Intercultural Communication CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Race and Ethnicity

CHAPTER Introduction to Race and Ethnicity SOURCE , Strayer , Jones , Rice University . 2015 , April 24 ) Introduction to race and ethnicity . In Introduction to sociology ( Retrieved February 13 , 2020 , from ( Creative Commons Attribution International License ) LEARNING OBJECTIVES . Understand the difference between race and ethnicity . Define a majority group ( dominant group ) Define a minority group ( subordinate group ) Explain the difference between stereotypes , prejudice , and racism . Identify different types of discrimination . View racial tension through a sociological lens . Describe how major sociological perspectives view race and ethnicity . KEY TERMS amalgamation genocide assimilation institutional racism intersection theory culture of prejudice minority group de facto segregation model minority discrimination pluralism dominant group prejudice ethnicity racial profiling expulsion racial steering Martin was a Black ager . On the evening of February 26 , 2012 , he was with his father and his fathers in the Sanford , Florida gated community where his fathers lived . went on foot to buy a snack from a nearby convenience store . As he was returning , George , a White Hispanic male and the community neighborhood watch program coordinator , noticed him . In light of a recent rash of , called the police to report a person acting suspiciously , which he had done on many other occasions . The 911 operator told not to follow the teen , but soon after and Martin had a physical confrontation . According to , Martin attacked him , and in the ensuing scuffle Martin was shot and killed ( Research , Identify examples of culture of prejudice . Explain different relations in terms of their relative levels of tolerance . 10 . Give historical contemporary examples of each type of relation . 11 . Compare and contrast the different experiences of various ethnic groups in the United States . 12 . Apply theories of relations , race , and ethnicity to different subordinate groups . racism scapegoat theory sedimentation of racial inequality segregation social construction of race stereotypes subordinate group White privilege A public outcry followed Martin death . There were allegations of racial use by law ment of race alone to determine whether to stop and detain national discussion about Stand Your Ground Laws , and a failed lawsuit in which accused of airing an edited version of the 911 call that made him appear racist . was not arrested until April 11 , when he was charged with murder by special prosecutor Angela Corey . In the ing trial , he was found not guilty ( Editorial Research , 2014 ) The shooting , the public response , and the trial that followed offer a snapshot of the sociology of race . Do you think race played a role in Martin death or in the public reaction to it ?

Do you think race had any on the initial decision not to arrest , or on his later 63 64 The Million Hoodies rally in New York Union Square , protesting the shooting of Martin . Photo by David is in the public domain . acquittal ?

Does society Black men , leading to racial at an institutional level ?

What about the role of the media ?

Was there a deliberate attempt to manipulate public opinion ?

If you were a member of the jury , would you have convicted George ?

RACIAL , ETHNIC , AND MINORITY GROUPS While many students entering a sociology classroom are accustomed to the terms race , ity , and minority group , these three terms have distinct meanings for sociologists . The idea of race refers to physical differences that a particular society considers , while ethnicity describes shared culture . And the term minority groups describe groups that are , or that lack power in society regardless of skin color or country of origin . For example , in modern US . history , the elderly might be considered a minority group due to a diminished status that results from popular prejudice and discrimination against them . Ten percent of nursing home staff admitted to physically abusing an elderly person in the past year , and 40 admitted to committing psychological abuse ( World Health Organization , 2011 ) In this chapter we focus on racial and ethnic minorities . What Is Race ?

Historically , the concept of race has changed across and eras , and has eventually become less connected with ancestral and familial ties , and more concerned with physical characteristics . In the past , theorists have posited categories of race based on various graphic regions , ethnicities , skin colors , and more . Their labels for racial groups have regions ( and the Caucus Mountains , for instance ) or skin tones ( black , white , yellow , and red , for example ) Social science organizations including the American Association of Anthropologists , the American Sociological Association , and the American Psychological Association have all taken an position rejecting the biological explanations of race . Over time , the typology of race that developed during early racial science has fallen into use , and the social construction of race is a more logical way of understanding racial categories . Research in this school of thought suggests that race is not biologically and that previous racial categories were assigned , based on , and used to racist practices ( Graves , 2003 ) When considering skin color , for example , the social of race perspective recognizes that the relative darkness or fairness of skin is an evolutionary adaptation to the available sunlight in different regions of the world . Contemporary conceptions of race , therefore , which tend to be based on socioeconomic assumptions , illuminate how far removed modern understanding of race is from biological qualities . In modern society , some people who consider themselves White actually have more melanin ( a pigment that determines skin color ) in their skin than other people who identify as Consider the case of the actress Jones . She is the daughter of a Black man ( Quincy ) and her roles include Ann Perkins on Parks and Recreation , Karen on The , Rice in I Love You Man , none of whom are Black characters . In some countries , such as Brazil , class is more important than skin color in mining racial categorization . People with high levels of melanin may consider themselves White if they enjoy a lifestyle . On the other hand , someone with low levels of melanin might be assigned the identity of Black if he or she has little education or money . The social construction of race is also in the Way names for racial categories change with ing times . It Worth noting that race , in this sense , is also a system of labeling that provides a source of identity labels fall in and out of favor during different social eras . For example , the category , popular in the nineteenth century , evolved into the term negro by the , and then this term fell from use and was replaced with African This latter term was intended to celebrate the multiple identities that a Black person might hold , but the word choice is a poor one it lumps together a large variety of ethnic groups under an umbrella term while excluding others who could be described by the label but who do not meet the spirit of the term . For example , actress Charlize is a , African She was born in South Africa and later became a US . citizen . Is

INTRODUCTION TO RACE AND ETHNICITY 65 her identity that of an African American as most of us understand the term ?

What Is Ethnicity ?

Ethnicity is a term that describes shared practices , values , and beliefs of a group . This culture might include shared language , religion , and traditions , among other commonalities . Like race , the term ethnicity is to describe and its meaning has changed over time . And as with race , individuals may be or with ethnicities in complex , even tory , ways . For example , ethnic groups such as Irish , ian American , Russian , and Serbian might all be groups whose members are predominantly included in the White racial category . Conversely , the ethnic group British includes citizens from a multiplicity of racial grounds Black , White , Asian , and more , plus a variety of race combinations . These examples illustrate the ity and overlap of these identifying terms . Ethnicity , like race , continues to be an method that and institutions use through the census , action initiatives , nondiscrimination laws , or simply in personal relations . What Are Minority Groups ?

Sociologist Louis ( a minority group as any group of people who , because of their physical or cultural characteristics , are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment , and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective The term minority connotes discrimination , and in its sociological use , the term ordinate group can be used interchangeably with the term minority , while the term dominant group is often for the group thats in the majority . These correlate to the concept that the dominant group is that which holds the most power in a given society , while ordinate groups are those who lack power compared to the dominant group . Note that being a numerical minority is not a of being a minority group sometimes larger groups can be considered minority groups due to their lack of power . It is the lack of power that is the nant characteristic of a minority , or subordinate group . For example , consider apartheid in South Africa , in which a numerical majority ( the Black inhabitants of the country ) were exploited and oppressed by the White minority . According to Charles and Marvin Harris ( 1958 ) a minority group is distinguished by ( unequal treatment and less power over their lives , distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin color or language , involuntary membership in the group , awareness of subordination , and ( high rate of marriage . Additional examples of minority groups might include the community , religious practitioners whose faith is not widely practiced where they live , and people with disabilities . Scapegoat theory , developed initially from et ( theory , suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group . History has shown us many examples of the scapegoating of a subordinate group . An example from the last century is the way Adolf ler was able to blame the Jewish population for ny social and economic problems . In the United States , recent immigrants have frequently been the scapegoat for the nation an individual . Many states have enacted laws to disenfranchise immigrants these laws are popular because they let the dominant group scapegoat a subordinate group . DISCRIMINATION , STEREOTYPES , PREJUDICE AND RACE The terms stereotype , prejudice , discrimination , and ism are often used interchangeably in everyday tion . Let us explore the differences between these concepts . Stereotypes are generalizations about groups of people . Stereotypes can be based on race , age , gender , sexual any . They may be positive ( usually about one own group , such as when women suggest they are less likely to complain about physical pain ) but are often negative ( usually toward other groups , such as when members of a dominant racial group suggest that a subordinate racial group is stupid or lazy ) In either case , the stereotype is a generalization that doesnt take individual differences into account . Where do stereotypes come from ?

In fact new types are rarely created rather , they are recycled from ordinate groups that have assimilated into society and are reused to describe newly subordinate groups . For example , many stereotypes that are currently used to characterize Black people were used earlier in American history to characterize Irish and Eastern European immigrants . Prejudice and Racism Prejudice refers to the beliefs , thoughts , feelings , and someone holds about a group . A prejudice is not based on experience instead , it is a prejudgment , ing outside actual experience . A 1970 documentary called Eye uf the Storm illustrates the way in which prejudice develops , by showing how one category of people

66 as superior ( children with blue eyes ) results in prejudice against people who are not part of the favored category While prejudice is not necessarily to race , ism is a stronger type of prejudice used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others it is also a set of practices used by a racial ity to disadvantage a racial minority . The Ku Klux Klan is an example of a racist organization its members belief in White supremacy has encouraged over a century of hate crime and hate speech . Institutional racism refers to the way in which racism is embedded in the fabric of society . For example , the proportionate number of Black men arrested , charged , and convicted of crimes may racial , a form of institutional racism . is another kind of prejudice , in which one believes one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group . Studies suggest that darker skinned African Americans experience more nation than lighter skinned African Americans ( Herring et , 2004 , 2000 ) For example , if a White employer believes a Black employee with a darker skin tone is less capable than a Black employee with lighter skin tone , that is . At least one study suggested the affected racial socialization , with Black male adolescents receiving more warnings about the danger of interacting with members of other racial groups than did Black male adolescents ( et , 2013 ) Discrimination While prejudice refers to biased thinking , discrimination consists of actions against a group of people . tion can be based on age , religion , health , and other laws against discrimination strive to address this set of social problems . Discrimination based on race or ethnicity can take many forms , from unfair housing practices to biased hiring systems , Overt discrimination has long been part of US . history . In the late nineteenth century , it was not uncommon for business owners to hang signs that read , Help Wanted No Irish Need Apply And southern Crow laws , with their Whites Only signs , overt discrimination that is not tolerated today However , we can not erase discrimination from our culture just by enacting laws to abolish it . Even if a magic pill managed to eradicate racism from each individual psyche , society itself would maintain it . Sociologist Emile ( 1982 ) calls racism a social fact , meaning that it does not require the action of individuals to continue . The reasons for this are complex and relate to the educational , criminal , economic , and political systems that exist in our society . For example , when a newspaper by race accused of a crime , it may enhance stereotypes of a certain minority Another example of racist practices is racial steering , in which real estate agents direct tive homeowners toward or away from certain hoods based on their race . Racist attitudes and beliefs are often more insidious and harder to pin down than racist practices . Prejudice and discrimination can overlap and sect in many ways . To illustrate , here are four examples of how prejudice and discrimination can occur . are , tolerant , and accepting individuals , Unprejudiced might be those who unthinkingly practice sexism in their place by not considering females for certain positions that have traditionally been held by men . Prejudiced are those who hold racist beliefs but don act on them , such as a racist store owner who serves minority customers . Prejudiced include those who actively make disparaging remarks about others or who perpetrate hate crimes , Discrimination also manifests in different ways . The scenarios above are examples of individual discrimination , but other types exist . Institutional discrimination occurs when a societal system has developed with embedded enfranchisement of a group , such as the US , military nonacceptance of minority ( the don ask , don tell policy this norm ) Institutional discrimination can also include the motion of a group status , such in the case of White , which is the people receive simply by being part of the dominant group ( 1989 ) While most White people are willing to admit that people live with a set of disadvantages due to the color of their skin , very few are willing to acknowledge the they receive . Racial Tensions in the United States The death of Michael Brown in Ferguson , Missouri , on August , 2014 , illustrates racial tensions in the United States as well as the overlap between prejudice , and institutional racism . On that day , Brown , a young unarmed Black man , was killed by a White police named Darren Wilson , During the incident , son directed Brown and his friend to walk on the walk instead of in the street , While eyewitness accounts vary , they agree that an altercation occurred between Wilson and Brown , Wilson version has him shooting Brown in after Brown assaulted him , while

INTRODUCTION TO RACE AND ETHNICITY 67 Dorian , a friend of Brown also present at the time , claimed that Brown ran away , then turned with is hands in the air to surrender , after which Wilson shot im repeatedly ( Nobles , 2014 ) Three autopsies independently that Brown was shot six times ( Lowery 81 Fears , 2014 ) The shooting focused attention on a number of tensions in the United States , First , members of the Black community viewed Brown death as the result of a White police officer racially a man ( Nobles , 2014 ) In the days after , it was revealed that only three members of the towns police force were Black ( Nobles man , The national dialogue shifted during the next ew weeks , with some commentators pointing to a wide sedimentation of racial inequality and identifying in Ferguson as a cause of the unbalanced racial composition in the community , in local political , and in the police force ( 2014 ) is the practice of routinely refusing mortgages for holds and businesses located in predominately minority communities , while sedimentation of racial inequality describes the impact of both practical and legalized racism that limits the abilities of Black ple to accumulate wealth , Ferguson racial imbalance may explain in part why , even though in 2010 only about 63 of its population was Black , in 2013 Blacks were detained in 86 of stops , 92 of searches , and 93 of arrests ( Missouri Attorney Generals Office , 2014 ) In addition , de facto segregation in Ferguson schools , a wealth gap , urban sprawl , and a Black unemployment rate three times that of the White unemployment rate worsened existing racial 100 tensions in Ferguson while also nationwide racial inequalities ( 2014 ) Multiple Identities Prior to the twentieth century , racial intermarriage ( referred to as miscegenation ) was extremely rare , and in many places , illegal . In the later part of the twentieth and in the century , as Figure shows , attitudes have changed for the better . While the sexual subordination of slaves did result in children of mixed race , these children were usually considered Black , and therefore , property . There was no concept of multiple racial identities with the possible exception of the Creole . Creole society developed in the port city of New Orleans , where a culture grew from French and African inhabitants . Unlike in other parts of the country , of color had greater social , economic , and educational opportunities than most African Americans ( Williams , 2011 ) Increasingly during the modern era , the removal of miscegenation laws and a trend toward equal rights and legal protection against racism have steadily reduced the social stigma attached to racial exogamy ( refers to marriage outside a persons core social unit ) It is now common for the children of racially mixed parents to acknowledge and celebrate their various ethnic ties . Golfer Tiger Woods , for instance , has Chinese , Thai , African American , Native American , and Dutch he jokingly refers to his ethnicity as , a term he coined to combine several of his ethnic grounds . While this is the trend , it is not yet evident in all aspects of our society . For example , the US . Census only recently added additional categories for people to identify 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Approve Disapprove No opinion 10 , 1958 1968 1972 1978 1983 1991 1994 1997 2002 2003 2004 2007 FIGURE Historical public opinion of of interracial marriage in the United States ( Source , 2007 ) This work , Approval of Marriage US , is a derivative of Public opinion of interracial marriage in the United States by ( Commons , used under Approval of Marriage US is licensed under )

68 Golfer Tiger Woods has Chinese , Thai , African American , Native American , and Dutch heritage . Individuals with multiple ethnic backgrounds are becoming more common . Tiger Woods by Omar is used under . themselves , such as . A growing ber of people chose multiple races to describe themselves on the 2010 Census , paving the way for the 2020 Census to provide yet more choices . Big Picture The Confederate Flag the First Amendment In January 2006 , two girls walked into High School in Texas carrying purses that displayed large images of federate flags . School administrators told the girls that they were in violation ofthe dress code , which prohibited apparel with inappropriate symbolism or clothing that discriminated based on race . To stay in school , they have to have one up their purses or leave them in the office . The This Confederate flag outside the South Carolina State House was permanently removed in 2015 . To some , the Confederate flag is a symbol of pride in Southern history . To others , it is a grim reminder of a degrading period of the United States past . 1222 , South Carolina by Jason Lander is used under BY . girls chose to go home for the day but then challenged the school decision , appealing first to the principal , then to the district superintendent , then to the US . District Court , and finally to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ( Hudson , 2009 ) Why did the school ban the purses , and why did it stand behind that ban , even when being sued ?

Why did the girls , identified anonymously in court documents as AM . and , pursue such strong legal measures fortheir right to carry the purses ?

The issue , of course , is not the purses it is the federate flag that adorns them . The parties in this a long line of people and institutions that have fought for their right to display it , saying such a display is covered by the First Amendments guarantee of free speech . In the end , the court sided with the district and noted that the Confederate flag carried symbolism significant enough to disrupt normal school activities . While many young people in the United States like to believe that racism is mostly in the country past , this case illustrates how racism and discrimination are quite alive today . If the Confederate flag is synonymous with slavery , is there any place for its display in modern society ?

Those who fight for their right to display the flag say such a display should be covered by the First Amendment the right to free speech . But others say the flag is equivalent to hate speech . Do you think that displaying the Confederate flag should considered free speech or hate speech ?

THEORIES OF RACE AND ETHNICITY Theoretical Perspectives We can examine issues of race and ethnicity through three major sociological perspectives functionalism , theory , and symbolic interactionism , As you read through these theories , ask yourself which one makes the most sense and why Do we need more than one theory to explain racism , prejudice , stereotypes , and discrimination ?

Functionalism In the view of functionalism , racial and ethnic inequalities must have served an important function in order to exist as long as they have . This concept , of course , is problematic . How can racism and discrimination contribute positively to society ?

A functionalist might look at functions and caused by racial inequality . Nash ( 1964 ) focused his argument on the way racism is functional for the dominant group , for example , suggesting that racism morally justifies a racially unequal society . Consider the way slave owners justified slavery in the antebellum South , by suggesting Black people were fundamentally inferior to White and preferred slavery to freedom , Another way to apply the functionalist perspective to racism is to discuss the way racism can contribute

INTRODUCTION TO RACE AND ETHNICITY 69 positively to the functioning of society by strengthening bonds between members through the ostracism of members , Consider how a community might increase solidarity by refusing to allow outsiders access . On the other hand , Rose ( 1958 ) suggested that associated with racism include the failure to take advantage of talent in the subjugated group , and that must divert from other purposes the time and effort needed to maintain constructed racial aries . Consider how much money , time , and effort went toward maintaining separate and unequal educational prior to the civil rights movement , Conflict Theory theories are often applied to inequalities of gender , social class , education , race , and ethnicity . A ory perspective of history would examine the ous past and current struggles between the White ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities , noting that have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority group . In the late nineteenth century , the rising power of Black Americans after the Civil War resulted in draconian Crow laws that severely Black political and social power . For example , Thomas ( the Black surgical technician who helped develop the groundbreaking surgical technique that saves the lives of blue babies was as a janitor for many years , and paid as such , despite the fact that he was conducting complicated surgical experiments . The years since the Civil War have showed a pattern of attempted disenfranchisement , with and voter suppression efforts aimed at predominantly minority neighborhoods . Feminist sociologist Patricia Hill Collins ( 1990 ) developed intersection theory , originally articulated in 1989 by Crenshaw , which suggests we can not separate the effects of race , class , gender , sexual tion , and other attributes . When we examine race and how it can bring us both advantages and disadvantages , it is important to acknowledge that the way we experience race is shaped , for example , by our gender and class . Multiple layers of disadvantage intersect to create the way we race . For example , if we want to understand dice , we must understand that the prejudice focused on a White woman because of her gender is very different from the layered prejudice focused on a poor Asian woman , who is affected by stereotypes related to being poor , being a woman , and her ethnic status . For symbolic , race and ethnicity vide strong symbols as sources of identity . In fact , some propose that the symbols of race , not race itself , are what lead to racism . Famed Interactionist Herbert ( 1958 ) suggested that racial prejudice is formed through interactions between members of the dominant group Without these interactions , individuals in the dominant group would not hold racist views , These interactions contribute to an abstract picture of the group that allows the dominant group to support its view of the subordinate group , and thus maintains the status quo . An example of this might be an individual whose beliefs about a particular group are based on images conveyed in popular media , and those are unquestionably believed because the individual has never personally met a member of that group . Another way to apply the perspective is to look at how people their races and the race of others . As we discussed in relation to the social construction of race , since some people who claim a White identity have a greater amount of skin mentation than some people who claim a Black identity , how did they come to themselves as Black or White ?

Culture of Prejudice Culture of prejudice refers to the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture . We grow up surrounded by images of stereotypes and casual expressions of racism and prejudice . Consider the casually racist imagery on grocery store shelves or the stereotypes that popular movies and advertisements . It is easy to see how someone living in the Northeastern United States , who may know no Mexican Americans personally , might gain a typed impression from such sources as Speedy lez or Taco Bell talking Chihuahua . Because we are all exposed to these images and thoughts , it is impossible to know to what extent they have our thought processes . RELATIONSHIPS relations ( relationships between different groups of people ) range along a spectrum between tolerance and intolerance . The most tolerant form of is pluralism , in which no distinction is made between minority and majority groups , but instead there equal standing . At the other end of the continuum are , expulsion , and even examples of intolerant relations . Genocide Genocide , the deliberate annihilation of a targeted ( usually subordinate ) group , is the most toxic ship . Historically , we can see that genocide has included both the intent to exterminate a group and the function of exterminating of a group , intentional or not ,

70 Possibly the most case of genocide is ler attempt to exterminate the Jewish people in the first part of the twentieth century Also known as the , the explicit goal of Hitler Final Solution was the eradication of European , as well as the destruction of other minority groups such as Catholics , people with disabilities , and homosexuals , With forced emigration , concentration camps , and mass executions in gas , Hitler Nazi regime was responsible for the deaths of 12 million people , million of whom were Jewish . Hitler intent was clear , and the high Jewish death toll certainly indicates that Hitler and his regime committed genocide . But how do we understand genocide that is not so overt and deliberate ?

The treatment of aboriginal Australians is also an example of genocide committed against indigenous people . Historical accounts suggest that between 1824 and 1908 , White settlers killed more than native aborigines in and Australia ( 2006 ) Another example is the European colonization of North America . Some estimate that Native American populations dwindled from approximately 12 million people in the year 1500 to barely by the year 1900 ( 2004 ) European settlers coerced American Indians off their own lands , often causing thousands of deaths in forced removals , such as occurred in the Cherokee or Trail of Tears . Settlers also enslaved Native Americans and forced them to give up their religious and cultural practices . But the major cause of Native American death was neither slavery nor war nor forced removal it was the introduction of European diseases and Indians lack of immunity to them . pox , diphtheria , and measles among indigenous American tribes who had no exposure to the diseases and no ability to them . Quite simply , these diseases mated the tribes . How planned this genocide was remains a topic of contention . Some argue that the spread of disease was an unintended effect of conquest , while others believe it was intentional citing rumors of being distributed as gifts to tribes , Genocide is not a just a historical concept it is today Recently , ethnic and geographic in the region of have led to hundreds of sands of deaths . As part of an ongoing land , the Sudanese government and their militia have led a campaign of killing , forced displacement , and systematic rape of people . Although a treaty was signed in 2011 , the peace is fragile . Expulsion Expulsion refers to a subordinate group being forced , by a dominant group , to leave a certain area or country . As seen in the examples of the Trail of Tears and the Holocaust , expulsion can be a factor in genocide . However , it can also stand on its own as a destructive group interaction . Expulsion has often occurred historically with an ethnic or racial basis , In the United States , President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 in 1942 , after the Japanese government attack on Pearl Harbor . The Order authorized the establishment of internment camps for anyone with as little as Japanese ancestry ( one who was Japanese ) Over legal Japanese residents and Japanese US , citizens , many of them children , were held in these camps for up to four years , despite the fact that there was never any evidence of collusion or espionage . In fact , many Japanese cans continued to demonstrate their loyalty to the United States by serving in the military during the War . In the , the US . executive branch issued a formal for this expulsion reparation efforts continue today Segregation Segregation refers to the physical separation of two groups , particularly in residence , but also in workplace and social functions . It is important to distinguish between de jure segregation ( segregation that is enforced by law ) and segregation ( segregation that occurs without laws but because of other factors ) A stark example of de jure segregation is the apartheid movement of South Africa , which existed from 1948 to 1994 , Under apartheid , Black South Africans were stripped of their civil rights and relocated to areas that segregated them physically from their White compatriots . Only after decades of tion , violent uprisings , and international advocacy was apartheid abolished , De jure segregation occurred in the United States for many years after the Civil War . During this time , many former Confederate states passed Jim Crow laws that required segregated facilities for Blacks and Whites . These In the Jim Crow South , it was legal to have separate but equal facilities for Blacks and Whites . Billiard Hall by Marion Post Farm Security Administration in the public domain .

INTRODUCTION TO RACE AND ETHNICITY 71 laws were in 1896 landmark Supreme Court case Ferguson , which stated that separate but equal facilities were constitutional . For the next five decades , Blacks were subjected to legalized discrimination , forced to live , work , and go to school in facilities . It wasn until 1954 and the Brown . Board of Education case that the Supreme Court declared that educational facilities are inherently unequal , thus ending de jure segregation in the United States . De facto segregation , however , can not be abolished by any court mandate . Segregation is still alive and well in the United States , with different racial or ethnic groups often segregated by neighborhood , borough , or parish . use segregation indices to measure racial segregation of different races in different areas . The indices employ a scale from zero to 100 , where zero is the most integrated and 100 is the least . In the New York metropolitan area , for instance , the segregation index was for the years . This means that 79 of either Blacks or Whites would have to move in order for each neighborhood to have the same racial balance as the whole metro region ( Population Studies Center , 2010 ) Pluralism Pluralism is represented by the ideal of the United States as a salad bowl a great mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the of the whole . True pluralism is characterized by mutual respect on the part of all cultures , both dominant and subordinate , creating a multicultural environment of acceptance . In reality , true pluralism is a goal to reach . In the United States , the mutual respect required by pluralism is often missing , and the nations past pluralist model of a melting pot posits a society where cultural aren embraced as much as erased . Assimilation Assimilation describes the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on the characteristics of the dominant culture . In the United States , which has a history of welcoming and absorbing immigrants from different lands , assimilation has been a function of immigration . Most people in the United States have immigrant ancestors . In relatively recent history , between 1890 and 1920 , the United States became home to around 24 million immigrants . In the decades since then , further waves of immigrants have come to these shores and have eventually been absorbed into culture , sometimes after facing extended periods of prejudice and discrimination . may lead to the loss of the minority groups identity as they become absorbed into the dominant . I , For many immigrants to the United States , the Statue of Liberty is a symbol of freedom and a new life . Unfortunately , they often encounter prejudice and discrimination . Statue of Liberty , NY by Francisco IS used under BY 20 . culture , but assimilation has minimal to no impact on the majority group cultural identity . Some groups may keep only symbolic gestures of their original ethnicity . For instance , many Irish Americans may celebrate Saint Day , many Hindu Americans enjoy a Diwali festival , and many Mexican Americans may celebrate Cinco de Mayo ( a May acknowledgment of Mexico victory at the 1862 Battle of ) However , for the rest of the year , other aspects of their originating culture may be forgotten . Assimilation is antithetical to the salad bowl created by pluralism rather than maintaining their own cultural , subordinate cultures give up their own traditions in order to conform to their new environment . Sociologists measure the degree to which immigrants have assimilated to a new culture with four benchmarks socioeconomic status , spatial concentration , language assimilation , and intermarriage . When faced with racial and ethnic crimination , it can be for new immigrants to fully assimilate . Language assimilation , in particular , can be a formidable barrier , limiting employment and educational

72 options and therefore constraining growth in nomic status , Amalgamation Amalgamation is the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group . creates the classic melting pot analogy unlike the salad bowl , in which each culture retains its , the melting pot ideal sees the combination of that results in a new culture entirely Amalgamation , also known as miscegenation , is achieved through intermarriage between races . In the United States , antimiscegenation laws in the South during the Jim Crow era . It wasnt until 1967 Loving Virginia that the last antimiscegenation law was struck from the books , making these laws unconstitutional . RACE AND ETHNICITY IN THE UNITED STATES When colonists came to the New World , they found a land that did not need discovering since it was already occupied , While the first wave of immigrants came from Western Europe , eventually the bulk of people entering North America were from Northern Europe , then Eastern Europe , then Latin America and Asia ( US . Department of Homeland Security , 2010 ) And let us not forget the forced immigration of African slaves . Most of these groups underwent a period of disenfranchisement in which they were relegated to the bottom of the social hierarchy before they managed ( for those who could ) to achieve social mobility Today , our society is multicultural , although the extent to which this is embraced varies , and the many manifestations of carry political repercussions . The sections below will describe how several groups became part of society , discuss the history of relations for each faction , and assess each group status today . Native Americans The only nonimmigrant ethnic group in the United States , Native Americans once numbered in the millions but by 2010 made up only of , populace see above ( US . Census Bureau , 2010 ) Currently , about 29 million people identify themselves as Native American alone , while an additional 23 million identify them as Native American mixed with another ethnic group ( Norris et al , 2012 ) Sociology in the Real World Sports Teams with Native American Names The sports world abounds with team names like the ans , the Warriors , the Braves , and even the Savages and Redskins . These names arise from historically prejudiced views of Native Americans as fierce , brave , and strong ages attributes that would be beneficial to a sports team , but are not necessarily beneficial to people in the United States who should be seen as more than fierce savages . Since the civil rights movement of the 19605 , the National Congress of American Indians ( has been campaigning against the use of such mascots , asserting that the warrior savage myth . reinforces the racist view that are uncivilized and uneducated and it has been used to justify policies of forced assimilation and destruction of lndian ture ( National Congress of American Indians , 2005 ) The Many Native Americans ( and others ) believe sports teams with names like the Indians , Braves , and Warriors perpetuate unwelcome Stereotypes . Chief Sitting Bull by . Barry is in the public domain Francisco by Erik is used under BY .

INTRODUCTION TO RACE AND ETHNICITY 73 campaign has met with only limited success . While some teams have changed their names , hundreds of professional , college , and school teams still have names derived from this stereotype . Another group , American Indian Support ( 2005 ) is especially concerned with the use of such names at schools , influencing children when they should be gaining a fuller and more realistic understanding of Native Americans than such stereotypes supply . What do you think about such names ?

Should they be allowed or banned ?

What argument would a symbolic make on this topic ?

How and Why They Came The earliest immigrants to America arrived millennia before European immigrants . Dates of the migration are debated with estimates ranging from between and . It is thought that early Indians migrated to this new land in search of big game to hunt , which they found in huge herds of grazing herbivores in the Americas . Over the centuries and then the millennia , Native ican culture blossomed into an intricate web of hundreds of interconnected tribes , each with its own customs , languages , and religions . History of Relations Native American culture prior to European settlement is referred to as that is , prior to the coming of Christopher Columbus in 1492 . Mistakenly believing that he had landed in the East Indies , Columbus named the indigenous people Indians , a name that has persisted for centuries despite being a geographical misnomer and one used to blanket 500 distinct groups who each have their own languages and traditions . The history of relations between European colonists and Native Americans is a brutal one . As discussed in the section on genocide , the effect of European settlement of the Americans was to nearly destroy the indigenous . And although Native Americans lack of immunity to European diseases caused the most deaths , overt treatment of Native Americans by Europeans was ing as well . From the Spanish colonists to the French , English , and Dutch who followed , European settlers took what land they wanted and expanded across the continent at will . If indigenous people tried to retain their stewardship of the land , Europeans fought them off with superior weapons . A key element of this issue is the indigenous view of land and land ownership . Most tribes considered the earth a ing entity whose resources they were stewards of , the of land ownership and conquest didn exist in Native American society Europeans domination of the Americas was indeed a conquest one points out that Native Americans are the only minority group in the United States whose subordination occurred purely through conquest by the dominant group ( 1994 ) After the establishment of the United States , discrimination against Native Americans was and formalized in a series of laws intended to jugate them and keep them from gaining any power . Some of the most impactful laws are as follows . The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the cation of any native tribes east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river . The Indian Appropriation Acts funded further removals and declared that no Indian tribe could be recognized as an independent nation , tribe , or power with which the US . government would have to make treaties . This made it even easier for the government to take land it wanted . The Dawes Act of 1887 reversed the policy of Native Americans on reservations , instead forcing them onto individual properties that were intermingled with White settlers , thereby reducing their capacity for power as a group . Native American culture was further eroded by the establishment of Indian boarding schools in the late nineteenth century These schools , run by both Christian missionaries and the United States government , had the express purpose of civilizing Native American children and assimilating them into White society The ing schools were located to ensure that children were separated from their families and culture . Schools forced children to cut their hair , speak English , and practice Christianity Physical and sexual abuses were rampant for decades only in 1987 did the Bureau of Indian Affairs issue a policy on sexual abuse in boarding schools . Some scholars argue that many of the problems that Native Americans face today result from almost a century of treatment at these boarding schools . Current Status The eradication of Native American culture continued until the , when Native Americans were able to participate in and from the civil rights movement . The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 guaranteed Indian tribes most of the rights of the United States Bill of Rights . New laws like the Indian Act of 1975 and the cation Assistance Act of the same year recognized tribal governments and gave them more power . Indian boarding schools have dwindled to only a few , and Native American

74 cultural groups are striving to preserve and maintain old traditions to keep them from being lost forever . However , Native Americans ( some of whom now wished to be called American Indians so as to avoid the savage connotations of the term native ) still suffer the effects of centuries of degradation . poverty , inadequate education , cultural dislocation , and high rates of unemployment contribute to Native American falling to the bottom of the economic spectrum . Native Americans also suffer disproportionately with lower life than most groups in the United States . African Americans As discussed in the section on race , the term African American can be a misnomer for many individuals . Many people with dark skin may have their more recent roots in Europe or the Caribbean , seeing themselves as Dominican American or Dutch American . Further , actual immigrants from Africa may feel that they have more of a claim to the term African American than those who are many removed from ancestors who originally came to this country This section will focus on the experience of the slaves who were transported from Africa to the United States , and their progeny Currently , the US . Census Bureau ( 2014 ) estimates that of the United States population is Black . How and Why They Came If Native Americans are the only minority group whose subordinate status occurred by conquest , African cans are the exemplar minority group in the United States whose ancestors did not come here by choice . A Dutch sea captain brought the Africans to the Virginia colony of in 1619 and sold them as indentured servants . This was not an uncommon practice for either Blacks or Whites , and indentured servants were in high demand . For the next century , Black and White indentured servants worked side by side . But the growing agricultural demanded greater and cheaper labor , and by 1705 , Virginia passed the slave codes declaring that any could be a slave , and that slaves were considered property . The next 150 years saw the rise of US . slavery , with Black Africans being kidnapped from their own lands and shipped to the New World on the journey known as the Middle Passage . Once in the Americas , the Black population grew until Blacks those born in Africa . But colonial ( and later , slave codes declared that the child of a slave was a slave , so the slave class was created . By 1808 , the slave trade was internal in the United States , with slaves being bought and sold across state lines like livestock . In 1808 , during Thomas presidency , Congress prohibited the international importation of humans to be used as slaves . History of Relations There is no illustration of the nate group relationship than that of slavery In order to justify their severely discriminatory behavior , ers and their supporters had to view Blacks as innately inferior . Slaves were denied even the most basic rights of citizenship , a crucial factor for and their supporters . Slavery poses an excellent example of theory perspective on race relations the dominant group needed complete control over the subordinate group in order to maintain its power . Whippings , executions , rapes , denial of schooling and health care were all permissible and Widely practiced . Slavery eventually became an issue over which the nation divided into geographically and ideologically tinct factions , leading to the Civil War . And while the of slavery on moral grounds was certainly a catalyst to war , it was not the only driving force . Students of US . history will know that the institution of slavery was to the Southern economy , Whose production of crops like rice , cotton , and tobacco relied on the virtually less and cheap labor that slavery provided . In contrast , the North didn economically from slavery , resulting in an economic disparity tied to issues . A century later , the civil rights movement was by boycotts , marches , and freedom rides demonstrations by a subordinate group that would no longer willingly submit to domination . The major blow to America formally institutionalized racism was the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . This Act , which is still followed today , banned discrimination based on race , color , religion , sex , or national origin . Some sociologists , however , would argue that institutionalized racism persists . Current Status Although , formalized tion against African Americans has been outlawed , true equality does not yet exist . The National Urban League 2011 Equality Index reports that Blacks overall equality level with Whites has dropped in the past year , from 71 to in 2010 . The Index , which has been published since 2005 , notes a growing trend of increased ity with Whites , especially in the areas of unemployment , insurance coverage , and incarceration . Blacks also trail Whites considerably in the areas of economics , health , and education .

INTRODUCTION TO RACE AND ETHNICITY 75 To what degree do racism and prejudice contribute to this continued inequality ?

The answer is complex . 2008 saw the election of this country African American president Barack Hussein Obama . Despite being as Black , we should note that President Obama is of a mixed background that is equally White , and although all presidents have been publicly mocked at times ( Gerald Ford was depicted as a klutz , Bill Clinton as someone who could not control his libido ) a startling centage of the critiques of Obama have been based on his race . The most blatant of these was the controversy over his birth , where the movement his citizenship and right to hold . Although Blacks have come a long way from slavery , the echoes of centuries of are still evident . Asian Americans Like many groups this section discusses , Asian Americans represent a great diversity of cultures and backgrounds . The experience of a Japanese American whose family has been in the United States for three generations will be cally different from a Laotian American who has only been in the United States for a few years . This section primarily discusses Chinese , Japanese , and Vietnamese immigrants and shows the differences between their experiences . The most recent estimate from the US . Census Bureau ( 2014 ) suggest about of the population identify themselves as Asian . How and Why They Came The national and ethnic diversity of Asian American immigration history is in the variety of their experiences in joining US . society . Asian immigrants have come to the United States in waves , at different times , and for different reasons . The Asian immigrants to come to the United States in the century were Chinese . These immigrants were primarily men whose intention was to work for several years in order to earn incomes to support their families in China , Their main destination was the American West , where the Gold Rush was drawing ple with its lure of abundant money . The construction of the Transcontinental Railroad was underway at this time , and the Central section hired thousands of migrant Chinese men to complete the laying of rails across the rugged Sierra Nevada mountain range . Chinese men also engaged in other manual labor like mining and work . The work was grueling and underpaid , but like many immigrants , they persevered . Japanese immigration began in the 18805 , on the heels of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 , Many Japanese immigrants came to Hawaii to participate in the sugar industry others came to the mainland , especially to . Unlike the Chinese , however , the Japanese had a strong government that negotiated with the ment to ensure the of their immigrants , nese men were able to bring their wives and families to the United States , and were thus able to produce and Japanese Americans more quickly than their Chinese counterparts . The most recent Asian immigration came from Korea and Vietnam and largely took place during the second half of the twentieth century . While Korean has been fairly gradual , Vietnamese immigration occurred primarily , after the fall of Saigon and the establishment of restrictive communist policies in Vietnam . Whereas many Asian immigrants came to the United States to seek better economic opportunities , immigrants came as political refugees , seeking Vietnamese refugees wait to be taken aboard the amphibious USS Blue Ridge ( They are being rescued from a fishing boat 350 miles northeast of Cam Bay , Vietnam , after spending eight days at sea . 35 Vietnamese Boat People by Phil . Navy IS in the public domain .

76 asylum from harsh conditions in their homeland . The Act of 1980 helped them to a place to settle in the United States , History of Relations Chinese immigration came to an abrupt end with the nese Exclusion Act of 1882 , This act was a result of nese sentiment by a depressed economy and loss of jobs . White workers blamed Chinese migrants for taking jobs , and the passage of the Act meant the number of nese workers decreased , Chinese men did not have the funds to return to China or to bring their families to the United States , so they remained physically and culturally segregated in the of large cities . Later legislation , the Act of 1924 , curtailed Chinese tion . The Act included the National Origins Act , which was aimed at keeping , ethnic stock as undiluted as possible by reducing undesirable immigrants . It was not until after the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that Chinese immigration again increased , and many Chinese were reunited . Although Americans have deep , reaching roots in the United States , their history here has not always been smooth . The California Alien Land Law of 1913 was aimed at them and other Asian immigrants , and it prohibited aliens from owning land . An even uglier action was the internment of World War II , discussed earlier as an illustration of expulsion . Current Status Asian Americans certainly have been subject to their share of racial prejudice , despite the seemingly positive type as the model minority . The model minority type is applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching educational , professional , and socioeconomic levels without challenging the existing establishment . This stereotype is typically applied to Asian groups in the United States , and it can result in unrealistic , by putting a stigma on members of this group that do not meet the expectations . Stereotyping all Asians as smart and capable can also lead to a lack of government assistance and to educational and professional discrimination . Hispanic Americans Hispanic Americans have a wide range of backgrounds and nationalities . The segment of the US . population that as Hispanic in 2013 was recently estimated at of the total ( US . Census Bureau , 2014 ) ing to the 2010 US , Census , about 75 ofthe respondents who identify as Hispanic report being of Mexican , Puerto Rican , or Cuban origin . Of the total Hispanic group , 60 reported as Mexican , 44 reported as Cuban , and reported as Puerto Rican . Remember that the US . Census allows people to report as being more than one ethnicity Not only are there wide differences among the ent origins that make up the Hispanic American tion , but there are also different names for the group itself . The 2010 US Census states that Hispanic or Latino refers to a person of Cuban , Mexican , Puerto Rican , South or Central American , or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race , There have been some disagreements over whether Hispanic or Latino is the correct term for a group this diverse , and whether it would be better for people to refer to themselves as being of their origin , for example , Mexican American or Dominican American . This section will compare the experiences of Mexican Americans and Cuban Americans . How and Why They Came Mexican Americans form the largest Hispanic subgroup and also the oldest . Mexican migration to the United States started in the early in response to the need for cheap agricultural labor . Mexican migration was often workers would stay for a few years and then go back to Mexico with more money than they could have made in their country of origin . The length of shared der with the United States has made immigration easier than for many other immigrant groups . Cuban Americans are the Hispanic subgroup , and their history is quite different from that of Mexican Americans . The main wave of Cuban tion to the United States started after Fidel Castro came to power in 1959 and reached its crest with the in 1980 . Castro Cuban Revolution ushered in an era of communism that continues to this day . To avoid having their assets seized by the government , many wealthy and educated Cubans migrated north , generally to the Miami area . History of Relations For several decades , Mexican workers crossed the long border into the United States , both legally and illegally , to work in the that provided produce for the ing United States . Western growers needed a steady supply of labor , and the and saw the federal Bracero Program ( is Spanish for ) that offered protection to Mexican guest workers , Interestingly , 1954 also saw the enactment of Operation Wetback , which deported thousands of illegal Mexican workers . From these examples , we can see the US . treatment of immigration from Mexico has been ambivalent at best .

INTRODUCTION TO RACE AND ETHNICITY 77 Sociologist Douglas ( 2006 ) suggests that although the average standard of living than in Mexico may be lower in the United States , it is not so low as to make permanent migration the goal of most Mexicans . However , the strengthening of the border that began with Immigration Reform and Control Act has made migration the rule for most Mexicans . argues that the rise of illegal immigration of is a direct outcome of the law that was intended to reduce it . Cuban Americans , perhaps because of their relative wealth and education level at the time of immigration , have fared better than many immigrants . Further , because they were a Communist country , they were given refugee status and offered protection and social services . The Cuban Migration Agreement of 1995 has curtailed legal immigration from Cuba , leading many Cubans to try to immigrate illegally by boat . According to a 2009 report from the Congressional Research Service , the US . ment applies a Wet dry foot policy toward Cuban immigrants Cubans who are intercepted While still at sea will be returned to Cuba , While those who reach the shore will be permitted to stay in the United States . Current Status Mexican Americans , especially those who are here gally , are at the center of a national debate about . Myers ( 2007 ) observes that no other minority group ( except the Chinese ) has immigrated to the United States in such an environment of illegality . He notes that in some years , three times as many Mexican immigrants may have entered the United States illegally as those who arrived legally . It should be noted that this is due to disparity of economic opportunity on two sides of an open border , not because of any inherent inclination to break laws . In his report , Measuring Immigrant lation in the United States , 2008 ) states that Mexican immigrants experience relatively low rates of nomic and civic assimilation . He further suggests that the slow rates of economic and civic assimilation set Mexicans apart from other immigrants , and may the fact that the large numbers of Mexican immigrants residing in the United States illegally have few opportunities to advance themselves along these By contrast , Cuban Americans are often seen as a model minority group within the larger Hispanic group . Many Cubans had higher socioeconomic status when they arrived in this country , and their agenda has made them Welcome refugees to this country . In south Florida , especially , Cuban Americans are active in local politics and professional life . As with Asian Americans , however , being a model minority can mask the issue of powerlessness that these minority groups face in US . society . Social Policy and Debate Arizona Senate Bill 7070 As both legal and illegal immigrants , and with high lation numbers , Mexican Americans are often the target of stereotyping , racism , and discrimination . A harsh example of this is in Arizona , where a stringent immigration as ( for Senate Bill 1070 ) caused a nationwide controversy . The law requires that during a lawful stop , detention , or arrest , Arizona police officers must establish the immigration status of anyone they suspect may be here illegally . The law makes it a crime for individuals to fail to have documents confirming their legal status , and it gives police officers the right to detain people they suspect may be in the country illegally . To many , the most troublesome aspect of this law is the latitude it affords police officers in terms of whose ship they may question . Having reasonable suspicion that the person is an alien who is unlawfully present in the United States is reason enough to demand immigration papers ( State of Arizona , Critics say this law will encourage racial profiling ( the illegal practice of law enforcement using race as a basis for suspecting someone of a crime ) making it hazardous to be caught Driving While Brown , a takeoff on the legal term Driving While Intoxicated ( DWI ) orthe slang reference of Driving While Driving While Brown refers to the likelihood of getting pulled over just for being . 1070 has been the subject of many lawsuits , from parties as diverse as Arizona police officers , the American Civil Liberties Union , and even the federal government , which is suing on the basis of Arizona contradicting federal Protesters in Arizona dispute the harsh new law . Image by is used under BY .

78 immigration laws ( American Civil Liberties Union , 2011 ) The future of 1070 uncertain , but many other states have tried or are trying to pass similar measures . Do you think such measures are appropriate ?

Arab Americans If ever a category was hard to , the various groups lumped under the name Arab American is it . After all , Hispanic Americans or Asian Americans are so designated because of their counties of origin . But for Arab cans , their country of not existed for centuries . In addition , Arab Americans represent all practices , despite the stereotype that all Arabic ple practice Islam . As Myers ( 2007 ) asserts , not all Arabs are Muslim , and not all Muslims are Arab , complicating the stereotype of what it means to be an Arab American . Geographically , the Arab region comprises the Middle East and parts of northern Africa . People whose ancestry lies in that area or who speak primarily Arabic may sider themselves Arabs . The Census has struggled with the issue of Arab identity The 2010 Census , as in previous years , did not offer an Arab box to check under the question of race . who want to be counted as Arabs had to check the box for Some other race and then write in their race . ever , when the Census data is tallied , they will be marked as White . This is problematic , however , denying Arab opportunities for federal assistance . According to the best estimates of the US . Census Bureau , the Arabic in the United States grew from in 1990 to million in 2000 , an increase of ( Asi , 2013 ) Why They Came The first Arab immigrants came to this country in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . They were dominantly Syrian , Lebanese , and Christians , and they came to escape persecution and to make a better life . These early immigrants and their descendants , who were more likely to think of themselves as Syrian or nese than Arab , represent almost half of the Arab American population today ( Myers , 2007 ) Restrictive immigration policies from the until 1965 curtailed all tion , but Arab immigration since 1965 has been steady . Immigrants from this time period have been more likely to be Muslim and more highly educated , escaping political unrest and looking for better opportunities . History of Relations Relations between Arab Americans and the dominant majority have been marked by mistrust , misinformation , and deeply entrenched beliefs . Helen ( 2001 ) of the Arab American Institute suggests that in the contributed to cultural and political sentiment in the United States . The United States has historically supported the State of Israel , while some Middle Eastern countries deny the existence of The proposed Muslim Community Center generated heated controversy due to its close proximity to Ground Zero . In these photos , people march in protest against the center , while demonstrate their support . Ground Zero Mosque Protesters 10 by David IS used under BY Ground Zero Mosque Supporters by David IS used under BY .

INTRODUCTION TO RACE AND ETHNICITY 79 the Israeli State . Disputes over these issues have involved Egypt , Syria , Iraq , Jordan , Lebanon , and Palestine . As is often the case with stereotyping and prejudice , the actions of extremists come to the entire group , regardless of the fact that most US . citizens with ties to the Middle Eastern community condemn terrorist actions , as do most inhabitants of the Middle East . Would it be fair to judge all Catholics by the events of the Inquisition ?

Of course , the United States was deeply by the events of September 11 , 2001 . This event has left a deep scar on the American psyche , and it has for a large percentage of Americans . In the first month after , hundreds of hate crimes were against people who looked like they might be of Arab descent . Current Status Although the rate of hate crimes against Arab Americans has slowed , Arab Americans are still victims of racism and prejudice . Racial has proceeded against Arab Americans as a matter of course since 11 . Particularly when engaged in air travel , being young and is enough to warrant a special search or detainment . This ( irrational fear of or hatred against Muslims ) does not show signs of , Scholars noted that White domestic terrorists like Timothy , who detonated a bomb at an Oklahoma courthouse in 1995 , have not inspired similar racial or hate crimes against Whites . White Ethnic Americans As we have seen , there is no minority group that ily in a category or that can be described simply While sociologists believe that individual experiences can often be understood in light of their social characteristics ( such as race , class , or gender ) we must balance this tive with awareness that no two individuals experiences are alike . Making generalizations can lead to stereotypes and prejudice . The same is true for White ethnic cans , who come from diverse backgrounds and have had a great Variety of experiences . According to the . sus Bureau ( 2014 ) of US . adults currently identify themselves as White alone . In this section , we will focus on German , Irish , Italian , and Eastern European immigrants . Why They Came White ethnic Europeans formed the second and third great waves of immigration , from the early nineteenth century to the century They joined a newly minted United States that was primarily made up of White Protestants from England . While most immigrants came searching for a better life , their experiences were not all the same . The major of European immigrants came from Germany and Ireland , starting in the . mans came both for economic opportunity and to escape political unrest and military conscription , especially after the Revolutions of 1848 . Many German immigrants of this period were political refugees liberals who wanted to escape from an oppressive government . They were enough to make their way inland , and they formed heavily German enclaves in the Midwest that exist to this day . The Irish immigrants of the same time period were not always as well off , especially after the Irish Potato Famine of 1845 . Irish immigrants settled mainly in the cities of the East Coast , where they were employed as laborers and where they faced discrimination . German and Irish immigration continued into the late century and earlier century , at which point the numbers for Southern and Eastern European immigrants started growing as well . Italians , mainly from the part of the country , began arriving in large numbers in the . Eastern European from Russia , Poland , and arriving around the same time . Many of these Eastern Europeans were peasants forced into a hardscrabble in their native lands political unrest , land shortages , and crop failures drove them to seek better opportunities in the United States , The Eastern European immigration wave also included Jewish people escaping pogroms ( massacres ) of Eastern Europe and the Pale of Settlement in what was then Poland and Russia . History of Relations In a broad sense , German immigrants were not to the same degree as many of the other subordinate groups this section discusses . While they may not have been welcomed with open arms , they were able to settle in enclaves and establish roots . A notable exception to this was during the lead up to World War I and through World War II , when sentiment was virulent . Irish immigrants , many of whom were very poor , were more of an underclass than the Germans . In Ireland , the English had oppressed the Irish for centuries , ing their language and culture and discriminating against their religion ( Catholicism ) Although the Irish had a larger population than the English , they were a group . This dynamic reached into the new World , where Anglo Americans saw Irish immigrants as a race apart dirty , lacking ambition , and suitable for only the most menial jobs . In fact , Irish immigrants were subject to criticism identical to that with which the dominant group characterized African Americans . By necessity , Irish immigrants formed tight communities segregated from their Anglo neighbors (

80 The later wave of immigrants from Southern and Europe was also subject to intense discrimination and prejudice . In particular , the dominant now included and Germans and Italian immigrants as the dregs of Europe and worried about the purity of the American race ( Myers , 2007 ) Italian immigrants lived in segregated slums in Northeastern cities , and in some cases were even victims of violence and lynchings similar to what African cans endured . They worked harder and were paid less than other Workers , often doing the dangerous work that other laborers were reluctant to take on . Current Status The Census from 2008 shows that of dents reported being of German descent the largest KEY TAKEAWAYS Race is fundamentally a social construct . Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture and national origin . Minority groups are defined by their lack of power . Stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about groups of people . Prejudice refers to thoughts and feelings , while discrimination refers to actions . Racism refers to the belief that one race is inherently superior or inferior to other races . Functionalist views of race study the role dominant and nate groups play to create a stable social structure . Conflict theorists examine power disparities and struggles between various racial and ethnic groups . see race and ethnicity as important sources of individual identity and social symbolism . The concept of culture of prejudice recognizes that all people are subject to stereotypes that are ingrained in their culture . EXERCISES . Why do you think the term minority has persisted when the word subordinate is more descriptive ?

How do you describe your ethnicity ?

Do you include your country of origin ?

Do you consider yourself ?

How does your ethnicity compare to that of the people you spend most of your time with ?

How do and racial steering contribute to racism ?

Give an example of stereotyping that you see in everyday life . Explain whatwould need to happen for this to be eliminated . Give three examples of White privilege . Do you know people who have experienced this ?

From what perspective ?

group in the country . For many years , German Americans endeavored to maintain a strong cultural identity , but they are now culturally assimilated into the dominant culture . There are now more Irish Americans in the United States than there are Irish in Ireland . One of the try largest cultural groups , Irish Americans have slowly achieved acceptance and assimilation into the dominant group . Myers ( 2007 ) states that Italian Americans cultural assimilation is almost complete , but with remnants of The presence of Little Italy originally segregated slums where Italians congregated in the nineteenth today . While tourists to the saints festivals in Little , most Italian cans have moved to the suburbs at the same rate as other White groups . relations range from a tolerant approach of pluralism to intolerance as severe as genocide . In pluralism , groups retain their own identity . In assimilation , groups conform to the of the dominant group . In amalgamation , groups combine to form a new group identity . The history of the people contains an infinite variety of experiences that sociologist understand follow patterns . From the indigenous people who first inhabited these lands to the waves of immigrants over the past 500 years , migration is an experience with many shared characteristics . Most groups have experienced various degrees of prejudice and discrimination as they have gone through the process of assimilation . What is the worst example of culture of prejudice you can think of ?

What are your reasons for thinking it is the worst ?

Do you believe immigration laws should foster an approach of pluralism , assimilation , or amalgamation ?

Which perspective do you think is most supported by current immigration policies ?

Which relation do you think is the most beneficial to the subordinate group ?

To society as a whole ?

Why ?

In your opinion , which group had the easiest time coming to this country ?

Which group had the hardest time ?

Why ?

10 . Which group has made the most socioeconomic gains ?

Why do you think that group has had more success than others ?

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