Intercultural Communication CHAPTER 5 The Impacts of Social Class

CHAPTER The Impacts of Social Class SOURCE . The impacts of social class . In Boundless sociology . Lumen Learning . Creative Commons International License ) LEARNING OBJECTIVES . Describe how socioeconomic status relates to the distribution of social opportunities and resources . Describe how a low socioeconomic status can impact the health status of individuals . Define mental health and explain why it is regarded as a socially constructed concept . Give examples of effects of social class on marriage , birth rates , and family composition . KEY TERMS adjudication hierarchy birth rate law enforcement courts legacy student educational attainment mental disorder environmental hazards mental health family life overpopulation health inequality political influence the United States , a persons social class has ing consequences . Social class refers to the the grouping of individuals in a stratified hierarchy based on wealth , income , education , occupation , and social network ( though other factors are sometimes considered ) archy , 2019 ) One position in the social class hierarchy may impact , for example , health , family life , education , religious affiliation , political participation , and experience with the criminal justice system , Social class in the United States is a controversial issue , with social scientists disagreeing over models , definitions , and even the basic question of whether or not distinct classes exist , Many Americans believe in a simple class model that includes the rich or upper class , the class , and the poor or working class ( Social Class , 2020 ) More complex models that have been proposed by social scientists describe as many as a dozen class levels . Regardless of which model of social classes used , it is clear that socioeconomic status ( SES ) is tied to particular and resources . Socioeconomic status refers to a persons position in the social hierarchy and is determined . Discuss three factors contributing to educational inequality . Explain how social class relates to religious affiliation , nation , and religiosity . Evaluate how social class impacts political participation and political influence . Describe how the administration of punishment has changed throughout history . political participation private schools religiosity religious affiliation social of health socioeconomic status by their income , wealth , occupational prestige , and attainment . While social class may be an amorphous and diffuse concept , with scholars disagreeing over its , tangible advantages are associated with high nomic status . People in the highest SES bracket , referred to as the upper class , likely have better access to healthcare , marry people social status , attend more prestigious schools , and are more in politics than people in the middle class or ing class , People in the upper class are members of elite social networks , effectively meaning that they have access to people in powerful positions who have specialized knowledge . These social networks confer ranging from advantages in seeking education and employment to leniency by police and the courts . Sociologists may dispute exactly how to model the distinctions between socioeconomic statuses , but the higher up the class archy one is in America , the better health , educational , and professional outcomes one is likely to have ( Social Class , 2020 ) 83

84 CHAPTERS PHYSICAL HEALTH A person social class has a impact on their physical health , their ability to receive adequate medical care and nutrition , and their life expectancy While der and race play roles in explaining healthcare inequality in the United States , SES is the greatest social determinant of an individual health outcome . Social of health are the economic and social that individual and group differences in health status . Social are environmental , meaning that they are risk factors found in ones living and working conditions ( including the distribution of income , wealth , and power ) rather than individual ( such as behavioral risk factors or genetics ) Social can be used to predict one risk of ing a disease or sustaining an injury , and can also indicate how vulnerable one is to the consequences of a disease or injury ( Social of Health , 2019 ) of lower socioeconomic status have lower levels of Not insured ( 16 ) Medicare ( Medicaid ( 13 ) Military health care ( health insurance ( 59 ) health insurance ( FIGURE Health insurance distribution ( under 65 years ) As seen in this graph , with insurance needed for most health services , access to healthcare is not evenly distributed among Americans . The largest group of insured Americans consists of middle and upper class employees who receive health insurance through employers . As of 2007 , 16 of the population had no health insurance coverage and , thus , had greatly limited access to healthcare . This work , Health insurance Status 2007 , is a derivative of Health insurance Status Under 65 yrs by White House Council of Economic Commons , which resides in the public domain Health Insurance Status 2007 is licensed under by Judy . Farmers markets are visible sources of fresh produce and healthy foods . These markets are concentrated in middle to upper income neighborhoods and are not found in food deserts . Farmers Market by is used under ( overall health , less insurance coverage , and less access to adequate healthcare than those of higher SES ( Figure ) Individuals with a low SES in the United States a wide array of health problems as a result of their economic position ( Health Equity , 2020 ) They are unable to use healthcare as often as people of higher status and when they do , it is often of lower quality . ally , people with low SES tend to experience a much higher rate of health issues than those of high SES ( Social Class , 2020 ) Many social scientists hypothesize that the higher rate of illness among those with low SES can be attributed to environmental hazards . For example , poorer hoods tend to have fewer grocery stores and more fast food chains than wealthier neighborhoods , increasing nutrition problems and the risk of conditions , such as heart disease ( Health Equity , 2020 ) Similarly , poorer neighborhoods tend to have fewer recreational facilities and higher crime rates than wealthier ones , which decreases the feasibility of routine exercise . In addition to having an increased level of illness , lower socioeconomic classes have lower levels of health insurance than the upper class . Much of this disparity can be explained by the tendency for middle and upper class people to work in professions that provide health to employees , while lower status occupations often do not provide to employees . For many employees who do not have health insurance through their job , the cost of insurance can be tive . Without insurance , or with inadequate insurance , the cost of healthcare can be extremely high . Consequently , many uninsured or poorly insured individuals do not

THE IMPACTS OF SOCIAL CLASS 85 have access to preventative care or quality treatment . This group of people has higher rates of infant mortality , cardiovascular disease , and disabling physical injuries than are seen among the well insured ( Health Care in the United States , 2020 ) Health inequality refers to the unequal distribution of environmental health hazards and access to health services between demographic groups , including social classes . For example , poor and affluent urban communities in the United States are geographically close to each other and to hospitals . Still , the communities are more likely to have access to fresh produce , recreational facilities for exercise , preventative healthcare programs , and routine medical visits . Consequently , affluent communities are likely to have better health outcomes than ones . The role of socioeconomic status in mining access to healthcare results in heath inequality between the upper , middle , and lower or working classes , with the higher classes having more positive health comes ( Health Equity , 2020 ) MENTAL HEALTH Mental health describes a level of psychological or the of a mental disorder ( Mental Health , 2018 ) From the perspective of positive or holism , mental health may include an individual ability to enjoy life and to demonstrate psychological when confronted with challenges . The World Health Organization mental health as a state of ing in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities , can cope with the normal stresses of life , can work and fruitfully , and is able to make a contribution to his or her community ( Mental Health , 2020 ) What counts as healthy enjoyment and resilience depends upon one class perspective . Members of different classes encounter different class people likely face more stress as it pertains to sustenance and , while upper class people might experience stress from the intense social pressures with elite circles . The evaluation of which mental states can be considered healthy and which require cal intervention also varies by class . Mental health is a socially constructed and socially concept different societies , groups , cultures , institutions , and professions have very different ways of its nature and causes , determining what is mentally healthy , and deciding what interventions are appropriate . of mental health depend on understandings in addition to biological and logical . Members of different social classes often hold different views on mental health . Similarly , different To say that mental health is socially constructed means that its definition and criteria can change across time and culture . This 1857 lithograph illustrates the eight mental health disorders that were thought to be prominent in England during the century dementia , megalomania , acute mania , melancholia , idiocy , hallucination , erotic mania , and paralysis . Since 1857 , many of those disorders have been erased from medical textbooks or modified in light of changing social norms . by Armand IS in the public domain . social classes have different levels of access to mental health interventions and to information about mental health . Thus , the diagnosis and treatment of mental ders varies widely by social class . FAMILY LIFE Family and childbearing patterns , hold composition , and home strongly by social class ( Introduction to , 2017 ) In the United States , the probability of a marriage ending is substantially higher for couples with low nomic statuses than for those in the middle or upper class ( Figure ) Research shows that the higher rates of divorce for individuals in lower social classes can often be attributed to the greater stress these couples face , though like class expectations can also play a role , Globally , the birth rate in countries with large populations is much higher than in wealthier countries , indicating that income and wealth play a role in shaping family structures . Demographers have a direct relationship between average number of children per household and the economic development of a nation . Today , less developed countries struggle with tion while many governments in developed countries are instituting policies to deal with low birth rates , In nations with high levels of fertility , upper class individuals tend to have more children than their lower class peers . In nations with low levels of fertility , upper class families exhibit even lower fertility than average ( Birth Rate , 2020 )

86 CHAPTERS 60 56 50 43 40 39 30 33 Low income 33 Medium income 20 23 I High income 44 38 33 31 26 23 10 All races Hispanic white black FIGURE Probability of first marriage dissolution by and income ( 1995 ) This graph shows that among all races and ethnicities , low income households are more likely to experience divorce than middle and high income households are . Thus , social class bears on rates of marriage dissolution . First Marriage Dissolution by Race and income 1995 is used under . Social class has both a cause and an effect relationship with family composition ( Introduction to Family , 2017 ) For example , households are likely to have a lower social class because they violate social norms . At the same time , families can contribute to and social instability . A single ent will often face higher costs ( in the form of paid care ) lower earnings ( loss of the second parent income or loss of time spent at work ) or both . EDUCATION Education is a major component of social class , both directly and indirectly . Directly , individuals from higher social classes are more likely to have the means to attend more prestigious schools , and are therefore more likely to receive higher ( Social Class , 2020 ) Indirectly , individuals who from such higher education are more likely to land prestigious jobs , and in turn , higher salaries . as tion and social class are closely intertwined , in education contributes to in social class . Educational attainment refers to the level of ing a person instance , high school , some college , college , or a graduate degree . Upper class are likely to attend schools of higher quality and of greater prestige than those attended by their lower class counterparts ( Educational Attainment in the United States , 2020 ) Because members of high social classes tend to be better educated and have higher incomes , they are able to offer greater educational advantages , such as schooling , to their children as well ( Figure ) parents are better able to send their dren not only to exclusive private schools , but also to 120000 Overall grade or less No high school High school 60 000 Le Some college ' Associates BaC 20000 Professional 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 FIGURE Educational attainment and income ( Households with higher educational attainment are likely to have higher incomes than those with low educational attainment members of the lowest income bracket tend to have no more than a high school education , while the highest income bracket members tend to hold graduate degrees . This work , Household Income by Education 2003 , is a derivative of income Education 91 to 03 by , which is used under 30 . Household Income by Education 2003 is licensed under by Judy .

THE IMPACTS OF SOCIAL CLASS 37 public schools . Such schools are likely to be of higher quality in affluent areas than in impoverished ones , since they are funded by property taxes within the school district . Wealthy areas will provide more property taxes as revenue , which leads to higher quality schools . Educational inequality is one factor that perpetuates the class divide across generations . Such educational inequality is further reinforced by legacy student admission , the preference given by institutions to applicants who are related to alumni of that institution ( Legacy Preferences , 2020 ) Germane to university and college admissions ( particularly in the United States ) this practice emerged after World War I , primarily in response to the resulting immigrant . Ivy League institutions admit roughly 10 to 30 of dents from each incoming class based on this factor . RELIGION Social class , measured by socioeconomic status , is with individuals religious and practices . Religious has more to do with how religion is practiced rather than degree of religiosity ( Introduction to , 2018 ) Members of lower classes tend to be with more fundamentalist religions and groups . Members of the middle class tend to belong to more formal churches . For example , American Jehovah Witness Church of God Pentecostal Muslim Baptist Churches of Christ Assemblies of God Buddhist Mormon United Church of Christ US average religion Christian ( unspecified ) Catholic Protestant ( unspecified ) Methodist Lutheran Presbyterian Hindu Again Episcopalian Unitarian Jewish Presbyterians and ( two highly formal tant denominations ) tend to have above average nomic statuses . Methodists and Lutherans ( two moderately formal Protestant denominations ) tend to have about age SES . Baptists and members of Protestant ist sects ( which tend to be decentralized and informal ) have below average SES ( Introduction to , 2018 ) Variations in SES across denomination reveal a relation between religious and social class . Social class is not correlated to religiosity , an index of how strongly religious a person is . Religiosity is measured by tracking frequency of church attendance , church group involvement , frequency of prayer , and other such markers of strength of religious practice . Members of each social class show a range of religiosity . On the other hand , income , and therefore social class , is related to an individual denomination . When one looks at average income by religion , there are clear differences . The religion on average is Judaism , with an average income of in 2000 ( Figure ) This is dramatically higher than average the next ing denomination is at . Witness , Church of God , and Seventh Day are at the bottom of the income distribution , with , and , respectively ( Introduction to , 2018 ) FIGURE Religious affiliation by median household income ( 2000 ) Household income , an indicator of social class , can also indicate what religious denomination a person is likely to embrace . America top income bracket is more likely than other groups to be Jewish , while the lowest bracket is more likely to be Jehovah Witnesses . This work , Household Income by Religion 2000 , is a derivative of income Ranking by Religious Group 2000 by Commons , which is used under BY . Household income by Religion 2000 is licensed under by Judy .

88 CHAPTERS Religion is also linked with education . 72 of and 67 of Hindu adherents are college graduates , while only 12 of Witness and 15 of Church of God members graduated from college ( Introduction to , 2018 ) POLITICS Social class impacts one level of political participation and political . Political participation refers to whether or not a person votes in elections , donates to campaigns , or attends public forums where decisions are made , such as town meetings or city council meetings , for example . Political refers to the extent to which ones political participation achieves its desired results . For example , if one attends a public forum , is their opinion likely to be heard , or if they donate money , is a politician likely to support their desired policy ?

Wealthy , Americans are more likely to vote and to donate money to politicians than lower class individuals ( Figure ) This trend means that middle and upper class individuals have greater political participation and greater political than those in lower . Additionally , higher status people are more likely to hold political positions than lower class people . An of this is the presidential election between George Bush and Kerry in 2004 . Both had millions of do lars of accumulated wealth , and they had higher degrees from Harvard and Yale , respectively ( Introduction to , 2017 ) Those who vote as members of a social class can be said to be participating in identity politics . Identity politics is a phenomenon that arose at the radical margins of eral democratic societies in which human rights are , and the term is not usually used to refer to dissident movements within or authoritarian states . Some groups have combined identity politics and Marxist social class analysis and class consciousness . During the 19805 , the politics of identity became very prominent and was linked with new social movement activism ( Identity Politics , 2020 ) CRIME AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE Criminal justice is the system of practices and government institutions directed at upholding social control , deterring , and mitigating crime , or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts . The American criminal justice system consists of three main parts ( enforcement ( adjudication and ( These distinct agencies are the principal means of maintaining the rule of law within society ( Criminal tice , 2020 ) The first contact an offender has with the criminal tice system is usually with law enforcement , most often the police who investigate a suspected violation and make 80 70 50 50 40 30 20 10 Total Less than to High Some college Advanced grade grade , school or associate degree degree no diploma graduate degree FIGURE Percentage of voter turnout by educational attainment ( 2008 presidential election ) Educational attainment , an indicator of social class , can predict one level of political participation . Those with high educational attainment are more likely to vote in elections than those with little education . This work , Voter Turnout by Education 2008 , is a derivative Turnout by Educational Attainment , 2008 US Presidential Election by Commons , which is used under BY . Voter Turnout by Education 2008 is licensed under by Judy .

THE IMPACTS OF SOCIAL CLASS 89 Police officers are the most visible members of the law enforcement branch of the criminal justice system and are charged with maintaining social order by arresting offenders who violate the law . St by Shane of Public is used under BY . an arrest . Next , the courts carry out adjudication or the legal processing of offenders to determine their guilt or innocence and sentencing . The courts serve as the venue where disputes are settled and justice is administered . Depending on the offense , either a judge or a jury mines whether the suspect violated the law and what their punitive sentence will be . If found guilty by the court , offenders are then turned over to correctional authorities . Correctional authorities may include prison wardens or social workers , depending on the type of offense ( nal , 2020 ) Like all other aspects of criminal justice , the of punishment has taken many different forms throughout history . Early on , when civilizations lacked the resources necessary to construct and maintain ons , exile and execution were the primary forms of . Historically , shame punishments have also been used as forms of censure ( Criminal , 2020 ) The most publicly visible form of punishment in the modern era is the prison . Prisons may serve as detention centers for prisoners after trial . are used for ment of the accused before trial . Early prisons were used KEY TAKEAWAYS While sociologists debate exactly how social classes are divided , there is substantial evidence that socioeconomic status is tied to tangible advantages and outcomes . Social class in the United States is a controversial issue , with social scientists disagreeing over models , definitions , and even the basic question of whether or not distinct classes exist . The criminal justice system includes adjudication , wherein the courts legally process suspects to determine their guilt or innocence and sentencing . Died Scott by is used under BY . primarily to sequester criminals and little thought was given to living conditions within their walls . In America , the Quaker movement is commonly credited with the idea that prisons should be used to reform criminals . This can also be seen as a critical moment in the debate regarding the purpose of punishment ( Criminal , 2020 ) In the United States , criminal justice policy has been guided by the 1967 President Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of , which issued a report titled The Challenge uf Crime in a Free Society . This report made more than 200 as part of a comprehensive approach toward crime prevention . Some of those recommendations found their way into the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 . The commission advocated a systems approach to criminal justice , with improved coordination among law enforcement , courts , and correctional agencies . The mission the criminal justice system as the means for society to enforce the standards of conduct necessary to protect individuals and the community ( Presidents Commission , 1967 , Many Americans believe in a simple model that includes the rich or upper class , the middle class , and the poor or working class . Social class is correlated to environmental hazards that increase one risk of contracting a disease or sustaining an injury low access to fresh produce , exercise facilities , and preventative

90 CHAPTERS health programs are all environmental hazards that negatively impact health outcomes . Health inequality refers to the unequal distribution of tal hazards and access to health services between demographic groups , including social classes , as well as to the disparate health outcomes experienced by these groups . In addition to environmental hazards , lower socioeconomic classes have lower levels of health insurance than the upper class . Much of this disparity can be explained by the for lower status occupations to not provide benefits to employees . Mental health describes a person level of psychological , or the of mental disorder . Mental can include one ability to enjoy life and demonstrate resilience . Mental health is socially constructed and defined it is determined by both scientific and cultural knowledge , and it is understood differently by various groups , institutions , and . he evaluation of which mental states can be considered and which require medical intervention also varies by class . the United States , the probability of a first marriage ending is substantially higher for couples with low socioeconomic statuses than for those in the middle or upper class . Globally , the birth rate in countries with large impoverished is much higher than in wealthier countries . nations with high levels of fertility , upper class individuals tend to have more children than their lower class peers , while in nations with low levels of fertility , upper class families exhibit even lower fertility than average . Social class has both a cause and an effect relationship with family composition , and lower social class is often correlated with households . Those in high social classes are likely to have greater attainment than those in low social classes . REFERENCES Birth rate . 2020 , January 29 ) In Wikipedia . title Criminal justice . 2020 , January ) In Wikipedia . title Educational attainment in the United States . 2020 , January 29 ) In Wikipedia . title EducationaL Health care in the United States . 2020 , February ) In Wikipedia . title , United , Health equity . 2020 , February 17 ) In . title Educational inequality is also perpetuated by legacy admission . Because members of high social classes tend to be better and have higher incomes , they are more able to provide educational advantages to their children as well . Educational inequality is one factor that perpetuates the class divide across generations . Social class is an indicator of religious affiliation , with upper class members concentrated in formal denominations and lower class members concentrated in informal denominations . Social class is not an indicator of religiosity members of each social class practice their faiths with a range of . Income , and therefore social class , is related to an als denomination . Religion is also strongly linked to level of education . Political office holders tend to be of high socioeconomic status , furthering the impact of class on American politics . Wealthy , Americans are more likely to vote and to donate money to politicians than lower class individuals are . Those who vote as members of a social class can be said to be participating in identity politics . When a person is suspected of violating a law , they are through the criminal justice system . The criminal justice system includes law enforcement ( such as police or sheriffs ) the courts , and corrections authorities ( such as prison wardens and social workers ) Legislation can attempt to refocus and restructure the criminal justice system in the United States , as when the 1967 dent Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice issued recommendations to improve the efficacy of criminal justice . These reforms reflected a change in the purpose of the criminal justice system . Historically , it had been used as a way to deter crime and punish criminals , but it now has the added goal of rehabilitating offenders . Hierarchy . 2019 , September 29 ) In . title hierarchy Identity politics . 2020 , February 17 ) In . title Introduction to . 2017 , August 16 ) In . title Introduction to . 2017 , August ) In . title Introduction to . 2018 , July 14 ) In books . title

THE IMPACTS OF SOCIAL CLASS 91 Legacy preferences . February 17 ) In Wikipedia . 941192697 Mental health . 2018 , October 28 ) In . title Mental health . 2020 , February 10 ) In Wikipedia . title Presidents Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice . 1967 ) The challenge of crime in a free A report . Government Printing Office . Social class . 2020 , February ) In . Consequences , Social of health . December 14 ) In ' of ,