an individualistic or collectivistic culture ( 1997 ) but power distance and context may a role in cultural variations of expression . Individualism and Collectivism People raised in collectivistic cultures often view direct communication regarding conflict as personal attacks ( 1971 ) and consequently are more likely to manage conflict through avoidance or tion . People from individualistic cultures feel comfortable agreeing to disagree , and don particularly see such clashes as personal affronts ( 1985 ) They are more likely to compete , react , or collaborate . Kim ( 2003 ) suggest that if you are an individualist in a dispute with a collectivist , you should consider the following ' Recognize that collectivist may prefer to have a third party mediate the conflict so that those in can manage their disagreement without direct confrontation to preserve relational ' Use more indirect verbal ' Let go of the situation if the other person does not recognize the conflict exists or does not want to deal with it .

CHAPTER 99 If you are a collectivist and are conflicting with someone from an individualist culture , the following guidelines may help ' Recognize that often separate from people . It not ' Use an assertive style , with I messages , and be direct by candidly stating your opinions and ' Manage even if you rather avoid them . Figure Collective Mediation High and Low Power Distance Conflict within a low power distance culture where people relate to each other as equals , there would be more opportunity to challenge the , give , and provide or negotiate an alternative to the . If you are having conflict in a high power distance culture , the power framework of the culture may vent participation outside of the . High power distance cultures may have learned that less powerful people must accept the decisions without comment , even if they have a concern . In this case , conflict resolution must consciously solicit feedback and discussion if equal representation is the desire .

100 CHAPTER CONFLICT High and Low Context In high context cultures resolution depends on what is not being said . People involved must be able to infer all the meanings being communicated therefore a higher level of understanding of the culture is required . In low context cultures messages are explicit and might be presented in more than one way to ensure standing of what is wanted or expected . People may raise their voices , speak rapidly , express their thoughts in very direct and seemingly rude ways . Less value is placed on nonverbal codes . One common way to notice the difference between high and low context cultures is the use of the words , yes and no . A member of a high context culture may verbally communicate yes , when they are communicating no through their . Those could include context , tone ( soft volume ) gaze ( looking down or away ) facial expressions , and the amount of time taken to voice a verbal yes . In a high context culture , a verbal yes does not always mean agreement . In a low context culture , a verbal no means . The Four Skills Approach Learning to recognize cultural values in actions and behaviors allows communicators to be more effective when negotiating . If the Seven Steps Resolution Model mentioned above is too ethnocentric , try working with the more Four Skills Approach based on the previously mentioned Theory . These skills are Mindful Listening Pay special attention to the cultural and personal assumptions being expressed in the interaction . Paraphrase verbal and nonverbal content and emotional meaning of the other party message to check for accurate ' Mindful This is another skill that requires the creation of alternative texts to shape our understanding of the ' Collaborative Dialogue An exchange of dialogue that is oriented fully in the present moment and builds on Mindful Listening and Mindful to practice communicating with different tic or contextual ' Resolution Steps is a resolution model that guides groups to identify the background of a problem , analyze the cultural assumptions and ing values of a person in a situation , and promotes ways to achieve harmony and share a common goal . What is my cultural and personal assessment of the problem ?

Why did I form this assessment and what is the source of this assessment ?

What are the underlying assumptions or values that drive my assessment ?

How do I know they are relative or valid in this context ?

hat reasons might I have for maintaining or changing my underlying premise ?

CHAPTER I 101 How should I change my cultural or personal premises into the direction that promotes deeper intercultural understanding ?

How should I adaptively on both verbal and nonverbal style levels in order to play facework sensitive behaviors and to facilitate a productive outcome ?

2012 , 2005 , 2000 ) Figure resolution through collaborative dialogue Conclusion Just as there is no consensus across cultures about what constitutes a or how the conflicting events should be Framed , there are also many different response theories . Hammer , Kim , and are only a few of the many researchers who have explored the complexities of intercultural . It is also a topic of interest for sociologists , psychologists , business managers ,

102 CHAPTER , and communities . Acquiring knowledge about personal and intercultural styles can hopefully help us transform our into meaningful dialogue and become better communicators in the ' Conflict of Interest ' Value ' Divide ' Face ' Facework ' Restrained Approach ' Engagement Style ' Accommodating Style ' Productive ' Conflict Resolution Model Key Terms Affective Cognitive Goal Negotiation Theory Indirect Approach Intercultural Style Inventory Discussion Style Dynamic Style Cooperative Four Skills Approach Reflection Questions . Some of the most severe problems in intercultural relations arise as a consequence of interpersonal . Consider the following statements . What do they tell us about the potential for intercultural ?

The one who voice has already lost . The squeaky wheel get the grease . Traditionally , within the US context , it has been argued that covert , or hidden , also is tive in that it leaves issues unresolved and may result in psychological or physical estrangement ( Buller , 1991 , 48 ) Why might this philosophy lead to intercultural conflict ?

What does the following quote mean in terms of intercultural ?

may he the of defeat , lost 11 ' and a of our , but they may also lead to greater depth of living and the birth or more , in the that engender them . Think of an unsolvable intercultural that you have had . Why was it unsolvable ?

How did you communicate after realizing it was unsolvable ?

How did the dispute effect your relationship ?

Looking back on the situation , could you have done anything different to prevent the conflict from becoming CHAPTER I 103 unsolvable ?

If so , what ?

What types of intercultural occur on our campus ?

What groups or cultures have Frequent ?

hat irritates you the most about how others handle ?